Chapter 9

Nonsubstitutability

also occurs when people differentiate their resource from the alternatives. We should all do this when developing our personal brand. -Our public image and reputation should be authentic (who we really are and what we can deliver), but it also needs to be unique and valuable, which leverages the power of nonsubstitutability.

structural hole

an area between two or more dense social network areas that lacks network ties -This bridging role gives Person A additional power in the network. By bridging this gap, Person A becomes a broker—someone who connects two independent networks and controls information flow between them.

coercive power

the ability to apply punishment. -occurs when managers warn employees about the consequences of poor performance, yet employees also have coercive power. -For example, employees might criticize coworkers when they disregard team norms.16 Some firms rely on this coercive power from other team members to control coworker behavior in team settings. -From a position

power

the capacity of a person, team, or organization to influence others. -First, power is not the act of changing someone's attitudes or behavior; it is only the potential to do so. -Second, power is based on the target's perception that the power holder controls (i.e., possesses, has access to, or regulates) a valuable resource that can help the target achieve his or her goals. ---This perception also is formed from the power holder's behavior, such as someone who is not swayed by authority or norms. -Third, power involves asymmetric (unequal) dependence of one party on another party -all power relationships depend on some minimum level of trust. Trust indicates a level of expectation that the more powerful party will deliver the resource.

Describe message content in persuasion:

The message is more important than the messenger when the issue is important to the audience. Message content is more persuasive when it acknowledges several points of view so the speaker is viewed as more credible and the audience does not feel boxed in by the persuasion attempt. The message also should be limited to a few strong arguments, which are repeated a few times, but not too frequently. The message should use emotional appeals (such as graphically showing the unfortunate consequences of a bad decision), but only in combination with logical arguments and specific recommendations to overcome the threat. Finally, message content is more persuasive when the audience is warned about opposing arguments. This inoculation effect causes listeners to generate counterarguments to the anticipated persuasion attempts, which makes the opponent's subsequent persuasion attempts less effective

asymmetric dependence

unequal dependence of one party on another party -See with the concept of power

betweenness

which literally refers to how much you are located between others in the network -Affects social network centrality -The more betweenness you have, the more you control the distribution of information and other resources to people on either side of you.

weak ties

(i.e., being merely acquaintances) with people from diverse networks can be more valuable than having strong ties (i.e., having close friendships) with people in similar networks. -The importance of weak ties is revealed in job hunting and career development.42 People with diverse networks tend to be more successful job seekers because they have a wider net to catch new job opportunities.

degree centrality

the number or percentage of connections you have to others in the network

expert power

It is an individual's or work unit's capacity to influence others by possessing knowledge or skills valued by others. -An important form of expert power is the perceived ability to manage uncertainties in the business environment. -Organizations are more effective when they operate in predictable environments, so they value people who can cope with turbulence in consumer trends, societal changes, unstable supply lines, and so forth. -Expertise can help companies cope with uncertainty in three ways originates from within the power holder. -Many people respond to expertise just as they respond to authority—they mindlessly follow the guidance of these experts.

social network centrality

The more central a person (or team or organization) is located in the network, the more social capital and therefore more power he or she acquires. Centrality is your importance in that network. -Factors include: --Betweenness --Degree centrality --Closeness

zone of indifference

a domain from legitimate power is the set of behaviors that individuals are willing to engage in at the other person's request. -The size of the zone of indifference (and, consequently, the magnitude of legitimate power) increases with the level of trust in the power holder. Some values and personality traits also make people more obedient to authority. -Those who value conformity and tradition as well as have high power distance (i.e., they accept an unequal distribution of power) tend to have higher deference to authority. -The organization's culture represents another influence on the willingness of employees to follow orders.

charisma

a personal characteristic or special "gift" that serves as a form of interpersonal attraction and referent power over others -produces a high degree of trust, respect, and devotion toward the charismatic individual.

Who else has legitimate power besides their bosses?

-Employees -Employees also have legitimate power over their bosses and coworkers through legal and administrative rights as well as informal norms.11 For example, an organization might give employees the right to request information that is required for their job. Laws give employees the right to refuse to work in unsafe conditions. Subtler forms of legitimate power also exist.

What are the ways in which you can minimize organizational politics?

-First, organizational politics are triggered by scarce resources in the workplace. When budgets are slashed, people rely on political tactics to safeguard their resources and maintain the status quo. Although it is not easy to maintain or add resources, sometimes this action is less costly than the consequences of organizational politics. -Second, political tactics are fueled by ambiguous or complex rules, or the absence of formal rules, because those tactics help people get what they want when decisions lack structural guidelines. Consequently, organizational politics are suppressed when resource allocation decisions are clear and simplified. -Third, organizational change tends to bring out more organizational politics, mainly because change creates ambiguity and threatens the employee's power and other valued resources.77 Consequently, leaders need to apply the organizational change strategies that we describe in Chapter 14, particularly through communication, learning, and involvement. Research has found that employees who are kept informed of what is going on in the organization and who are involved in organizational decisions are less likely to engage in organizational politics. -Fourth, political behavior is more common in work units and organizations where it is tolerated and reinforced. Some companies seem to nurture self-serving behavior through reward systems and the role modeling of organizational leaders. To minimize political norms, the organization needs to diagnose and alter systems and role modeling that support self-serving behavior. They should support organizational values that oppose political tactics, such as altruism and focusing on the customer. One of the most important strategies is for leaders to become role models of organizational citizenship rather than symbols of successful organizational politicians.

What are the different characteristics of power?

-First, power is not the act of changing someone's attitudes or behavior; it is only the potential to do so. -Second, power is based on the target's perception that the power holder controls (i.e., possesses, has access to, or regulates) a valuable resource that can help the target achieve his or her goals. --This perception also is formed from the power holder's behavior, such as someone who is not swayed by authority or norms. -Third, power involves asymmetric (unequal) dependence of one party on another party -all power relationships depend on some minimum level of trust. Trust indicates a level of expectation that the more powerful party will deliver the resource.

Describe the importance of communication channel and audience characteristics in persuasion:

-Generally, persuasion works best through communication channels with high social presence and media-richness, such as in face-to-face conversations. -The human presence of face-to-face communication increases the persuader's credibility, and the richness of this channel provides faster feedback that the influence strategy is working. -With respect to audience characteristics, it is more difficult to persuade people who have high self-esteem and intelligence, as well as a self-concept that is strongly tied to the opposing viewpoint.

What are the five sources in which power is derived?

-Legitimate -Reward -Coercive -Expert -Referent

Discuss contingencies of power: substitutability

-Power is strongest when the individual or work unit has a monopoly over a valued resource. In other words, they are nonsubstitutable. Conversely, power decreases as the number of alternative sources of the critical resource increases. -Controlling access to the resource increases nonsubstitutability. Professions and labor unions gain power by controlling knowledge, tasks, or labor to perform important activities. -Employees are less substitutable when they operate special equipment or possess other knowledge that isn't documented or widely held by others. -Nonsubstitutability also occurs when people differentiate their resource from the alternatives. We should all do this when developing our personal brand.

What are the ways in which people respond when we try to influence them?

-Resistance -Compliance -Commitment

How can strong ties be more valuable than weak ties?

-Strong ties—our close-knit circle of friends—tend to be similar to us and to each other, and similar people tend to have the same information and connections that we already have.41 -Weak ties, on the other hand, are acquaintances who are usually different from us and therefore offer resources we do not possess. Furthermore, by serving as a "bridge" across several unrelated networks, we receive unique resources from each network rather than more of the same resources.

What are the contingencies of power?

-Substitutability -Centrality -Visibility -Discretion

Discuss contingencies of power: discretion

-The freedom to exercise judgment—to make decisions without referring to a specific rule or receiving permission from someone else—is another important contingency of power in organizations.26 -Consider the lack of power of many first-line supervisors. -They may have legitimate, reward, and coercive power over employees, but this power is often curtailed by specific rules that supervisors must follow to use their power bases

What are some consequences of power?

-When people feel empowered (high self-determination, meaning, competence, and impact), they believe they have power over themselves and freedom from being influenced by others. Empowerment tends to increase motivation, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job performance. However, this feeling of being in control and free from others' authority also increases automatic rather than mindful thinking. In particular, people who feel powerful usually are more likely to rely on stereotypes, have difficulty empathizing, and generally have less accurate perceptions compared with people who have less power -the other type of power is one in which an individual has power over others, such as the legitimate, reward, and coercive power that managers have over employees in the workplace. This type of power produces a sense of duty or responsibility for the people over whom the power holder has authority. Consequently, people who have power over others tend to be more mindful of their actions and engage in less stereotyping. Even when people feel empowered, they can shift their focus from self to others, so the power becomes viewed more as one of social responsibility than enjoyable for its own

Describe the downsides of social networks:

-Women are often excluded from informal male social networks because of the natural tendency of people to network with others who are similar, and because women and men tend to have somewhat different interests and social activities -recommends overcoming the male network barrier by encouraging women to include more men in their networks.

How to determine the most appropriate influence strategy?

-depends on a few contingencies -one obvious contingency is the influencer's strongest sources of power. Those with expertise tend to have more influence using persuasion, whereas those with a strong legitimate power base may be more successful applying silent authority. -A second contingency is whether the person being influenced is higher, lower, or at the same level in the organization. As an example, employees may face adverse career consequences by being too assertive with their boss. Meanwhile, supervisors who engage in ingratiation and impression management tend to lose the respect of their staff. -Finally, the most appropriate influence tactic depends on personal, organizational, and cultural values.71 People with a strong power orientation might feel more comfortable using assertiveness, whereas those who value conformity would make greater use of upward appeals. At an organizational level, firms with a competitive culture might encourage more use of information control and coalition formation, whereas companies with a more collegial culture would likely encourage more influence through persuasion. -The preferred influence tactics also vary across societal cultures.

Discuss contingencies of power: visibility

-employees gain power when their talents remain in the forefront of the minds of their boss, coworkers, and others. In other words, power increases with visibility. -This visibility can occur, for example, by taking on people-oriented jobs and projects that require frequent interaction with senior executives. -Employees also gain visibility by being, quite literally, visible. Some people strategically locate themselves in more visible work areas, such as those closest to the boss or where other employees frequently pass by. -People often use public symbols as subtle (and not-so-subtle) cues to make their power sources known to others. Many professionals display their educational diplomas and awards on office walls to remind visitors of their expertise.

Describe legitimate power through control of info:

-particularly potent form of legitimate power occurs when people have the right to control information that others receive.14 These information gatekeepers have power in two ways. -First, information is a resource, so those who need information are dependent on the gatekeeper to provide that resource -Second, information gatekeepers gain power by selectively distributing information in a way that affects how those receiving the information perceive the situation compared to their perception if they received all of the information

Where do the five main sources of power originate?

-three of these—legitimate, reward, and coercive—originate mostly (but not completely) from the power holder's formal position or informal role. In other words, the person is granted these sources of power formally by the organization or informally by coworkers. -Two other sources of power—expert and referent—originate mainly from the power holder's own characteristics; in other words, people carry these power bases around with them. However, even personal sources of power are not completely within the person because they depend on how others perceive them

True or false? Then explain why: People usually react more favorably to soft tactics than to hard tactics.

-true -Soft influence tactics rely on personal sources of power (expert and referent power), which tend to build commitment to the influencer's request. In contrast, hard tactics rely on position power (legitimate, reward, and coercion), so they tend to produce compliance or, worse, resistance. -Hard tactics also tend to undermine trust, which can hurt future relationships.

Describe the factors that affect social network centrality

Betweenness -betweenness," which literally refers to how much you are located between others in the network -The more betweenness you have, the more you control the distribution of information and other resources to people on either side of you. degree centrality -the number or percentage of connections you have to others in the network -The number of connections also increases centrality because you are more visible to other members of the network. -Although being a member of a network gives you access to resources in that network, having a direct connection to more people within the network makes that resource sharing more fluid. closeness -High closeness refers to strong ties. It is depicted by shorter, more direct, and efficient paths or connections with others in the network. -Your centrality increases with your closeness to others in the network because they are affected more quickly and significantly by you.

Look and analyze the power dependence model for an employee-manager relationship:

Let's look at this power dependence model in the employee-manager relationship. You depend on your boss to support your continued employment, satisfactory work arrangements, and other valued resources. At the same time, the manager depends on you to complete required tasks and to work effectively with others in the completion of their work. Managers (and the companies they represent) typically have more power, whereas employees have weaker countervailing power. But sometimes employees do have more power than their bosses in the employment relationship. Notice that the strength of your power in the employee-manager relationship doesn't depend on your actual control over valued resources; it depends on the perceptions that your boss and others have about your control of these resources. Finally, trust is an essential ingredient in this relationship. Even with strong power, the employee-manager relationship comes apart when one party no longer sufficiently trusts the other.

coalition

a group that attempts to influence people outside the group by pooling the resources and power of its members -Influential in 3 ways: --First, it pools the power and resources of many people, so the coalition potentially has more influence than its members have if they operated alone. --Second, the coalition's mere existence can be a source of power by symbolizing the legitimacy of the issue. In other words, a coalition creates a sense that the issue deserves attention because it has broad support. --Third, coalitions tap into the power of the social identity process introduced. A coalition is an informal group that advocates a new set of norms and behaviors. If the coalition has a broad-based membership (i.e., its members come from various parts of the organization), then other employees are more likely to identify with that group and, consequently, accept the ideas the coalition is proposing.

innoculation effect

a persuasive communication strategy of warning listeners that others will try to influence them in the future and that they should be wary of the opponent's arguments -which makes the opponent's subsequent persuasion attempts less effective.

upward appeal

a type of influence in which someone with higher authority or expertise is called on in reality or symbolically to support the influencer's position -occurs when relying on the authority of the firm's policies or values. -By reminding others that your request is consistent with the organization's overarching goals, you are implying support from senior executives without formally involving them.

impression management

actively shaping through self-presentation and other means the perceptions and attitudes that others have of us -occurs through self-presentation. We craft our public images to communicate an identity, such as being important, vulnerable, threatening, or pleasant. For the most part, employees routinely engage in pleasant impression management behaviors to satisfy the basic norms of social behavior, such as the way they dress and how they behave toward coworkers and customers. -a common strategy for people trying to get ahead in the workplace. In fact, as we noted earlier, career professionals encourage people to develop a personal "brand"; that is, to form and display an accurate impression of their own distinctive, competitive advantage -Subcategory is ingratiation

exchange

activities involve the promise of benefits or resources in exchange for the target person's compliance with your request. -Negotiation is an integral part of exchange influence activities. For instance, you might negotiate with your boss for a day off in return for working a less desirable shift at a future date. -includes applying the norm of reciprocity that we described earlier, such as reminding the target of past benefits or favors with the expectation that the target will now make up for that debt. -use norms of reciprocity to influence others in the network. Active networkers build up "exchange credits" by helping colleagues in the short term for reciprocal benefits in the long term.

legitimate power

an agreement among organizational members that people in certain roles can request a set of behaviors from others -this perceived right or obligation originates from formal job descriptions as well as informal rules of conduct. -It is usually the most important source of power in organizational settings, particularly between employees and managers. -For example, managers have a legitimate right to tell employees what tasks to perform, whom to work with, what company resources they can use, and so forth. Employees follow the boss's requests because they have agreed to follow a range of requests from people in positions of higher authority. Employee motivation to comply with these requests occurs separately from the manager's ability to reward or punish employees. -Notice that legitimate power has restrictions; it gives the power holder only the right to ask others to perform a limited domain of behaviors. -Having a position

ingratiation

any attempt to increase liking by, or perceived similarity to, some targeted person -Employees might flatter their boss in front of others, demonstrate that they have similar attitudes as their boss (e.g., agreeing with the boss's proposal), or ask their boss for advice. I -people who engage in high levels of ingratiation are less (not more) influential and less likely to get promoted -The terms apple polishing and brown-nosing are applied to those who ingratiate to excess or in ways that suggest selfish motives for the ingratiation.

strong ties

are close-knit relationships, which are evident from how often we interact with people, how intensely we share resources with them, how much we experience psychological closeness to them, and whether we have multiple- or single-purpose relationships with them (e.g., friend, coworker, sports partner). -Strong ties are valuable because they offer resources more quickly and usually more plentifully than are available from weak ties (i.e., acquaintances). -offer greater social support and greater cooperation for favors and assistance -more people you know, the less time and energy you have to form "strong ties."

organizational politics

behaviors that others perceive as self-serving tactics at the expense of other people and possibly the organization -some tactics are so blatantly selfish and counterproductive that almost everyone correctly sees them as organizational politics. In other situations, however, a person's behavior might be viewed as political or in the organization's best interest, depending on the observer's point of view. -Employees who experience organizational politics from others have lower job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational citizenship, and task performance, as well as higher levels of work-related stress and motivation to leave the organization.

Personal (types of influence tactics)

characteristics Several personal characteristics affect an individual's motivation to engage in self-serving behavior.79 -This includes a strong need for personal as opposed to socialized power. Those with a need for personal power seek power for its own sake and try to acquire more power.

reward power

derived from the person's ability to control the allocation of rewards valued by others and to remove negative sanctions (i.e., negative reinforcement). -Managers have formal authority that gives them power over the distribution of organizational rewards such as pay, promotions, time off, vacation schedules, and work assignments. -Employees also have reward power over their bosses through their feedback and ratings in 360-degree feedback systems. -These ratings affect supervisors' promotions and other rewards, so supervisors tend to pay more attention to employee needs after 360-degree feedback is introduced. -From having a position

norm of reciprocity

feeling of obligation to help someone who has helped you. -If a coworker previously helped you handle a difficult client, that coworker has power because you feel an obligation to help the coworker on something of similar value in the future. -is a form of legitimate power because it is an informal rule of conduct that we are expected to follow.

What are the hard and soft tactics of influence?

hard -Silent authority -Assertiveness -Information control -Coalition formation -Upward appeal soft -Persuasion -Impression management -Exchange

information control

influence when the power holder actually distributes information selectively so it reframes the situation and causes others to change their attitudes and/or behavior. -Controlling information might include withholding information that is more critical or favorable, or distributing information to some people but not to others. -Ex. one study found that CEOs influence their board of directors by selectively feeding and withholding information.

What are the three ways in which Social networks potentially enhance and maintain the power of its members?

information -members receive valuable knowledge more easily and more quickly from fellow network members than do people outside that network.33 With better information access and timeliness, members have more power because their expertise is a scarce resource; it is not widely available to people outside the network. Visibility -When asked to recommend someone for valued positions, other network members more readily think of you than of people outside the network. They are more likely to mention your name when asked to identify people with expertise in your areas of knowledge. A third resource from social networks is increased referent power. Referent power. -people tend to gain referent power through networking because members of the network identify with or at least have greater trust in each other. Referent power is also apparent by the fact that reciprocity increases among network members as they become more embedded in the network.

commitment

is the strongest outcome of influence, whereby people identify with the influencer's request and are highly motivated to implement it even when extrinsic sources of motivation are not present.

assertiveness

might be called "vocal authority" because it involves actively applying legitimate and coercive power to influence others. -includes persistently reminding the target of his or her obligations, frequently checking the target's work, confronting the target, and using threats of sanctions to force compliance. -Workplace bullying is an extreme form of assertiveness because it involves explicit threats of punishment.

compliance

occurs when people are motivated to implement the influencer's request for purely instrumental reasons. -Without external sources to motivate the desired behavior, compliance would not occur. -Furthermore, compliance usually involves engaging in the behavior with no more effort than is required.

resistance

occurs when people or work units oppose the behavior desired by the influencer. -At the extreme, they refuse to engage in the behavior. -However, there are degrees of resistance, such as when people perform the required duties yet maintain their opposition by performing the tasks poorly or continuing to complain about the imposed work.

silent authority

occurs when someone complies with a request because of the requester's legitimate power as well as the target person's role expectations -influence occurs when you comply with your boss's request to complete a particular task. -If the task is within your job scope and your boss has the right to make this request, then this influence strategy operates without negotiation, threats, persuasion, or other tactics. -Silent authority is the most common form of influence in high power distance cultures.

What are the three ways in which companies can cope with uncertainty?

prevention -The most effective strategy is to prevent environmental changes from occurring. For example, financial experts acquire power by preventing the organization from experiencing a cash shortage or breaching debt covenants. Forecasting —The next best strategy is to predict environmental changes or variations. In this respect, trendspotters and other marketing specialists gain power by predicting changes in consumer preferences. Absorption —People and work units also gain power by absorbing or neutralizing the impact of environmental shifts as they occur. An example is the ability of maintenance crews to come to the rescue when machines break down.

Substitutability

refers not only to other sources that offer the resource, but also to substitutions of the resource itself. -For instance, the power of a labor union weakens when the company introduces technologies that replace the need for the union's members. Technology is a substitute for employees and, consequently, reduces union power.

influence

refers to any behavior that attempts to alter someone's attitudes or behavior. -is power in motion. -It applies one or more sources of power to get people to alter their beliefs, feelings, and activities. -influence is central to the definition of leadership. It is an essential process through which people coordinate their effort and act in concert to achieve organizational objectives. Influence operates down, across, and up the corporate hierarchy. Executives ensure that subordinates complete required tasks. Employees influence coworkers to help them with their job assignments.

Centrality- (contingency of power)

refers to the power holder's importance based on the degree and nature of interdependence with others -increases with the number of people dependent on you as well as how quickly and severely they are affected by that dependence -If you have high centrality, many people in the organization would be adversely affected by your absence, and they would be affected quickly

social networks

social structures of individuals or social units (e.g., departments, organizations) that are connected to each other through one or more forms of interdependence -Some networks are held together due to common interests, such as when employees who have dogs or other pets spend more time together. -Other networks form around common status, expertise, kinship, or physical proximity. For instance, employees are more likely to form networks with coworkers who have common educational backgrounds and occupational interests. -exist everywhere because people have a drive to bond -Social networking may be more of a central life activity in Asian cultures that emphasize guanxi, a Chinese term referring to an individual's network of social connections. Guanxi is an expressive activity because interacting with family and friends reinforces one's self-concept. It is also an instrumental activity for receiving favors and opportunities from others. Guanxi is sometimes so pervasive, however, that several experts warn it can undermine the organization's effectiveness -Social networks potentially enhance and maintain the power of its members through three resources: information, visibility, and referent power.

Machiavellian values

the beliefs that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to influence others and that getting more than one deserves is acceptable -People with high Machiavellian values are comfortable with getting more than they deserve, and they believe that deceit is a natural and acceptable way to achieve this goal. They seldom trust coworkers and tend to use cruder influence tactics to get their own way, such as bypassing their boss or being assertive

countervailing power

the capacity of a person, team, or organization to keep a more powerful person or group in the exchange relationship -person A dominates the power relationship, but Person B has enough countervailing power to keep Person A in the exchange relationship and ensure that person uses his or her dominant power judiciously

referent power

the capacity to influence others on the basis of an identification with and respect for the power holder -originates within the power holder. -It is largely a function of the person's interpersonal skills. -Associated with charisma

social capital

the goodwill and resulting resources shared among members in a social network.31 -This goodwill motivates and enables network members to share resources with each other because social networks produce trust, support, and empathy among network members -the goodwill of social capital opens communication pipelines among those within the network. -Network members receive valuable knowledge more easily and more quickly from fellow network members than do people outside that network.33 -With better information access and timeliness, members have more power because their expertise is a scarce resource; it is not widely available to people outside the network..

persuasion

the use of facts, logical arguments, and emotional appeals to change another person's beliefs and attitudes, usually for the purpose of changing the person's behavior -most widely used and accepted influence strategy in organizations. It is a quality of effective leaders and, in many societies, a noble skill. -The effectiveness of persuasion as an influence tactic depends on characteristics of the persuader, message content, communication channel, and the audience being persuaded -People are more persuasive when listeners believe they have expertise and credibility. Credibility is higher when the persuader does not seem to profit from the persuasion attempt, mentions limitations with the position being persuaded, and acknowledges minor positive features of the alternative choices.