1.07 Collapse of an Empire

Heraclius:

Killed the new emperor and decided to form new military districts called themes. Defeated the Avars and drove away the Sassanids. Byzantine leader who worked to strengthen the army, renew resources, and conquer the Avar and Assanid invaders.

1566-1683

By 1683, The Ottoman conquests garnered more territory, expanding their rule to further regions in Europe and Africa.

1452-1481

By the mid-1400s, the Ottomans had conquered most of the Byzantine Empire except for Constantinople. Sultan Mehmet II laid siege to and conquered Constantinople in 1453. Conquering parts of the Christian Byzantine Empire helped the Ottomans expand their territory and gain both economic and religious power. These territories became predominantly Muslim when under Ottoman control. In addition, the Byzantine Empire was in a strategic location, serving as a major trade route between the West and the East. The Ottomans would benefit from the wealth that passed through this region.

How Did the Crusades Weaken the Byzantine Empire?

During the 1000s, the Seljuk Turks gained control of Byzantine territory in Anatolia. The Turks also defeated the Arabs and captured Palestine and the city of Jerusalem. The Byzantine Empire was shrinking. Afraid the Turks would attack Constantinople, the Byzantine emperor Alexius I asked the Roman Church for help. He proposed that eastern and western Christians should join forces and drive out the Turks from Anatolia and Palestine. This endeavor would be called a Holy War, or Crusade. The pope, Urban II, agreed to this plan for two reasons. First, he thought a combined East-West war against the Turks could reunite the eastern and western churches. Second, he wanted to free Palestine and Jerusalem from Muslim rule. At first, the Crusade was successful. The European armies reconquered parts of Anatolia and then captured Jerusalem in 1099 CE. Also, the crusaders returned the land they conquered in Anatolia to the Byzantine Empire. Then the crusaders set up four kingdoms in East Asia. The Muslims, however, soon regrouped and conquered these domains. The most significant impact to the Byzantine Empire came in 1203 CE, when crusaders and Venetians attacked Constantinople, causing the emperor to flee the city. It all started years before when the crusaders arrived in Venice. Alexius Angelus, the nephew of the Byzantine emperor, offered them a deal. Alexius offered to pay for the necessary warships for the crusaders if they would defeat the current Byzantine emperor and make Alexius the ruler. The crusaders and Venetians agreed. When the Byzantine Emperor fled Constantinople, Alexius then declared himself emperor. The crusaders, encamped around the city, waited for their pay. The Byzantines, however, discovered Alexius's deal with the crusaders and killed him. Left with no pay, the crusaders captured and plundered Constantinople, destroying part of the city. After this, the crusaders established a Latin Empire, which controlled only Constantinople. The Byzantines set up a government in exile. The Latin emperors had little money and were surrounded by hostile states. In 1259 CE, the exiled Byzantine emperor, Michael VIII, defeated the Latin army. Then in 1261 CE, he led a small army into Constantinople, which was undefended. Michael attempted to build up the empire and reconquered a few lost territories. The effect of the Latins on the Byzantine Empire, however, was devastating; it never fully recovered. Indeed, the plundering of Constantinople was so extensive that the resulting damage was only partially repaired even 50 years later. To the casual Christian observer, the Crusades should have been a victory, where God allows people that look to be more like Him and claim His name (Christians) to return to the Holy Land and drive out the Muslims. Recall that this brand of "Christianity" was distorted, so the resemblance to God may not have been all that close. As Sovereign over all the universe, God can do as He pleases, whether or not it makes sense to human logic. Throughout the Old Testament, God allowed evil people and nations to triumph usually as judgment upon Israel. All of history is under His control and will unfold according to His good pleasure.

How Did Invading Forces Weaken the Byzantine Empire?

Have you ever witnessed the damage termites do to homes? Termites invade homes through cracks in wood. They are relentless, and before most homeowners know it, the structure begins crumbling down around them. Although not silent invaders, forces invading the Byzantine Empire were much like termites. These groups sensed a crack in the empire's foundations, made their way in, and slowly but surely began to weaken the empire.

How Did the Final Collapse of the Byzantine Empire Happen?

In 1453 CE, led by the Sultan Mehmet II, the Ottoman Turks laid siege on Constantinople. Constantinople was an economic and cultural center. Situated between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, it served as a major trade hub between the Middle East and Western Europe. It was also a place known for its art, literature, and architecture. Much of this was inspired by Christianity. The Ottomans knew that conquering Constantinople would give them religious and economic power over the entire region. They would make it a Muslim empire, and the Ottomans would be able to control the trade routes. The Byzantine Empire would fall, once and for all. Knowing that an attack was coming, the Byzantines asked for aid from Western Europe. Unfortunately for them, only a few volunteers arrived. The Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, managed to form an army of about 5,000 Byzantine soldiers and 3,000 Westerners living in the city. Many of these Westerners were Venetians. The Ottoman army consisted of about 100,000 troops. Despite the relatively small Byzantine forces, Constantinople was still a difficult city to capture. The Ottomans attacked it for more than a month with a constant barrage of artillery fire. Ottoman soldiers charged the city's walls many times, only to be turned back. The Byzantines prevented Ottoman ships from approaching the city by laying a chain across the mouth of the Golden Horn, an inlet of the Bosporus Strait. Mehmet bypassed the Byzantine defenses, however, by having his ships dragged overland across to the harbor on the seaward side. Then on May 29, 1453 CE, the Ottomans launched an all-out attack, charging at the city from three sides. During hours of intense fighting, the Ottomans managed to lay many ladders against the walls, which allowed their soldiers to climb into the city. Eventually, enough Ottomans entered the city to turn the tide of the battle. Thousands of people died during the conflict, including Constantine XI. After capturing the city, Mehmet allowed his soldiers to loot for three days. However, abiding by the Muslim tradition of respecting the religion of conquered people, Mehmet gave the Patriarch of Constantinople a large amount of authority over Christians living under Ottoman rule. The fall of Constantinople by the Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire. It had endured for more than a thousand years. Even after its fall, the influence of this empire continued.

What Were the Effects of the Fall of the Byzantine Empire?

Inspired by their capture of Constantinople, the Ottoman Turks conquered all of the Byzantine territory and much more. Ottoman armies overtook most of southeast Europe, the area near the Black Sea, Syria, and Egypt. Then in 1520 CE, Süleyman I became the sultan of the Ottoman Empire and started a powerful military campaign. He captured Belgrade in 1521 CE and in following years, swept across Hungary. In 1529 CE, he attacked Vienna but was forced to retreat. The Ottoman Empire reached the height of its power, or golden age, under his rule. There are moments in your life when big, life-altering changes occur. Maybe it happened when you moved to a new town and had to meet new friends and get used to calling a new place home. Or maybe it will happen when you graduate from high school, and you have to make adult decisions about college or a career. The greatest change in a person's life occurs when he/she is saved. Second Corinthians 5:17 says, "Therefore, if anyone is in Christ, he is a new creation. The old has passed away; behold, the new has come." After the Ottomans conquered the Byzantine Empire, many big changes occurred there, too.

Theodora:

Look Under "Accomplishments of Macedonian Dynasty"

Zoe:

Look Under "Accomplishments of Macedonian Dynasty"

Basil II:

Macedonian leader of the Byzantine Empire who worked to protect the rights of peasants and control the growth of the Powerful

1512-1520

Sultan Selim I extended Ottoman control over the regions that had been ancient Mesopotamia.

Social Causes

The Ottomans set up a society with three social classes: the ruling class, the lower class, and slaves. -The ruling class consisted of wealthy landowners, military commanders, and religious leaders. -The huge lower class included craft workers and peasant farmers. -The Ottomans also had a large number of slaves. -This society did not have a middle class, however. In this way, it was different from Byzantine society which had a small but active middle class.

1520-1566

Under Süleyman I, the Ottoman Empire reached the height of its power and prestige. He turned the capitol city of Constantinople into the center of a massive Muslim empire. Süleyman revised Ottoman laws and codes, and improved the justice system, basing them on the religious laws of Islam. He believed that imposing his religion on cultures he conquered could start an uprising, so he included laws that allowed those of different religions to continue worshipping as long as he kept their loyalty. Because of this, Muslims called Süleyman "the law giver."

Changes in the Ottoman Empire

When the Ottomans conquered the Byzantines, they began to make their influence known in the social, cultural, and political fabric of the region. The Ottomans made Islam the primary religion in the region, replacing Orthodox Christianity. They did allow the practice of Christianity and other religions, however. How else did the Ottomans affect the society?

Role of Women

Women played a different role in Muslim society than in the Byzantine society. Many Muslim women lived in seclusion and often stayed in a different part of the house than the men. Women in the Ottoman Empire did not typically receive an education or hold political positions, even though they had on occasion done so under the Byzantine Empire. Non-Muslim women were expected to follow many of these practices, as well.

Basil:

a Bulgar slave who escaped. Rose in political ranks, killed the emperor and became one.

Lombards:

a Germanic people who settled in northern Italy during the 500's

Crusade:

a Holy War initiated by Christians to recover territory from those of other faiths

Sassanids:

a group of people who controlled Persia from 224 CE to 651 CE and made war payments to the empire upon defeat

Bulgar:

a group of people who settled in the region of present-day Bulgaria during the 600's and mixed with the Slavic people

the Powerful:

a strong group of Byzantine landowners who were extrememly wealthy and attempted to gain control of the empire.

Bubonic plague:

an infectious epidemic disease that is often fatal and has symptoms that include fever, chills, and the formation of swelling buboes

Justinian's Plague:

attacks of bubonic plague in the Byzantine Empire during the 500's

mercenaries:

soldiers from foreign lands hired to fight for a given army; as a result, they are typically not as loyal as homeland soldiers to the cause

Russians:

the largest group of Slavic people who live mostly in Eastern Europe and Western Asia

sultan:

the leader of a Muslim empire, such as the Ottoman Empire

loot:

to steal material goods, often from an enemy during wartime

Big Ideas:

-How did Justinian I contribute to the decline of the Byzantine Empire? -What challenges did the Byzantine Empire face from foreign forces? Slavs and Avars, Avars and Sassanids, Arabs, Bulgars) -What were the major accomplishments of Basil I and other leaders in the Macedonian Dynasty? -How did internal political conflicts weaken the Byzantine Empire? -How did the Crusades affect the Byzantine Empire? -Who were the Ottoman Turks? -What resulted in the final collapse of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire? -How did culture in the area change under Ottoman rule? -Who was Süleyman I, and what was significant about his rule? -What was the lasting impact of the Byzantine Empire?

Accomplishments of Macedonian Dynasty

-Improved Byzantine economy -Strengthened the army and navy -Reconquered former Byzantine territory, including parts of Italy, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and the Balkans -Supported arts and literature -Weakened the control of the Powerful -Sent missionaries to the Slavs and Serbs In 976 CE, Basil II took the throne and soon passed laws that broke up many of the Powerful's estates. He also gained control of lands in the Balkans, Mesopotamia, and Armenia. With no children as heirs, the Macedonian dynasty ended upon his death. After Basil's death, co-empresses Zoe and Theodora ruled fairly and exposed many corrupt officials. They could do nothing, however, to decrease the influence of the Powerful. The internal problems caused the empire to become unstable. Using their influence, the Powerful managed to repeal the laws passed under Basil II that broke up their estates. As the Powerful acquired land, they needed labor to keep up the land. At the same time, prices for land and other necessities increased, and peasants were responsible for paying those taxes. The burden soon became overwhelming. As a result, the peasants sought refuge by going to work for the large landowners. By working for the landowners, the peasants were no longer required to pay taxes. However, it also meant that the number of peasant soldiers decreased. The empire was left with both a weakened treasury and army. Most of the emperors that followed Zoe and Theodora proved to be incompetent and were powerless to solve the empire's problems. The Powerful regained control of much of the military, and the armies loyal to the emperor were depleted. In addition, political corruption spread throughout the government. All this internal turmoil once again weakened the empire.

Causes & Effects

1) Cause: Justinian I left the Byzantine army scattered around the empire. Effect: The lines of defense were not strong in any one area, leaving certain regions open to attack from foreign invaders. 2) Cause: Justinian's Plague ravaged the Byzantine Empire. Effect: Millions of people died, leaving a shortage of human capital that resulted in a weakened army and government. 3) Cause: Basil II died, leaving no true heirs to the throne. Effect: A series of several incompetent leaders took control of the empire, making room for the Powerful to grasp more authority. 4) Cause: Byzantine emperor Alexius I feared the Turks would attack Constantinople. Effect: Eastern and western Christians joined forces in a Crusade to protect its territory from attack.

Events 1-14 (^) (Decline of the Byzantine Empire)

1) During the mid-500s, the bubonic plague attacks the Byzantine Empire, weakening the empire's military and economy. 2) Justinian I dies in 565 CE. He leaves the Byzantine army scattered across the empire and the empire in serious financial trouble. 3) The Slavs raid the Byzantine Empire during the late 500s. 4) In the late 500s and early 600s, the Lombards conquer Byzantine territory in northern Italy. 5) The Avars attack Constantinople in 626 CE and are defeated. 6) The Arabs attack Constantinople in 674 CE and 717 CE and are defeated both times. 7) In 811 CE, the Bulgars crush the Byzantine army and kill the Byzantine Empire. 8) In 813 CE, the Bulgars lay siege on Constantinople but are defeated. 9) During the 1100s, after the first Crusade, many Latins settle in the Byzantine Empire. Resentment between the Byzantines and Latins grows. 10) During the 1100s, Venice gains control over many Byzantine trading routes. Resentment between the Byzantines and Latins grows. 11) During the Fourth Crusade, crusaders (mostly Latins) and Venetians capture Constantinople in 1203 CE and do extensive damage to the city. The Latins set up a Latin Empire. 12) In 1259 CE, exiled Byzantine emperor Michael VIII drives out the Latins and restores the Byzantine Empire. However, the empire is left in shambles because of the damage done by the Latins and Venetians. 13) During the 1300s, the Ottoman Turks conquer Byzantine territory in Asia Minor. 14) In 1453 CE, the Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople, thereby ending the Byzantine Empire. The Turks change the name of Constantinople to Istanbul and make the city the capital of their empire.

Summary of the Impact of the Byzantine Empire

1) Justinian Code influences the legal system in Europe. 2) Byzantines preserve ancient Greek and Roman works that influence the Renaissance in Western Europe. 3) Byzantine missionaries convert Russians to the Orthodox Christian religion. 4) Russia sets up a religious and political system that is similar to the religious and political system of the Byzantine Empire. 5) Byzantine Empire defends Western Europe from Muslim invasion.

Arabs

After five years of peace, a new enemy threatened the empire. The Arabs managed to defeat Byzantine armies in Syria and Palestine, and after Heraclius died, they took control of Egypt. Arab armies swept across Persia and Byzantine territories in North Africa and East Asia. They then turned their attention toward capturing Constantinople. The Arabs attacked the city twice, in 674 CE and in 717 CE, and were defeated both times. The Byzantines were greatly aided by a weapon called Greek Fire. This weapon spewed fire at attacking ships, causing them to burst into flames. By the 800s, fighting against the Byzantines had so weakened the Arab forces that they no longer posed a threat to the empire.

What Was the Impact of the Byzantine Empire?

Although the Byzantine Empire fell, it continued to have a widespread influence. For example, as you have learned, the legal system set up by Justinian I shaped legal systems throughout Europe. Also, Byzantines preserved many of the classic literary works of ancient Greece and Rome, which were later read by European thinkers. Inspired by these works as well as those preserved in Arabic translation, later thinkers helped to start the Renaissance in Western Europe. In addition, the Byzantine Empire had a major religious and political influence on Russia. The Russians converted to Orthodox Christianity in the 900s. After the empire collapsed, the ruler of Russia became the only remaining Orthodox monarch in the world. In fact, some people looked at Russia as the continuation of the Byzantine Empire and, in this way, of the old Roman Empire. Indeed, the name for the Russian ruler, tsar, comes from the ancient Roman title of Caesar. Finally, the Byzantine Empire prevented Muslim states from overrunning Western Europe. During the Middle Ages in Europe, Muslim states were focused on conquering the powerful and rich Byzantine Empire. Because of this, they did not attempt to invade Western Europe, which was weakly organized at the time. The Byzantines successfully repelled various Muslim forces for hundreds of years. By the time Suleyman attacked Western Europe at Vienna, European states had grown strong enough to defend themselves against the Muslim army.

How Did the Macedonian Dynasty Strengthen the Byzantine Empire, and How Did Internal Turmoil Weaken It?

During the 800s, a strong group of Byzantine landowners emerged. Called the Powerful, these landowners owned huge estates, which made them extremely wealthy. Soon the Powerful attempted to gain control of the empire. At that time, a Macedonian named Basil seized the throne. Basil was a Bulgar slave who, at the age of 25, escaped his captivity and traveled to Constantinople. An intelligent man, Basil soon rose in the political ranks from a diplomat's groom to co-emperor with Michael III. Basil assassinated Michael in 867, thereby becoming sole emperor. His rule was marked by a constant internal struggle with the Powerful, who had taken control of a large part of the imperial army. Basil depended on troops in or near Constantinople to put down revolts by the Powerful and their forces. Despite this conflict, trade flourished under Basil and provided the empire with large amounts of wealth. Also, Basil strengthened the military and conquered regions in western Anatolia (now Turkey) and southern Italy. Indeed, the empire became almost as powerful as it had been under Justinian's rule. Basil established a Macedonian dynasty that ruled the empire until 1025 CE. The emperors of this dynasty continued to conquer some of the empire's lost territory, including Syria and Palestine. In addition, under Macedonian rule, Byzantine arts and literature thrived, and Byzantine missionaries spread Christianity to the Slavs and Serbs.

Who Were the Ottoman Turks?

During the late 1200s, Turkish tribes began to expand their territory in northwest Anatolia. Osman I was an early leader of this group. He formed a dynasty of Turkish rulers called Osmanli, which means "sons of Osman." Over time, English speakers came to call this group Ottomans. The Ottoman Turks strictly followed Islam but allowed the people they conquered to practice their own faiths. They built mosques, which served as social and religious centers. Also, the Ottomans made significant contributions in tile making, carpet weaving, and architecture. In rural areas, most Ottomans worked as farmers; in urban areas, many of them were craft workers and merchants. The Ottoman government was led by the sultan, who made all the important political decisions. The power of the sultan, however, was limited in a few ways. For instance, new laws could not take effect without the approval of the chief religious judge, called the Grand Mufti.

Slavs and Avars

In 550 CE, a group of barbarian invaders from eastern Europe named the Slavs began to raid the Balkan territory of the Byzantine Empire. To turn back these raids, the Byzantines arranged for another barbarian group, the Avars, to attack the Slavs. These barbarian tribes were often at war with each other over territory and power. The Byzantines hoped to take advantage of this. The Avars lived in the Caucasus region and were related to the Huns. The Byzantines hoped that the Slavs would be too busy fighting the Avars to raid the Balkans. However, this plan backfired horribly. The Slavs fled the attacking Avars and traveled south, deeper into the Balkans. Many Slavs settled in this region. After this, the Avars themselves decided to attack the Byzantines with armies made up of conquered Slavs. Avars: a group of people, related to the Huns, who lived in the Caucasus region.

How Did the Byzantine Empire Decline?

In many sports, certain teams or players dominate the competition for a given time. For example, the New York Yankees won three consecutive World Series from 1998 to 2000. The Dallas Cowboys won three Super Bowls from 1993 to 1996. Tennis player Roger Federer won five Wimbledon titles in a row from 2003 to 2007, and Tiger Woods was the top-ranked golfer in the world for 623 weeks total (almost 12 years), from 1997 to 2010. Such dominance does not last forever, however. Star players may retire, be traded, or get injured. The coaching staff might change. Other teams or players in the league might improve. All of a sudden, or even slowly over time, the teams and players that used to dominate start losing more often. The "empire" falls, and another one (a new team or player) may take over in its place. Like a winning sports team, the Byzantine Empire was supreme for many years. Eventually, the empire began to fade and another empire, the Ottoman Empire, arose. During the reign of Justinian I, the Byzantine Empire reached the height of its power. After Justinian's death, however, the empire began a gradual decline that lasted for nearly 900 years. This decline had many ebbs and flows, during which the empire's territory contracted and expanded several times. Why did this happen? Invading forces and internal problems weakened the Byzantine Empire, but gifted leaders helped to build it up again. In 1453 CE, however, the empire succumbed to a collapse from which it would not recover. The Ottoman Empire came to power in its place.

Bulgars

In the early 600s, the Bulgar people united to form a powerful kingdom that stretched along the Danube in the Balkans. This group mixed with the Slavic people. The Bulgarian Kingdom attacked the Byzantine Empire several times, which caused the Byzantine emperor to lead an army against them in 811 CE. The Bulgars crushed the Byzantine troops, killed the emperor, and two years later, attacked Constantinople. Once again, however, the attacking army could not break through the citys defenses, and the Bulgarian siege failed. Soon the Bulgars formed peaceful relations with the empire.

Avars and Sassanids

Not only was the Byzantine army fighting the Avars mutiny, rebels in Constantinople also rioted and killed the emperor. Shortly afterwards, the new emperor was also killed by a competitor for the throne, Heraclius. Heraclius decided to form new military districts called themes. The commander of each theme was also the governor of the region. The soldiers for each theme consisted of men who lived in the region. These people made better fighters than mercenaries, because they were defending their homeland. In 626 CE, the Avars laid siege to Constantinople, and the Sassanids advanced toward the city. Using soldiers trained in themes in Asia Minor, Heraclius defeated the Avars and drove away the Sassanids. He then used war payments by the Sassanids to refill the Byzantine treasury.

1360-1451

Orhan's son, Sultan Murad I, expanded Ottoman power to include most of the Anatolian and Balkan peninsulas. By the 1300s, the Ottomans had formed an efficient army made up of well-trained soldiers. Many of the soldiers were Janissaries-an elite fighting corps of the sultan's slaves.

1300-1359

Osman I began to merge powers in the Anatolian Peninsula. By 1360 BCE, his son Orkhan had enlarged their territory to include the area between the Mediterranean and Black Seas. Ottoman leaders now began to claim the title of sultan.

Byzantine Influences

Ottoman society was strongly influenced by the Byzantine society. For instance, the Ottomans used Byzantine artistic and architectural styles and sometimes changed churches, such as the Hagia Sophia, into mosques. Although the Ottomans changed the name of Constantinople to Istanbul, the city remained the capital and the cultural and economic center of their empire.

How Did Justinian I Contribute to the Weakening Byzantine Empire?

Sometimes, even the most carefully designed plans do not work out as intended. Have you ever started a project, confident you knew what you were doing, only to soon find everything going wrong? Perhaps you overlooked some key details, or encountered some unanticipated problems that prevented your project from being a success. For Justinian I, this situation became all too familiar in his efforts to lead the Byzantine Empire. After the Fall, some common themes began to recur in history in terms of holding a nation or empire together: financial wisdom and capable manpower. Sin ushered into the world a thirsty greed for wealth and might. For the most part, nations who have been superior in military might and wealth are among the most dominant nations. For Justinian, these strengths became weaknesses which were then compounded by another consequence of sin-sickness. Justinian himself planted the seeds for the Byzantine Empire's decline. First, his constant wars and the rebuilding of Constantinople after the Nika Riot caused serious financial problems for the empire. The reconstruction of the Hagia Sophia alone cost about 320,000 pounds of gold. Second, Justinian left the Byzantine army scattered across the empire, primarily under the command of Belisarius, a general. Many units were occupied by fighting fierce nomads. One of these nomad groups, a Germanic barbarian tribe called the Lombards, had managed to conquer much of northern Italy. The thinly-spread Byzantine forces fought to prevent the Lombards from pushing farther into Italy. This situation was not uncommon. Thin lines of defense in other areas left the empire open to attack. Finally, during the last years of Justinian's reign, the empire suffered from several attacks of bubonic plague. Called Justinian's Plague by modern historians, the illness killed millions of people. This created a severe shortage of human power, which weakened the military and the government.

Ottoman Turks:

Turkish group ruled by the Ottoman dynasty; formed an empire that lasted from about 1300 to 1922