APUSH

Era 5 Sectionalism

"bleeding Kansas" (PEO, POL) To respond to the influx of Missouri slave owners into Kansas as means for the South to gain majority, Northern abolitionists and Free-Soilers organised the New England Emigrant Company (1855), which paid for the transportation of antislavery settler to Kansas. Fighting soon broke out between the groups, and the territory became known as "bleeding Kansas." Pottawatomie Creek (PEO, POL) In 1856, abolitionist John Brown and his sons attacked this proslavery farm settlement and killed five settlers. Lecompton constitution (PEO, POL) Buchanan, knowing the pro-slavery Lecompton constitution of Kansas did not have the majority support of settlers, asked Congress to accept the document and admit Kansas as a slave state. Congress did not do so, because many Democrats, including Stephen Douglas, joined with Republicans in rejecting the Lecompton constitution. The next year, 1858, the proslavery document was overwhelmingly rejected by Kansas settlers, most of whom were antislavery Republicans. popular sovereignty (POL) A government in which the people rule by their own consent., promoted by Democratic senator Lewis Cass. Lewis Cass (POL) Democratic senator who proposed popular sovereignty to settle the slavery question in the territories. Henry Clay (POL) In an 1850 debate between Congress on the admission of California as a state and its slave holding status, he propsed a compromise that is now known as the Compromise of 1850. Zachary Taylor (POL) (1849-1850), Whig president who was a Southern slave holder, and war hero (Mexican-American War). Won the 1848 election. Surprisingly did not address the issue of slavery at all on his platform. He died during his term and his Vice President was Millard Fillmore. Compromise of 1850 (POL) California adopted a slave-free constitution, sparking up debates again, which President Taylor (a slave holder himself) supporting the admission of California and New Mexico as free states. Henry Clay proposed a compromise: - Admit California to the Union as a free state. - Divide the remainder of the Mexican Cession into two territories - Utah and New Mexico - and allow the settlers in these territories to decide the slavery issue by majority vote (popular sovereignty) - Give the land in dispute between Texas and the New Mexico territory to the new territories in return for the federal government assuming Texas's public debt of $10 million - Ban the slave trade in the District of Columbia but permit whites to hold slaves as before - Adopt a new Fugitive Slave Law and enforce it rigorously. Opponents of the Compromise managed to prevail until the sudden death in 1850 of President Taylor, who opposed Clay's plan. Succeeding him was a strong supporter of compromise, vice President Millard Fillmore. President Fillmore readily signed the bills into law. Stephen A. Douglas (POL) A moderate, who introduced the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854 and popularized the idea of popular sovereignty. Millard Fillmore (POL) (1850-1853) 13th U.S. President who supported the Compromise of 1850. Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) (POL) Proposed by Senator Douglas (Illinois) and advocated popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska territories (vote by people of territory whether they would be slave or free state). Douglas wanted it to facilitate the building of the transcontinental railroad on a central route through Illinois, thus benefitting his state economically. K/A Act passed but backfired terribly as extremes of both sides of slavery debate flooded into Kansas. Votes on constitutions were plagued with fraud and "Bleeding Kansas" begins as violence erupts between pro/anti-slavery groups. Crittenden compromise (POL) Current lame-duck President Buchanan, a conservative, did nothing to prevent the secession of the seven states. Congress was more active. In a last-ditch effort of appeasement, Senator John Crittenden of Kentucky proposed a constitutional amendment that would guarantee the right to hold slaves in all territories south of 36°30'. Lincoln, however, said he would not accept it. Southern whites believed they were acting in the tradition of the Revolution of 1776. They also thought Lincoln, like Buchannan, might permit secession without fight. James Buchanan (POL) (1856) Democractic presidential nominee from Pennsylvania. The Democratic ticket won a majority of both the popular and electoral vote, but the Republicans made a remarkably strong showing, Frémont carrying 11 of the 16 free states. election of 1860 (POL) The Democratic party represented the last practical hope for coalition and compromise. It split when a deadlock vote happened between Stephen Douglas and President Buchanan. Southern Democrats walked out, holding their own convention and nominating Vice President John C. Breckinridge, calling for the unrestricted extension of slavery in the territories and the annexation of Cuba. Adopting a strong pro-North platform, the Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln. In the South, secessionists warned that if Lincoln was elected president, their states would leave the Union. While Douglas campaigned across the country, Lincoln confidently remained at his home in Springfield, Illinois. Lincoln carried every one of the free states of the North, which represented a solid majority of 59 percent of the electoral vote. He won only 39.8 percent of the popular vote however, and would therefore be a minority president. secession (POL) December 1860) A special convention in South Carolina voted unanimously to secede. (February 1861) Representatives of the seven states of the Deep South met in Montgomery, Alabama, and created the Confederate States of America. Similar constitution, but limits on the government's power to impose tariffs and restrict slavery. Elected president and vice president of the Confederacy were Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi and Alexander Stephens of Georgia. Fugitive Slave Law (POL) The passage of this law persuaded many Southerners to accept the loss of California to the abolitionists and Free-Soilers. Yet the enforcement of the new law in the North was bitterly and sometimes forcibly resisted by antislavery Northerners. In effect, therefore, enforcement of the new law drove a wedge between the North and the South. Dred Scott v. Standford (POL) After being taken to the free territory of Wisconsin for two years, formerly enslaved Missourian Dred Scott returned to his native state, suing for his freedom, arguing that his residence on free soil made him a free citizen. The case worked its way through the court system. It finally reached the Supreme Court, which rendered its decision in March 1857, only two days after Buchanan was sworn in a resident. Roger Taney (POL) Chief Justice who ruled on Dred Scott v. Stanford (1857) for the following reasons: - Dred Scott had no right to sue in a federal court because the Framers of the Constitution did not intend African Americans to be U.S. citizens. - Congress did not have the power to deprive any person of property without due process of law; if slaves were a form of property, then Congress could not exclude slavery from any federal territory. - The Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because it excluded slavery from Wisconsin and other Northern territories. Freeport Doctrine (POL) Doctrine developed by Stephen Douglas that said the exclusion of slavery in a territory could be determined by the refusal of the voters to enact any laws that would protect slave property. It was unpopular with Southerners, and thus cost him the election. Summer-Brooks incident (POL) Massachusetts Senator Charles Summer verbally attacked the Democratic administration in a vitriolic speech, "The Crime Against Kansas." After personal charges made against Preston Brooks' uncle, Brooks' defended his honour by walking into the Senate chamber and beating Summer over the head with a cane. Summer never fully recovered from the attack. The North voted to censure Brooks, the South applauded and sent him more canes. John Brown (POL) Abolitionist who was hanged after leading an unsuccessful raid at Harper's Ferry, Virginia. Harpers Ferry raid (POL) John Brown tried to start a slave uprising in Virginia. In October 1859, he led a small band of followers in an attack on the federal arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Federal troops under the command of Robert E. Lee captured Brown and his six followers, ultimately trying, convicting, and hanging them for treason.

Era 7 WW1

Allied power (WOR) Alliance of Great Britain, Soviet Union, United States, and France during World War II. Central Powers (WOR) Austria-Hungary, Germany, Ottoman Empire neutrality (WOR) In World War I (as in the War of 1812), the trouble for the United States arose as the belligerent powers tried to stop supplies from reaching the enemy. Having the stronger navy, Great Britain was the first to declare a naval blockade against Germany by mining the North Sea and seizing ships-including U.S. ships-attempting to run the blockade. President Wilson protested British seizure of American ships as a violation of a neutral nation's right to freedom of the seas. submarine warfare (WOR) German policy of attacking ships without warning. Applied to any and all ships, even if they were only passenger liners. The sinking of the Lusitania led the Germans to cease submarine warfare for a while, but eventually resumed their use. Lusitania (WOR) A British passenger ship that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, helping the move towards entering the war. Sussex pledge (WOR) A promise Germany made to America, after Wilson threatened to sever ties, to stop sinking their ships without warning. British War propaganda (WOR) Not only did Britain command the seas but it also commanded the war news that was cabled daily to U.S. newspapers and magazines. Fully recognizing the importance of influencing U.S. public opinion, the British government made sure the American press was well supplied with stories of German soldiers committing atrocities in Belgium and the German-occupied part of eastern France. ethnic support (WOR) In the early part of World War I Americans supported neutrality. However, 30 per-cent were first or second generation immigrants and their support was usually based on their ancestry. preparedness (WOR) Eastern Republicans such as Roosevelt were the first to recognize that the U.S. military was hopelessly unprepared for a major war. They clamoured for "preparedness" (greater defence expenditures) soon after the European war broke out. At first, President Wilson opposed the call for preparedness, but in late 1915, he changed his policy. Wilson urged Congress to approve an ambitious expansion of the armed forces. Caused controversy, but finally, in 1916, congress passed the National Defence Act which increased the regular army to a force of nearly 175,000. A month later, Congress approved the construction of more than 50 warships (battleships, cruisers, destroyers, and submarines) in just one year. election of 1916 (WOR) Despite his own Progressive record, Wilson's chances for reelection did not seem strong after Theodore Roosevelt declined the Progressive party's nomination for president in 1916 and re-joined the Republicans. (Roosevelt's decision virtually destroyed any chance of the Progressive party surviving.) Charles Evans Hughes, a Supreme Court justice and former governor of New York, became the presidential candidate of a reunited Republican party. SFI - "He [Wilson] Kept Us Out of War." Campaign slogan. Jeannette Rankin (WOR) First woman elected to the United States House of Representatives and the first female member of Congress. A Republican and a lifelong pacifist, she was the only member of Congress to vote against United States entry into both World War II and World War I. Additionally, she led resistance to the Vietnam War. Edward House (WOR) In 1915, he was President Wilson chief foreign policy adviser. He traveled to London, Paris, and Berlin to negotiate a peace settlement, but was unsuccessful. Zimmermann telegram (WOR) On March 1, U.S. newspapers carried the shocking news of a secret offer made by Germany to Mexico. Intercepted by British intelligence, a telegram to Mexico from the German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, proposed that Mexico ally itself with Germany in return for Germany's pledge to help Mexico recover lost territories: Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The Zimmermann Telegram aroused the nationalist anger of the American people and convinced Wilson that Germany fully expected a war with the United States. Russian Revolution (WOR) : Applying the principle of moral diplomacy, Wilson wanted the war to be fought for a worthy purpose: the triumph of democracy. It bothered him that one of the Allies was Russia, a nation governed by an autocratic czar. This barrier to U.S. participation was suddenly removed on March 15, when Russian revolutionaries overthrew the czar's government and proclaimed a republic. (Only later in November would the revolutionary government be taken over by Communists.) declaration of war (WOR) President Wilson makes an arousing speech for war in a joint-congress session on April 2, 1917. On April 6, an overwhelming majority in Congress voted for a declaration of war, although a few pacifists, including Robert La Follette and Jeanette Rankin, defiantly voted no.) anti-German hysteria (POL) During World War I, Germans were labeled as the cause of the war and targeted with negative ads and comments. Shifted quickly into the Red Scare. wartime jobs for women (PEO, WXT) As men were drafted into the military, the jobs they vacated were often taken by women, thousands of whom entered the workforce for the first time. Women's contributions to the war effort, both as volunteers and wage earners, finally convinced Wilson and Congress to support the 19th Amendment. attitudes toward suffrage (PEO, WXT) Women's contribution to the war effort prompted President Wilson and Congress to support the 19th amendment. migration of blacks and Hispanics (PEO, WXT) : Job opportunities in wartime America, together with the upheavals of the revolution in Mexico, caused thousands of Mexicans to cross the border to work in agriculture and mining. Most were employed in the Southwest, but a significant number also travelled to the Midwest for factory jobs. African Americans also took advantage of job opportunities opened up by the war and migrated north. Bolsheviks withdraw (WOR) A second revolution in Russia by Bolsheviks (Communists) took it out of World War I. American Expeditionary Force (WOR) About 2 million Americans went to France as members of this under General John J. Pershing. Included the regular army, the National Guard, and the new larger force of volunteers and draftees and they served as individuals. Western front (WOR) A line of trenches and fortifications in World War I that stretched without a break from Switzerland to the North Sea. Scene of most of the fighting between Germany, on the one hand, and France and Britain, on the other. November 11,1918 (WOR) Day that Germany signed Armistice ending WWI.

Era 2 Religion

Cecil Calvert, Lord Baltimore (CUL) The Maryland proprietorship passed to his Lord Baltimore's son, Cecil Calvert (Lord Baltimore) who set about implementing his father's plan to provide a safe haven to Catholics in 1634. Act of Toleration (CUL) In 1649, Calvert persuaded the Maryland assembly to adopt the Act of Toleration, the first colonial statue granting religious freedom to all Christians. However, the statue also called for the death of anyone who denied the divinity of Jesus. Roger Williams (CUL) A respected Puritan minister and Boston resident who believed that the individual's conscience was beyond the control of any civil or church authority. His teachings placed him in conflict with other Puritans, who ordered his banishment from the Bay colony. Providence (CUL) Roger Williams fled southward to Narragansett Bay, where he and a few followers founded the settlement of Providence in 1636. It recognized the rights of Native Americans and paid them for the use of their land, and Williams' government allowed Catholics, Quakers, and Jews to worship freely. Williams also founded one of the first Baptist churches in America. Anne Hutchinson (CUL) Anne Hutchinson believed in antinomianism. Banished from the Bay Colony, Hutchinson and a group of followers founded the colony of Portsmouth in 1638, not far from Providence. Hutchinson later moved to Rhode Island, where she was killed in a native uprising. antinomianism (CUL) The idea that faith alone, not deeds, is necessary for salvation. Rhode Island (CUL) (Proprietary Colony) In 1644, Roger Williams was granted a charter from the Parliament to join Providence and Portsmouth into a single colony, Rhode Island. It served as a refuge for many, as it tolerated diverse beliefs. Halfway covenant (CUL) (1660s, Puritan colonies in New England) In an effort to maintain the church's influence and membership, a halfway covenant was offered by some clergy. Under this, people could become partial church members even if they had not felt a conversion (profound religious experience). Quakers (CUL) Believed in the equality of all men and women, nonviolence, and resistance to military service. They further believed that religious authority was found within each person's soul and not in the Bible and not in any outside source. William Penn (CUL) William Penn was a young convert to the Quaker faith. His father had served the king as a victorious admiral. Although the elder Penn opposed his son's religious beliefs, he respected William's sincerity and bequeathed him considerable wealth. In addition, the royal family owed the father a large debt, which they paid to William in 1681 in the form of a grant of American land for a colony that he called Pennsylvania, or Penn's woods. Holy Experiment (CUL) Penn wanted to provide religious refuge for Quakers and other persecuted people, to enact liberal ideas in government, and generate income and profits for himself. He provided the colony with a Frame of Government and a written constitution, the Charter of Liberties. Penn also attempted to treat the Native Americans fairly and not to cheat the when purchasing their land. Penn's land along the Delaware River had previously been settled by several thousand Dutch and Swedish colonists, who eased the arrival of the newcomers attracted by Penn's promotion. Charter of Liberties (1701) (CUL) (William Penn) Guaranteed freedom of worship for all and unrestricted immigration. professions: religion, medicine, law (CUL) During the 17th century, Christian ministry was the only profession that received widespread respect among the common people. Ministers were often the only well-educated person in a small community. Colonists who fell prey to epidemics of smallpox and diphtheria were often treated by "cures" that made them worse. (ex: employing leeches or bloodsuckers to bleed the sick). Beginning doctors had little former medical experiences. The first medical college was opened as part of Benjamin Franklin's idea for the College of Philadelphia. During the 1700s, as trade expanded and legal problems became more complex, people felt a need for expert assistance in court. The most able lawyers formed a bar (committee or board), which set rules and standards for aspiring young lawyers. religious toleration (CUL) All colonies permitted the practice of different religions, but with varying degrees of freedom. Massachusetts was the most conservative, not accepting non-Christians and Catholics. Rhode Island and Pennsylvania were the most liberal. established church (CUL) Most colonial governments taxed the people to support one particular Protestant denomination. Churches financed through the government are known as established churches. As more immigrants came in, governments gradually reduced their support of churches. (Ex: Anglican Church in Virginia until the Revolution; Congregationalist Church in Massachusetts, exempt somewhat during the Revolution, abolished in the 1830s) Great Awakening (CUL) In the first decades of the 18th, sermons were more intellectual discourses and portrayed God as a benign creator. In the 1730, a movement or change swept through the colonies, emphasising human sinfulness and the perils of damnation (Puritan values). This is known as the Great Awakening. (strongest 1730s-1740s). Jonathan Edwards (CUL) (Congregationalist Church) Reverend Jonathan Edwards expressed the Great Awakening ideas in a series of sermons (most notably, "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God" - 1741). He invoked the Old Testament, claiming that one must seek penitence with God or suffer eternal damnation. George Whitefield (CUL) Unlike Edwards who mostly influenced New England, George Whitfield spread the Great Awakening throughout the colonies. He delivered rousing sermons that stressed that God was all-powerful and would save only those who openly professed belief in Jesus Christ. Cotton Mather (CUL) Most authors wrote on serious subjects, chiefly religion and politics. There were, for example, widely read religious tracts by two Massachusetts ministers, Cotton Mather and Jonathan Edwards. sectarian (CUL) The first colonial colleges were sectarian, meaning that they promoted the doctrines of a particular religious group. nonsectarian (CUL) Only one nosectarian college was founded during this period. The College of Philadelphia (University of Pennsylvania), had no religious sponsors.

Era 5 Reconstuction

Civil Rights Act of 1866 (ID, POL) (Johnson's veto) Pronounced all African Americans to be U.S. citizens and also attempted to provide a legal shield against the operation of the Southern states' Black Codes. Fearing Democratic repeal, Republicans looked for a more permanent solution. 14th Amendment (ID, POL) (ratified 1868) - declared that all persons born or naturalised in the United States were citizens - obligated the states to respect the rights of U.S. citizens and provide them with "equal protection of the laws" and "due process of law" (clauses full of meaning for future generations) In the 1950s and later, the Supreme Court would make "equal protection of the laws" and the "due process" clause the keystone of civil rights for minorities, women, children, disabled persons, and those accused of crime. Other parts of the 14th Amendment applied specifically to Congress' plan of Reconstruction. The clauses - disqualified former Confederate political leaders from holding either state or federal offices - repudiated the debts of the defeated governments of the Confederacy - penalised a state if it kept any eligible person from voting by reducing the state's proportional representation in Congress and the electoral college 15th Amendment (ID, POL) (third reconstruction amendment) Prohibited any state from denying or abridging a citizen's right to vote "on account of race, colour, or previous condition of servitude." It was ratified in 1870. (*Note to self: Felon Disenfranchisement) due process of law (ID, POL) (SCOTUS 1950s) Clause of the Fourteenth Ammendment, denies the government the right, without due process, to deprive people of life, liberty, and property Civil Rights Act of 1875 (ID, POL) (last Congressional reform of the Reconstruction) Guaranteed equal accommodations in public spaces (hotels, railroads, and theatres) and prohibited courts from excluding African Americans from juries. It was poorly enforced, and by 1877 Congress would abandon Reconstruction completely out of frustration of trying to reform an unwilling South. Rutherford B. Hayes (POL) 19th president of the united states, was famous for being part of the Hayes-Tilden election in which electoral votes were contested in 4 states, most corrupt election in US history Samuel J. Tilden (POL) Hayes' opponent in the 1876 presidential race, he was the Democratic nominee who had gained fame for putting Boss Tweed behind bars. He collected 184 of the necessary 185 electoral votes. presidential Reconstruction (POL, CUL) Throughout his presidency, Lincoln firmly believed that Southern states could not constitutionally leave the Union and therefore never did leave. He viewed the Confederates as only a disloyal minority. After his assassination, Johnson attempted to carry out Lincoln's plan for the political Reconstruction of the 11 former states of the Confederacy. Compromise of 1877 (POL) Leaders of the two parties worked out an informal deal. Democrats would allow Hayes to become president. In return, he would (1) immediately end federal support for the Republicans in the South, and (2) support the building of a Southern transcontinental railroad. In 1877, the last of federal troops protecting blacks were pulled out of the South, and the Supreme Court struck down Reconstruction laws after protest, marking the end of it. Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction (1863) (POL, CUL) He intended it to make the war shorter and give extra oomph for his Emancipation Proclamation. Simple process where Southern states could renter after the following: - Full presidential pardons would be granted to most Confederates who (1) took an oath of allegiance to the Union and the U.S. Constitution, and (2) accepted the emancipation of slaves. - A state government could be re-established and accepted as legitimate by the U.S. president as soon as at least 10 percent of the voters in that state took the loyalty oath. Wade-Davis Bill (1864) (POL, CUL) (Congress) Proposed far more demanding and stringent terms for Reconstruction. The bill required 50 percent of the voter to take a loyalty oath, and only non-Confederates could vote for a new state constitution. Lincoln refused to sign in, vetoing the bill after Congress had adjourned. Freedmen's Bureau (POL, CUL) (Congress 1865) Acted as an early welfare agency, providing food, shelter, and medical aid for those made destitute by the war - both blacks (chiefly freed slaves) and homeless whites. It tried to resettle blacks on confiscated farmlands in the South, but President Andrew Johnson pardoned Confederate owners of the confiscated lands, and courts then restored most of the lands to their original owners. Bureau's biggest success before federal funding was cut (1870), it established nearly 3,000 schools for freed blacks, including several colleges. The school's taught an estimated 200,000 African Americans how to read. Black Codes (POL, CUL) Republicans were further disillusioned with Johnson as Southern state legislatures adopted these right-restricting codes: (1) prohibited blacks from either renting land or borrowing money to buy land; (2) placed freedmen into a form of semi-bondage by forcing them, as "vagrants" and "apprentices," to sign work contracts; and (3) prohibited blacks from testifying against whites in court. Seemed little different from slavery. Congressional Reconstruction (POL, CUL) (1866) The angry response of many members of Congress to Johnson's policies led to the second round of Reconstruction. This one was dominated by Congress and featured policies that were harsher on Southern whites and more protective of freed African Americans. Andrew Johnson (POL, CUL) 17th President of the United States, A Southerner form Tennessee, as V.P. when Lincoln was killed, he became president. He opposed radical Republicans who passed Reconstruction Acts over his veto. The first U.S. president to be impeached, he survived the Senate removal by only one vote. He was a very weak president. Radical Republicans (POL, CUL) Republicans have always been divided between (1) moderates, who were chiefly concerned with economic gains for white middle class, and (2) radicals, who championed civil rights for blacks. Most Republicans were moderate, but several became more radical in 1866 partly out of fear that a reunified Democratic party might again become dominant. These makes sense, as the South would have more representatives in Congress than before the war and more strength in the electoral college in future presidential elections, now that freed blacks were no longer 3/5 of a person on the census. Charles Sumner (POL, CUL) A leader of the Radical republicans along with Thaddeus Stevens. He was from Massachusetts and was in the senate. His two main goals were breaking the power of wealthy planters and ensuring that freedmen could vote. Thaddeus Stephens (POL, CUL) A Radical Republican who believed in harsh punishments for the South. Leader of the Radical Republicans in Congress. Reconstruction Acts (1867) (POL, CUL) Over Johnson's vetoes, Congress passed three Reconstruction acts in early 1867, which took drastic steps of placing the South under military occupation. They divided the former Confederate states into five military districts, each under control of the Union army. They also increased the readmission requirements. To win readmission, an ex-Confederate state had to ratify the 14th Amendment and place guarantees in its constitution for granting the franchise to all adult males, regardless of race. Benjamin Wade (POL, CUL) Radical republican who endorsed woman's suffrage, rights for labor unions, and civil rights for northern blacks. Tenure of Office Act (1867) (POL, CUL) Radical attempt to further diminish Andrew Johnson's authority by providing that the president could not remove any civilian official without Senate approval; Johnson violated the law by removing Edwin Stanton as secretary of war, and the House of Representatives impeached him over his actions. impeachment of Andrew Johnson (POL, CUL) (1867) Also over Johnson's veto, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act. This prohibited a president from removing a federal official or military commander without the approval of the Senate. Congress to protect the Radical Republicans in Johnson's cabinet, such as Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, who was in charge of the military government in the South. Johnson challenged it by dismissing Stanton on his own authority. The House responded by impeaching Johnson. He thus became the first president to be impeached. After a three-month trial in the Senate, however, Johnson's enemies fell one vote short of the required two-thirds majority. Seven moderate Republicans joined the Democrats in voting against conviction because they thought it was a bad precedent to remove a president for political reasons. scalawags and carpetbaggers (POL, CUL) Democratic opponents gave nicknames to their revivals; Southern Republicans "scalawags" and Northern newcomers "carpetbaggers." Southern whites who supported Republican government were usually former Whigs interest in economic development for their state and peace between the sections. Edwin Stanton (POL, CUL) Popular Secretary of War who is fired by Johnson and leads to Johnson's impeachment. Blanche K. Bruce (POL, CUL) An American politician. Bruce represented Mississippi as a U.S. Senator from 1875 to 1881 and was the first black to serve a full term in the Senate. Hiram Revels (POL, CUL) The first African American to serve in the U.S. Congress. sharecropping (POL, CUL) In order to try to regain a labour force, white owners attempted to force freed African Americans into signing contracts to work the fields. These contracts set terms that nearly bound the signer to permanent and unrestricted labour (slavery by a different name). However, autonomy and changes in the post-war economy led white landowners to adopt a system based on tenancy and sharecropping. The landlord provided the seed and other farm supplies in return for a share (usually half) of the harvest. While this did give people the opportunity to work a piece of land for themselves, sharecroppers usually remained either dependent on the landowners or in debt to local merchants. Ku Klux Klan (POL, CUL) During the Republican controlled era, groups of Southern whites organised secret societies to intimidate blacks and white reformers. The most prominent was the Ku Lux Klan, founded in 1867 by an ex-Confederate general, Nathaniel Bedford Forest. To give federal authorities the power to stop Ku Klux Klan violence and to protect the civil rights of citizens in the South, Congress passed the Force Acts of 1870 and 1871. Force Acts (1870, 1871) (POL, CUL) Laws designed to stamp out KKK terrorism in the South. Amnesty Acct of 1872 (POL, CUL) (1872 Congress) Removed the last of the restrictions on ex-Confederates, except for their top leaders. It allowed Southern conservatives to cote for Democrats to retake control of state governments.

Era 8 60's Civil Rights

Civil Rights Act of 1964 (1964) Banned discrimination in public acomodations, prohibited discrimination in any federally assisted program, outlawed discrimination in most employment; enlarged federal powers to protect voting rights and to speed school desegregation; this and the voting rights act helped to give African-Americans equality on paper, and more federally-protected power so that social equality was a more realistic goal Equal Employment Opportunity Commission Federal agency created to enforce the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, national origin, religion, or sex in hiring, promotion, or firing. 24th Amendment (POL, WXT) Amendment to the U.S. Constitution (1964) eliminated the poll tax as a prerequisite to vote in national elections. Voting Rights Act of 1965 (1965) Invalidated the use of any test or device to deny the vote and authorized federal examiners to register voters in states that had disenfranchised blacks; as more blacks became politically active and elected black representatives, it rboguth jobs, contracts, and facilities and services for the black community, encouraging greater social equality and decreasing the wealth and education gap. James Meredith He was a civil rights advocate who spurred a riot at the University of Mississippi. The riot was caused by angry whites who did not want Meredith to register at the university. The result was forced government action, showing that segregation was no longer government policy. George Wallace Racist gov. of Alabama in 1962 ("segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever"); runs for pres. In 1968 on American Independent Party ticket of racism and law and order, loses to Nixon; runs in 1972 but gets shot. March on Washington (1963) A large political rally that took place in Washington, D.C. on August 28, 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech advocating racial harmony at the Lincoln Memorial during the march. Widely credited as helping lead to the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the National Voting Rights Act (1965). 80% of the marchers were black. Organized by union leader A. Philip Randolph. "I Have a Dream" speech A speech given by Martin Luther King, Jr. at the demonstration of freedom in 1963 at the Lincoln Memorial. It was an event related to the civil rights movement of the 1960's to unify citizens in accepting diversity and eliminating discrimination against African-Americans. March to Montgomery In 1965, this was a voting rights march from Selma Alabama to the capitol in Montgomery. Television showed protesters being beaten and tear gassed and the march was a turning point in the civil rights movement. President Johnson sent federal troops to protect the marchers. Black Muslims Developed by the black Muslim Leader Elijah Muhammad who preached black nationalism, separatism, and self-improvement. The movement attracted thousands of followers. Malcolm X (1952) Renamed himself X to signify the loss of his African heritage; converted to Nation of Islam in jail in the 50s, became Black Muslims' most dynamic street orator and recruiter; his beliefs were the basis of a lot of the Black Power movement built on seperationist and nationalist impulsesto achieve true independence and equality. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Involved in the American Civil Rights Movement formed by students whose purpose was coordinate a nonviolent attack on segregation and other forms of racism. Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Civil rights organization started in 1944 and best known for its "freedom rides," bus journeys challenging racial segregation in the South in 1961. Stokely Carmichael A black civil rights activist in the 1960's. Leader of the Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee. He did a lot of work with Martin Luther King Jr.but later changed his attitude. Carmichael urged giving up peaceful demonstrations and pursuing black power. He was known for saying,"black power will smash everything Western civilization has created." Black Panthers A black political organization that was against peaceful protest and for violence if needed. The organization marked a shift in policy of the black movement, favoring militant ideals rather than peaceful protest. Watts riots, race riots In the summer of 1965 the arrest of a black motorist in the Watts neighborhood of Los Angeles led to a six-day riot that resulted in the deaths of 34 people and the destruction of 700 buildings. de facto segregation Racial segregation that occurs in schools, not as a result of the law, but as a result of patterns of residential settlement. By the mid-1960s, the issue of civil rights had spread far beyond de Jure segregation practiced under the law in the South and now included the de facto segregation and discrimination caused by racist attitudes in the North and West. Kerner Commission (NAT, POL) A group that was appointed by President Johnson to study the causes of urban violence and that recommended the elimination of de facto segregation in American society. King assassination (1968) (NAT, POL) Martin Luther King, Jr., a prominent American leader of the African-American civil rights movement and Nobel Peace Prize laureate, was assassinated at the Lorraine Motel in Memphis, Tennessee, on April 4, 1968, at the age of 39. On June 10, 1968, James Earl Ray, a fugitive from the Missouri State Penitentiary, was arrested in London at Heathrow Airport, extradited to the United States, and charged with the crime. On March 10, 1969, Ray entered a plea of guilty and was sentenced to 99 years in the Tennessee state penitentiary. Ray later made many attempts to withdraw his guilty plea and be tried by a jury, but was unsuccessful; he died in prison on April 23, 1998, at the age of 70.

Era 8 Truman Foreign Policy

Cold War; Soviet Union (WOR) War dominated international relations from the late 1940s to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The conflict centred around the intense rivalry between two superpowers: the Communist empire of the Soviet Union and the leading Western democracy, the United States. Superpower competition usually was through diplomacy rather than armed conflict, but, in several instances, it took the world dangerously close to a nuclear war. Joseph Stalin (WOR) Bolshevik revolutionary, head of the Soviet Communists after 1924, and dictator of the Soviet Union from 1928 to 1953. He led the Soviet Union with an iron fist, using Five-Year Plans to increase industrial production and terror to crush opposition. United Nations (WOR) International organization founded in 1945 to promote world peace and cooperation. It replaced the League of Nations. Security Council (WOR) Main organ within the UN responsible for maintaining peace and security; composed of 5 permanent and 10 rotating members with two year terms elected by the General Assembly. World Bank (WOR) A specialised agency of the United Nations that makes loans to countries for economic development, trade promotion, and debt consolidation. Its formal name is the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Communist satellites (WOR) Central and Eastern European nations ruled by Communist dictators, most of them loyal to the Soviet Union. They included: Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, and others. Occupation zones (WOR) Germany split into four between the USSR, the U.S., Britain, and France; Berlin split into four as well, with the USSR controlling the Eastern half and the remaining half split between the remaining three nations. Iron Curtain (WOR) Winston Churchill's term for the Cold War division between the Soviet-dominated East and the U.S.-dominated West. Winston Churchill (WOR) A noted British statesman who led Britain throughout most of World War II and along with Roosevelt planned many allied campaigns. He predicted an iron curtain that would separate Communist Europe from the rest of the West. historians: traditionalists vs. revisionists (WOR) Traditional historians believe the Cold War was started by the Soviet government subjugating the countries of Eastern Europe in the late 1940s. In the 1960s, revisionist historians began to argue that the United States contributed to starting the Cold War. George Kennan (WOR) An American advisor, diplomat, political scientist, and historian, best known as "the father of containment" and as a key figure in the emergence of the Cold War. He later wrote standard histories of the relations between Russia and the Western powers. Dean Acheson (WOR) He was Secretary of State under Harry Truman. It is said that he was more responsible for the Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine than those that the two were named for. containment policy (WOR) Policy introduced by Harry S. Truman after WWII that said the duty of the U.S. was to stop the spread of Totalitarianism (implying Communism); Defined the foreign policy for the period after WWII until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. Truman Doctrine (WOR) 1947, President Truman's policy of providing economic and military aid to any country threatened by communism or totalitarian ideology, mainly helped Greece and Turkey. Marshall Plan (WOR) In June 1947, George Marshall outlined an extensive program of U.S. economic aid to help European nations revive their economies and strengthen democratic governments. In December, Truman submitted to Congress a $17 billion European Recovery Program, better known as the Marshall Plan. In 1948, $12 billion in aid was approved for distribution to the countries of Western Europe over a four-year period. The United States offered Marshall Plan aid to the Soviet Union and its Eastern European satellites, but the Soviets refused it, fearing that it would lead to dependence on the United States. Berlin airlift (WOR) A major crisis of the Cold War focused on Berlin. In June 1948, the Soviets cut off all access by land to the German city. Truman dismissed any plans to withdraw from Berlin, but he also rejected using force to open up the roads through the Soviet-controlled eastern zone. Instead, he ordered U.S. planes to fly in supplies to the people of West Berlin. Day after day, week after week, the massive airlift continued. At the same time, Truman sent 60 bombers capable of carrying atomic bombs to bases in England. The world waited nervously for the outbreak of war, but Stalin decided not to challenge the airlift. (Truman's stand on Berlin was partly responsible for his victory in the 1948 election.) East Germany (WOR) After WWII, Germany was divided into two countries, this part was communist in government and had a command economy. West Germany (WOR) British, American and French zone of Germany and was democratic. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (WOR) Created in 1949, an organization whose members include the United States, Canada, most Western European nations, and Turkey, all of whom agreed to combine military forces and to treat a war against one as a war against all. National Security Act (1947) Nuclear arms race (WOR) The United States had begun to modernize its military capability in 1947 by passing the National Security Act. It provided for (1) a centralized Department of Defence (replacing the War Department) to coordinate the operations of the army, navy, and air force; (2) the creation of the National Security Council (NSC) to coordinate the making of foreign policy in the Cold War; and (3) the creation of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to employ spies to gather information on foreign governments. In 1948, the Selective Service System and a peacetime draft were instituted. After the Berlin crisis, teams of scientists in both the Soviet Union and the United States were engaged in an intense competition - or arms race - to develop superior weapons systems. For a period of just four years (1945-1949), the United States was the only nation to have the atomic bomb. It also developed in this period a new generation of long-range bombers for delivering nuclear weapons. NSC-68 (WOR) Top-secret government report of April 1950 warning that national survival in the face of Soviet communism required a massive military buildup. U.S.-Japanese Security Treaty Douglas MacArthur (WOR) With the signing of two treaties in 1951, Japan surrendered its claims to Korea and islands in the Pacific, and the United States ended formal occupation of Japan. One of the treaties also provided for U.S. troops to remain in military bases in Japan for that country's protection against external enemies, particularly Communists. Japan became a strong ally and prospered under the American shield. Chinese civil war (WOR) War between communist Mao Zse Tong and nationalist Chaing-Kai Shek. The communists took over and forced the nationalists to retreat to Taiwan Chiang Kai-shek (WOR) General and leader of Nationalist China after 1925. Although he succeeded Sun Yat-sen as head of the Guomindang, he became a military dictator whose major goal was to crush the communist movement led by Mao Zedong. Taiwan; Two Chinas (WOR) By the end of 1949, all of mainland China was controlled by the Communists. Chiang and the Nationalists had retreated to an island once under Japanese rule, Formosa (Taiwan). From there, Chiang still claimed to be the legitimate government for all of China. The United States continued to support Chiang and refused to recognize Mao Zedong's regime in Beijing (the People's Republic of China) until 30 years later, in 1979. Mao Zedong (WOR) (1893-1976) Leader of the Communist Party in China that overthrew Jiang Jieshi and the Nationalists. Established China as the People's Republic of China and ruled from 1949 until 1976. People's Republic of China (WOR) Communist government of mainland China; proclaimed in 1949 following military success of Mao Zedong over forces of Chiang Kai-shek and the Guomindang. Korean War (WOR) The conflict between Communist North Korea and Non-Communist South Korea. The United Nations (led by the United States) helped South Korea. Kim Il Sung (WOR) Communist leader of North Korea; his attack on South Korea in 1950 started the Korean War. He remained in power until 1994. Syngman Rhee (WOR) Korean leader who became president of South Korea after World War II and led Korea during Korean War. U.N. police action (WOR) Congress supported the use of U.S. troops in the Korean crisis but failed to declare war, accepting Truman's characterization of U.S. intervention as this term. 38th parallel (WOR) Line that divided Korea - Soviet Union occupied the north and United States occupied the south, during the Cold War. "soft on communism" (WOR) The Republican's term to describe the Democrats after China adopted Communism and the Korean War stalemate. Loyalty Review Board (POL, CUL) (1947) federal board set up by President Truman that checked up on government workers, and dismissed those found to be communist.

Era 7 Artists/architects/musicians

Gertrude Stein (CUL) American writer of experimental novels, poetry, essays, operas, and plays. In Paris during the 1920s she was a central member of a group of American expatriates that included Ernest Hemingway. Her works include Three Lives (1908), Tender Buttons (1914), and The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas (1933). Lost Generation (CUL) Group of writers in 1920s who shared the belief that they were lost in a greedy, materialistic world that lacked moral values and often choose to flee to Europe. F. Scott Fitzgerald (CUL) Lost Gen writer, famous for the Great Gatsby and other novels that. expressed disillusionment with the ideals of an earlier time and with the materialism of a business oriented culture. Took to a life of drinking. Ernest Hemingway (CUL) Lost Generation writer, spent much of his life in France, Spain, and Cuba during WWI, notable works include A Farewell to Arms. Expressed his unhappiness by moving into exile in Europe. Sinclair Lewis (CUL) American novelist who satirized middle-class America in his 22 works, including Babbitt (1922) and Elmer Gantry (1927). He was the first American to receive (1930) a Nobel Prize for literature. Ezra Pound (CUL) Born in the U.S. but spent most of his life in Europe. Was a friend and inspiration to many modernist writers. Founded a group of modernist poets called imagists. Eventually moved away from imagism and towards a new movement called Vorticism (highly abstract and modern). T. S. Eliot (CUL) Wrote "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock," "The Waste Land" and "The Hollow Men;" British WWI poet, playwright, and literary critic. Eugene O'Neill (CUL) America's great playwright of tragedy; author of "The Iceman Cometh," "Long Day's Journey into Night," and "Moon for the Misbegotten'. industrial design (CUL) The fusion of art and technology during the 1920s and 1930s created the new profession of industrial design. Art Deco (CUL) Descended from Art Nouveau, this movement of the 1920s and 1930s sought to upgrade industrial design in competition with "fine art" and to work new materials into decorative patterns that could be either machined or handcrafted. Characterized by streamlined, elongated, and symmetrical design. Edward Hopper (CUL) A twentieth-century American artist whose stark, precisely realistic paintings often convey a mood of solitude and isolation within common-place urban settings. Among his best-known forks are Early Sunday Morning and Nighthawks. Grant Wood (CUL) Regional artist who celebrated the rural people and scenes of the heartland of America. Famous for painting the American Gothic. George Gershwin (CUL) A Jazz Age composer who was the son of Russian immigrants and, like many others during his time, mixed symphony and jazz together to create an entirely new style that represented how America was a mixture of peoples.

Era 7 Beginning of WW2

Japan takes Manchuria (WOR) In September 1931, Japanese troops invaded Manchuria, on China's eastern seaboard. The League of Nations passed a resolution condemning the action but did not take action. fascism (WOR) The idea that people should glorify their nation and their race through an aggressive show of force - became the dominant ideology in European dictatorships in the 1930s. Italian Fascist party (WOR) Attracted dissatisfied war veterans, nationalist, and those afraid of rising communism. Dressed in black shirts, the Fascists marched on Rome and installed Mussolini in power as "11 Duce" (the Leader). Benito Mussolini (WOR) Fascist Dictator of Italy that at first used bullying to gain power, then never had full power. Ethiopia (WOR) In a bid to prove fascism's military might, Mussolini ordered Italian troops to invade Ethiopia. The League of Nations and the United States objected but did nothing to stop the Italian aggressor, which succeeded in conquering the African country after a year of bitter fighting. German Nazi party (WOR) This party arose in 1920's Germany in reaction to deplorable economic conditions after war and national resentments over the Treaty of Versailles. By 1933, the party under leader Adolph Hitler, had gained control of the German legislature. Adolf Hitler (WOR) The Nazi leader used bullying tactics against Jews as well as Fascist ideology to increase his popularity with disgruntled, unemployed German workers. Hitler seized the opportunity presented by the depression to play upon anti-Semitic hatreds. With his personal army of "brown shirts," Hitler gained control of the German legislature in early 1933. Axis Powers (WOR) Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II. Spanish Civil War (WOR) In 1936 a rebellion erupted in Spain after a coalition of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists was elected. General Francisco Franco led the rebellion. The revolt quickly became a civil war. The Soviet Union provided arms and advisers to the government forces while Germany and Italy sent tanks, airplanes, and soldiers to help Franco. Francisco Franco (WOR) Spanish General; organised the revolt in Morocco, which led to the Spanish Civil War. Leader of the Nationalists - right wing, supported by Hitler and Mussolini, won the Civil War after three years of fighting. Rhineland (WOR) This region in western Germany was supposed to be permanently demilitarized, according to the Versailles Treaty. Hitler openly defied the treaty by ordering German troops to march into the Rhineland. Sudetenland; Munich (WOR) In Europe, Hitler insisted that Germany had a right to take over a strip of land in Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland, where most people were German-speaking. To maintain peace, the British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain, and the French president, Edouard Daladier, with Roosevelt's support, met with Hitler and Mussolini in Munich. At this conference in September 1938, the British and French leaders agreed to allow Hitler to take the Sudetenland unopposed. The word "Munich" has since become synonymous with appeasement appeasement (WOR) Hoping to avoid open conflict with Germany, the democracies ad of Britain and France adopted a policy of appeasement - allowing Hitler to get away with relatively small acts of aggression and expansion. The United States went along with the British and French policy. Poland; blitzkrieg (WOR) On September 1, 1939, German tanks and planes began a full-scale invasion of Poland. Keeping their pledge, Britain and France declared war against Germany-and soon afterward, they were also at war with its Axis allies, Italy and Japan. World War II in Europe had begun. Poland was the first to fall to Germany's overwhelming use of air power and fast-moving tanks - a type of warfare called blitzkrieg (lightning war). After a relatively inactive winter, the war was resumed in the spring of 1940 with Germany attacking its Scandinavian neighbours to the north and its chief enemy, France, to the west. Denmark and Norway surrendered in a few days, France in only a week. By June 1940, the only ally that remained free of German troops was Great Britain. Nye Committee (WOR) 1934. Senate committee led by South Dakota Senator Gerald Nye to investigate why America became involved in WWI. Theory that big business had conspired to have America enter WWI so that they could make money selling war materials. Called bankers and arms producers "merchants of death." Neutrality Acts (WOR) Originally designed to avoid American involvement in World War II by preventing loans to those countries taking part in the conflict; they were later modified in 1939 to allow aid to Great Britain and other Allied nations. America First Committee (WOR) A committee organized by isolationists before WWII, who wished to spare American lives. They wanted to protect America before we went to war in another country. Charles A. Lindbergh (the aviator) was its most effective speaker. Charles Lindbergh (WOR) American pilot who made the first non-stop flight across the Atlantic Ocean. Quarantine speech (WOR) The speech was an act of condemnation of Japan's invasion of China in 1937 and called for Japan to be quarantined. FDR backed off the aggressive stance after criticism, but it showed that he was moving the country slowly out of isolationism.

Era 3 Constitution

James Madison (Federalist) (ID, CUL) (Federalist, Framer of Constitution) One of the main fashioners of the Constitution. Contributed to the Federalist Papers with Alexander Hamilton Annapolis Convention (POL) A convention held in September 1786 to consider problems of trade and navigation, attended by five states and important because it issued the call to Congress and the states for what became the Constitutional Convention. Mt. Vernon Conference (POL) George Washington hosted a conference at his home in Mt. Vernon, Virginia (1785). Representatives from Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania agreed that the problems with the Articles of Confederation were serious enough to hold further discussions at a later meeting at Annapolis, Maryland, at which all the states might be represented. James Madison and Alexander Hamilton persuaded the others that another convention should be held in Philadelphia for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. Alexander Hamilton (ID, CUL) (Federalist, Framer of Constitution) One of the main fashioners of the Constitution. Contributed to the Federalist Papers with James Madison Framers of the Constitution (ID, CUL) 55 delegates, all white, all male, most college-educated. Most were young, usually wealthier than average American. All were well acquainted with law and politics. George Washington was elected to be chairperson and all agreed to conduct the meetings in private until they had finished. Benjamin Franklin provided a calming and unifying influence. The fashioners of the Constitution were James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, Gouverneur Morris, and John Dickinson. They shared the common goals of wanting to strengthen the young nation. Gouverneur Morris (ID, CUL) (Framer of Constitution) One of the main fashioners of the Constitution. John Dickinson (ID, CUL) (Framer of Constitution) One of the main fashioners of the Constitution. Federalists (ID, CUL) Supporters of the Constitution and its strong federal government were known as Federalists. Anti-Federalists (ID, CUL) Opponnents of the Constitution and its strong federal government were known as Federalists. The Federalists Papers (ID, CUL) A series of 85 essays written by James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, later composed in book form, that presented cogent reasons for believing in the practicality of each major provision of the Constitution. Bill of Rights; amendments (1-10) (ID, CUL) As a result of Anti-Federalist opposition, the Bill of Rights was added to the Constitution. Constitutional Convention (POL) The convention opened with the delegates disagreeing sharply on its fundamental purpose. Some wanted to just revise the Articles of Confederation, while those like Madison and Hamilton wanted to draft an entirely new document. checks and balances (POL) Idea orginated by Madison and Hamilton at the Constitutional Convention, establishing the need to seperate the government into three branches, providing checks to and balancing power. Virginia Plan (POL) (Constitutional Convention) (Madison) Supported by larger states, allowed them to have more delegates in the Legislative Branch. New Jersey Plan (POL) (Constitutional Convention) Favoured small states. Called for a one-house Congress in which each state had equal representation. It was different from the Virginia plan because it gave the opposite approach on how congress should be developed and it showed the struggle of developing a new government. Connecticut Plan; Great Compromise (POL) (Constitutional Convention) A compromise between the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan. It provided for a two-house Congress, the Senate and the House of Representatives. House of Representatives (POL) (Constitutional Convention - Conneticut Plan) Proposed branch of Congress. Each state would be represented according to the size of its population. Senate (POL) ( Constitutional Convention -Conneticut Plan) Proposed branch of Congress. Each state would have equal representatives. Three-Fifths Compromise (POL) (Constitutional Convention) counted each enslaved individual as three-fifths of a person for the determining the state's level of taxation and representation. Commercial Compromise (POL) Allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including placing tariffs on foreign imports, but it prohibited placing taxes on any exports. electoral college system (POL) Rather than have voters elect a president directly, the delegates decided to assign to each state a number of electors equal to the total of that state's representatives and senators. This electoral college system was instituted because the delegates feared too much democracy might lead to mob rule. legislative branch (POL) (Consitutional Convention) After debating between the Virginia Plan and the New Jersey Plan, the convention compromised with the Conneticut Plan (Great Compromise), assigning a House of Representatives proportional to state size and the Senate, where all states recieve an equal number of representatives. Congress (POL) (Constitutional Convention) Combined legislative body of the House of Representatives and the Senate, decided upon with the Conneticut Plan. executive departments; cabinet Henry Knox (POL) As chief executive, Washington's first task was to organise new departments of the executive (law enforcing) branch. The Constitution authorises the president to appoint chiefs of departments, although they must be confirmed, or approved, by the Senate. Washington appointed four heads of departments: Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury, Henry Knox as secretary of war, and Edmund Randolph as attorney general. These four men formed a cabinet of advisers with whom President Washington met regularly to discuss major policy issues.

Era 8 Eisenhower Foreign

John Foster Dulles (WOR) As Secretary of State. he viewed the struggle against Communism as a classic conflict between good and evil. Believed in containment and the Eisenhower doctrine. "brinksmanship" (WOR) A strategy in which adversaries take actions that increase the risk of accidental war, with the hope that the other will "blink," or lose its nerve, first and make concessions. massive retaliation (WOR) The "new look" defense policy of the Eisenhower administration of the 1950's was to threaten "massive retaliation" with nuclear weapons in response to any act of aggression by a potential enemy. decolonisation (WOR) The process a country undergoes to free itself politically, economically, and culturally from a colonial past. India, Pakistan, Indonesia (WOR) From 1947 to 1949, these three countries gained their independence. Third World (WOR) Also known as developing nations; nations outside the capitalist industrial nations of the first world and the industrialized communist nations of the second world; generally less economically powerful, but with varied economies. CIA, covert action (WOR) Undercover intervention in foreign government by the CIA during Eisenhower's presidency. Iranian overthrow (WOR) In 1953, the CIA helped overthrow this government and established a monarch ruler with close ties to the U.S. He provided favorable oil prices and purchased American military arms. Korean armistice (WOR) In July 1953, China and North Korea agreed to an armistice that would divide Korea into North Korea and South Korea near the 38th parallel. Fall of Indochina (WOR) French tried to retake Southeast Asian colony, Ho Chi Minh was Communist leader there, aided by Soviets, French were defeated at Dien Bien Phu, Eisenhower refused to send troops, France fell, divided into Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh (WOR) 1950s and 60s; communist leader of North Vietnam; used geurilla warfare to fight anti-comunist, American-funded attacks under the Truman Doctrine; brilliant strategy drew out war and made it unwinnable Geneva Conference (1954) (WOR) French wanted out of Vietnam , the agreement signed by Ho Chi Minh France divided Vietnam on the 17th parallel, confining Minh's government to the North. In the South, an independent government was headed by Diem. division of Vietnam (WOR) By the terms of the Geneva Convention, Vietnam would be temporarily divided at the 17 parallel until a general election could be held. A prolonged war (1954-1975) occurred between the Communist armies of North Vietnam who were supported by the Chinese and the non-communist armies of South Vietnam who were supported by the United States. domino theory (WOR) A theory that if one nation comes under Communist control, then neighboring nations will also come under Communist control. Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation (1954) (WOR) (SEATO) To prevent South Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from "falling" to communism, Dulles put together a regional defence pact. Agreeing to defend one another in case of an attack within the region, eight nations signed the pact in 1954: the United States, Great Britain, France, Australia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Pakistan. State of Israel (1948) (WOR) Created in 1948 under U.N. auspices, after a civil war in the British mandate territory of Palestine left the land divided between the Israelis and the Palestinians. Israel's neighbors had fought unsuccessfully to prevent the Jewish state from being formed. Arab nationalism (WOR) Arab nationalist General Gamal Nasser of Egypt, asked the United States for funds to build the Aswan Dam on the Nile River. Suez Canal crisis (1956) (WOR) Egypt's dictator, Abdul Gamal Nasser, a former army officer who had led the coup that overthrew King Farouk, nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, and was attacked by British, French and Israeli forces. The U.S. intervened on behalf of Egypt. Damaged Britain and France's standing as world powers. Eisenhower Doctrine (WOR) Eisenhower proposed and obtained a joint resolution from Congress authorizing the use of U.S. military forces to intervene in any country that appeared likely to fall to communism. Used in the Middle East. Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) (WOR) In Eisenhower's last year in office, 1960, the Arab nations of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, and Iran joined Venezuela to formed a confederation. Oil was shaping up to be a critical foreign policy issue. The combination of Western dependence on Middle East oil, Arab nationalism, and a conflict between Israelis and Palestinian refugees would trouble American presidents in the coming decades. atoms for peace (WOR) In 1953, President Eisenhower's proposal to the U.N. to slow down the arms race. "spirit of Geneva" (WOR) The 1955 meeting in Geneva, which produced the first thaw in the Cold War. open-skies (WOR) The Soviets rejected this proposal for open aerial photography of eachothers territory in order to eliminate surprise nuclear attacks. Nikita Khrushchev (WOR) Ruled the USSR from 1958-1964; lessened government control of soviet citizens; seeked peaceful coexistence with the West instead of confrontation. peaceful coexistence (WOR) Term used by Khrushchev in 1963 to describe a situation in which the United States and Soviet Union would continue to compete economically and politically without launching a thermonuclear war. Hungarian revolt (WOR) When the Hungarians tried to win their freedom from the Communist regime in 1956, they were crushed down by Soviet tanks. There was killing and slaughtering of the rebels going on by military forces. Warsaw Pact (WOR) Treaty signed in 1945 that formed an alliance of the Eastern European countries behind the Iron Curtain; USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Sputnik (1957) (WOR) First man-made satellite put into orbit by the USSR. This caused fear in the US that the Soviets had passed them by in science & technology and the arms race. Democrats scorched the Republican administration of Dwight D. Eisenhower for allowing the United States to fall so far behind the communists. Eisenhower responded by speeding up the U.S. space program (NASA), which resulted in the launching of the satellite Explorer I on January 31, 1958. The "space race" had begun. In 1969, the US would land men on the moon, a major victory. NDEA, NASA (WOR) In 1958, Congress created the National Defense and Education Act (NDEA) and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). U-2 incident (WOR) The incident when an American U-2 spy plane was shot down over the Soviet Union. The U.S. denied the true purpose of the plane at first, but was forced to when the U.S.S.R. produced the living pilot and the largely intact plane to validate their claim of being spied on aerially. The incident worsened East-West relations during the Cold War and was a great embarrassment for the United States. Cuba, Fidel Castro (WOR) A bearded socialist leader who overthrew a dictator in 1959 and established a Marxist socialist state in Cuba, only 90 miles from the United States. He nationalized American-owned businesses and the U.S. cut off trade with the country. military-industrial complex (WOR) Eisenhower first coined this phrase when he warned American against it in his last State of the Union Address. He feared that the combined lobbying efforts of the armed services and industries that contracted with the military would lead to excessive Congressional spending.

Era 2 politics

Mayflower Compact (POL) Aboard the Mayflower in 1620, the Pilgrims drew up and signed a document that pledged them to make decisions by the will of majority. This document was an early form of colonial self-government and a rudimentary written constitution. hereditary aristocracy (POL) There was no social extremes like in Europe (nobility inherited special privileges; masses of hungry poor). A narrower class system, based on economics, was developing (wealthy landowners on top; craft workers and small farmers made up the majority of common people). Virginia House of Burgesses (POL) In 1619, Virginia's colonists organised the first representative assembly in America, the House of Burgesses. Sir William Berkeley (POL) Sir William Berkeley, royal governor of Virginia, used dictatorial powers to govern on behalf of the large planters. He antagonised small farmers on Virginia's western frontier by failing to provide protection from Native American attacks. Bacon's Rebellion (POL) (1675-1676) Nathaniel Bacon, an impoverished gentleman farmer, seized upon the grievances of the western farmers to lead a rebellion against Berkley's government. Berkeley's government in Jamestown accused Bacon of rebelling against royal authority. Soon after his army defeated the governor's forces and burned Jamestown, Bacon died of dysentery and the rebel army collapsed. Berkeley brutally suppressed the remnants of the insurrection, executing 23 rebels. Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639) (POL) The settlers of Conneticut drew up the first written constitution in American history, the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639). It established a representative government consisting of a legislature elected by popular vote and a governor chosen by that legislature. New England Confederation (POL) In the 1640s, the New England colonies faced the constant threat of attack from Native Americans, the Dutch, and the French. In 1643, four New England colonies (Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Haven) formed a military alliance known as the New England Confederation. The confederation was directed by a board composed of two representatives from each colony. It had limited powers to act on boundary disputes, the return of runaway servants, and dealings with Native Americans. It lasted until 1684, when colonial rivalries and renewed control by the English monarch brought this first experiment of colonial cooperation to an end. Frame of Government (1682) (POL) (William Penn - Holy Experiment) (1682-1683) Guaranteed a representative assembly elected by landowners. salutary neglect (WXT) British colonial policy during the reigns of George I and George II. Relaxed supervision of internal colonial affairs by royal bureacrats contributed significantly to the rise of American self government corporate colonies (WOR) (like Jamestown) Operated by joint-stock companies, at least during these colonies' early years. royal colonies (WOR) (like Virginia after 1624) Were to be under the direct authority and rule of the king's government. proprietary colonies (WOR) (like Maryland & Pennsylvania) Were under the authority of individuals granted charters of ownership by the king. Dominion of New England (WOR) James II was determined to increase royal control over the colonies by combining them into larger administrative units and doing away with their representative assemblies. In 1686, he combined New York, New Jersey, and the various New England colonies into a single unit called the Dominion of England. Sir Edmund Andros (WOR) Sir Edmund Andros was sent from England to govern the Dominion of England. He made himself instantly unpopular by levying taxes, limiting town meetings, and revoking land titles. Glorious Revolution (WOR) The Glorious Revolution of 1688 dethroned James II and replaced him with William and Mary. This ended the Dominion of England. John Peter Zenger (POL) In 1735, John Peter Zenger, a New York editor and publisher, was brought to trial on a charge of libellously criticising New York's royal governor. Zenger's lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, argued that his client had printed the truth about the governor. He was acquitted, despite English law, encouraging newspapers to take greater risks in criticising a colony's government. Andrew Hamilton (POL) Lawyer that represented John Peter Zenger in the Zenger case, one of the first court cases involving freedom of the press. colonial governors (POL) By 1750, the 13 colonies had similar governments, with a governor acting as chief executive and a separate legislature voting either to adopt or reject the governor's proposed law. colonial legislatures (POL) The legislature consisted of two houses. The lower house, or assembly, elected by the eligible voters, voted for or against new taxes. Colonists thus became accustomed to paying taxes only if their chosen representative approved. In the royal and proprietary colonies, members of the legislature's upper house - or council - were appointed by the king or the proprietor. In the two self-governing colonies (Connecticut and Rhode Island), both legislatures were elective bodies. town meetings (POL) The dominant form of local government in New England was the town meeting, in which people of the town would regularly come together, often in a church, to vote on public issues. county government (POL) In southern colonies, local government was carried out by a law-enforcing sheriff and other officers who served a large territorial unit called a county. limited democracy (POL) White women, poor white men, slaves of both sexes, and most free blacks were all barred from voting, thus rendering America's limited democracy status. Furthermore, some states had legislatures that represented the elites. However, it was still on of the most democratic governments of the time, deeming it unusual.

Era 8 60's counterculture and Women

Students for a Democratic Society (NAT, CUL) The leader of this movement was Tom Hayden. Port Huron Statement (declaration of beliefs): "We are the people of this generation, bred in at least moderate comfort, housed in universities, looking uncomfortable to the world we inherit." Also, the idea of "participatory democracy" was upheld. New Left (NAT, CUL) Coalition of younger members of the Democratic party and radical student groups. Believed in participatory democracy, free speech, civil rights and racial brotherhood, and opposed the war in Vietnam. Weathermen (NAT, CUL) This group broke off from the Students for a Democratic Society because they thought that violence and bombing was the only way to get things done. They bombed several buildings over the years, but they actually hurt the cause of the New Left and the Students for a Democratic Society with their violence. counterculture (NAT, CUL) The political protests of the New Left went hand in hand with a new counterculture that was expressed by young people in rebellious styles of dress, music, drug use, and, for some, communal living. The apparent dress code of the "hippies" and "flower children" of the 1960s included long hair, beards, beads, and jeans. The folk music of Joan Baez and Bob Dylan gave voice to the younger generation's protests, while the rock music of the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Jim Morrison, and Janis Joplin provided the beat and lyrics for the counterculture. As a result of experimenting with hallucinogenic drugs such as LSD or becoming addicted to various other drugs, some young people destroyed their lives. The counterculture's excesses and the economic uncertainties of the times led to its demise in the 1970s. Woodstock (NAT, CUL) In 1969, a gathering of thousands of young people at the Woodstock Music Festival in upper New York State reflected the zenith of the counterculture. Alfred Kinsey (NAT, CUL) Controversial Indiana University "sexologist" who documented Americans' changing sexual behavior. His research indicated that premarital sex, marital infidelity, and homosexuality were more common than anyone had suspected. Medicine. sexual revolution (NAT, CUL) A social outlook that challenges traditional codes of behaviour related to sexuality and interpersonal relationships. The phenomenon took place throughout the Western world from the 1960s into the 1970s. women's movement (NAT, CUL) The increased education and employment of women in the 1950s, the civil rights movement, and the sexual revolution all contributed to a renewal of the women's movement in the 1960s. Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (NAT, CUL) An American feminist, activist and writer, best known for starting what is commonly known as the "Second Wave" of feminism through the writing of a book. National Organisation for Women (NAT, CUL) (1966) Friedan helped found NOW, which adopted the activist tactics of other civil rights movements to secure equal treatment of women, especially for job opportunities. Equal Pay Act (1963) (NAT, CUL) An amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act, this act requires equal pay for men and women doing equal work. Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) (NAT, CUL) Constitutional amendment passed by Congress but never ratified that would have banned discrimination on the basis of gender.

Era 5 Abolitionism

free-soil movement (PEO, POL) Northern Democrats and Whigs supported the Wilmot Proviso and the position that all African Americans - slave and free - should be excluded from the Mexican Cession (territory ceded to the U.S. by Mexico in 1848). Many Northerners who opposed the westward expansion of slavery did not oppose slavery in the South. Free-Soil party (PEO, POL) (1848) Northerners who opposed allowing slavery in the territories organised the party, which adopted the slogan "free soil, free labour, and free men." The new party advocated not only for the extension of slavery, but also for free homesteads (public land grants to small farmers) and internal improvements. conscience Whigs (PEO, POL) Northern Whigs who opposed slavery on moral grounds. Conscience Whigs sought to prevent the annexation of Texas as a slave state, fearing that the new slave territory would only serve to buttress the Southern "slave power." "barnburners" (PEO, POL) Conscience Whigs and Free-soilers were known as this; their defection threatened to destroy the Democratic Party. New England Emigrant Aid Company (PEO, POL) Organised by Northern abolitionists and Free-Soilers; which paid for the transportation of antislavery settler to Kansas. Republican party (POL) Was founded in Wisconsin in 1854 as a direct reaction to the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Composed of a coalition of Free-Soilers and anti-slavery Whigs and Democrats, its overriding purpose was to oppose the spread of slavery in the territories - not to end slavery itself. Its first platform of 1854 called for the repeal of both the Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Fugitive Slave Law. As violence increased in Kansas, more and more people, including some abolitionists, joined the Republican party, and it was soon the second largest party in the country. But it remained in these years strictly a Northern or sectional party, its success alienated the South. John C. Frémont (POL) (1856) First Republican nominee for president; was a senator from California. Platform called for no expansion of slavery, free homesteads and a probusiness protective tariff. The Democratic ticket won a majority of both the popular and electoral vote, but the Republicans made a remarkably strong showing, Frémont carrying 11 of the 16 free states. Underground Railroad (POL) A loose network of Northern free blacks and courageous ex-slaves, with the help of some white abolitionists, who helped escaped slaves reach freedom in the North or in Canada. The most famous "conductor" was escaped slave Harriet Tubman, who made at least 19 trips into the South to help some 300 slaves escape. Northerners also created vigilante committees to protect fugitive slaves from the slave catchers. Harriet Tubman (POL) United States abolitionist born a slave on a plantation in Maryland and became a famous conductor on the Underground Railroad leading other slaves to freedom in the North. Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin (CUL) The most influential book of its day was a novel about the conflict of the enslaved man named Tom and the brutal white slave owner Simon Legree. The publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin in 1852 by the Northern writer Harriet Beecher Stowe moved a generation of Northerners as well as many Europeans to regard all slave owners as monstrously cruel and inhuman. Later, when President Lincoln met Stowe, he is reported to have said, "So you're the little woman who wrote the book that made this great war." Hinton R. Helper, Impending Crisis of the South (CUL) (1857) Hinton R. Hepler's book of nonfiction, Impending Crisis of the South, attacked slavery from another angle. The author, a native of North Carolina, used statistics to demonstrate to fellow Southerners that slavery weakened the South's economy. Southern states acted quickly to ban the book, but it was widely distributed in the North by antislavery and Free-Soil leaders. George Fitzhugh, Sociology for the South (CUL) George Fitzhugh, the boldest and best known of the proslavery authors, questioned the principle of equal rights for "unequal men" and attacked the capitalist wage system as worse than slavery. Among his workers were Sociology for the South (1848) and Cannibals All! (1857).

Era 8 Nixon Domestic

white backlash (POL) In the 1968 presidential election, the growing hostility of many whites to federal desegregation, antiwar protests, and race riots was tapped by Governor George Wallace of Alabama. He became the American Independent party's presidential candidate. George Wallace (POL) The growing hostility of many whites to federal desegregation, anti-war protests, and race riots was tapped by Governor George Wallace of Alabama. Wallace was the first politician of late-20th-century America to marshal the general resentment against the Washington establishment ("pointy-head liberals," as he called them) and the two-party system. He ran for president as the self-nominated candidate of the American Independent party, hoping to win enough electoral votes to throw the election into the House of Representatives. Richard Nixon (POL) Many observers thought Richard Nixon's political career had ended in 1962 after his unsuccessful run for governor of California. In 1968, however, a new, more confident and less negative Nixon announced his candidacy and soon became the front-runner in the Republican primaries. The favourite of the party regulars, he had little trouble securing his nomination at the Republican convention. For his running mate, he selected Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland, whose rhetoric was similar to that of George Wallace. Nixon was a "hawk" on the Vietnam War and ran on the slogans of "peace with honour" and "law and order." New Federalism (POL) The Republican president did succeed, however, in shifting some of the responsibility for social programs from the federal to the state and local levels. In a program known as revenue sharing, Congress approved giving local governments $30 billion in block grants over five years to address local needs as they saw fit (instead of specific uses of federal money being controlled by Washington). Republicans hoped revenue sharing would check the growth of the federal government and return responsibility to the states, where it had rested before the New Deal. stagflation (POL) Starting with a recession in 1970, the U.S. economy throughout the 1970s faced the unusual combination of economic slowdown and high inflation. southern strategy (POL) Nixon devised a political strategy to form a Republican majority by appealing to the millions of voters who had become disaffected by anti-war protests, black militants, school busing to achieve racial balance, and the excesses of the youth counterculture. Nixon referred to these conservative Americans as the "silent majority." Many of them were Democrats, including southern whites, northern Catholic blue-collar workers, and recent suburbanites who disagreed with the liberal drift of their party. To win over the South, the president asked the federal courts in that region to delay integration plans and busing orders. He also nominated two southern conservatives (Clement Haynsworth and G. Harold Carswell) to the Supreme Court. Though the courts rejected his requests and the Senate refused to confirm the two nominees, his strategy played well with southern white voters. At the same time, Nixon authorized Vice President Spiro Agnew to make verbal assaults on war protesters and to attack the press as liberal. wage and price controls (POL) (1971) To curb inflation, President Nixon froze prices, wages, and revenues for 90 days. off the gold standard (POL) In 1971, President Nixon took the U.S. off the gold standard, which helped to devalue the U.S. dollar relative to foreign currencies. cost of living indexed (POL) In 1972, Congress approved automatic increases for Social Security benefits based on the rise in the cost of living. Title IX (POL) A United States law enacted on June 23, 1972 that states: "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance." Burger Court (POL) A conservative jurist appointed by Nixon that nonetheless continued the judicial activism of the Warren Court as seen by Roe v. Wade; this was due to the other members of the court rather than his own liberal beliefs Roe v. Wade (1973) (POL) (Burger) Certain state criminal abortion laws violate the Due Process clause of the 14th Amendment, which protects against state action the (implied) right to privacy in the Bill of Rights (9th amendment). Abortion cannot be banned in the 1st trimester (1st 3 months), states can regulate the 2nd trimester, 3rd trimester - abortion is illegal except to save the life of the mother. election of 1972 (POL) The success of Nixon's southern strategy became evident in the presidential election of 1972 when the Republican ticket won majorities in every southern state. Nixon's reelection was practically assured by (1) his foreign policy successes in China and the Soviet Union, (2) the removal of George Wallace from the race by an assassin's bullet that paralyzed the Alabama populist, and (3) the nomination by the Democrats of a very liberal, anti-war, anti-establishment candidate, Senator George McGovern of South Dakota. George McGovern (POL) A Senator from South Dakota who ran for President in 1972 on the Democrat ticket. His promise was to pull the remaining American troops out of Vietnam in ninety days which earned him the support of the Anti-war party, and the working-class supported him, also. He lost however to Nixon.

Era 5 Lincoln

Abraham Lincoln (POL) (1858) Trial lawyer and former Illnois legislature member. Republican nominee who challenged Democrat Stephen Douglas for the U.S. presidency. Lincoln-Douglas debates (POL) (1858) Senate Debate, Lincoln forced Douglas to debate issue of slavery, Douglas supported pop-sovereignty, Lincoln asserted that slavery should not spread to territories, Lincoln emerged as strong Republican candidate. house-divided speech (POL) The speech given by Abraham Lincoln when accepting the Republican nomination for the Illinois senate seat. He said, "This government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free".

Era 7 WW2 military

Battle of the Atlantic (WOR) The protracted naval war to control the shipping lanes. German submarines sank over 500 Allied ships in 1942. Gradually, however, the Allies developed ways of containing the submarine menace through the use of radar, sonar, and the bombing of German naval bases. strategic bombing (WOR) The U.S bombers carried out daylight "strategic bombing" raids on military targets in Europe, but the lines between military and civilian targets became blurred as the war carried on, especially in Japan. Dwight Eisenhower (FDR) (WOR) United States general who supervised the invasion of Normandy, Casablanca and the defeat of Nazi Germany. D-Day (WOR) June 6, 1944, 160,000 Allied troops landed along a 50-mile stretch of heavily-fortified French coastline to fight Nazi Germany on the beaches of Normandy, France. General Dwight D. Eisenhower called the operation a crusade in which "we will accept nothing less than full victory." More than 5,000 Ships and 13,000 aircraft supported the D-Day invasion, and by day's end on June 6, the Allies gained a foot- hold in Normandy. island-hopping (WOR) After the victory at Midway, the United States began a long campaign to get within striking distance of Japan's home islands by seizing strategic locations in the Pacific. Using a strategy called "island-hopping," commanders bypassed strongly held Japanese posts and isolated them with naval and air power. Allied forces moved steadily toward Japan. Battle of Midway (WOR) The war in the Pacific was dominated by naval forces battling over a vast area. Intercepting and decoding Japanese messages enabled U.S. forces to destroy four Japanese carriers and 300 planes in the decisive Battle of Midway on June 4-7. This battle ended Japanese expansion. Douglas MacArthur (WOR) The commander of army units in the Southern Pacific, was driven from the islands, he famously vowed, "I shall return." The conflict that prepared the way for U.S. reoccupation of the Philippines was the largest naval battle in history. At the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944, the Japanese navy was virtually destroyed. kamikaze attacks (WOR) When Japanese pilots would deliberately crash their planes into American ships, killing themselves but also inflicting severe damage. J. Robert Oppenheimer (WOR) Lead the Manhattan Project: the World War II effort to develop the first nuclear bomb. He was remembered as the "Father of the Atomic Bomb." atomic bomb (WOR) After Okinawa, a huge invasion force stood ready to attack Japan. Extremely heavy casualties were feared. By this time, however, the United States had developed a frightfully destructive new weapon. The top-secret Manhattan Project had begun in 1942. The project employed over 100,000 people and spent $2 billion to develop a weapon whose power came from the splitting of the atom. The atomic bomb, or A-bomb, was successfully tested on July 16, 1945, at Alamogordo, New Mexico. Hiroshima; Nagasaki (WOR) When Japan gave an unsatisfactory reply, Truman consulted with his advisers and decided to use the new weapon on two Japanese cities. On August 6, an A-bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and on August 9, a second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. About 250,000 Japanese died, either immediately or after a prolonged period of suffering, as a result of the two bombs.

Era 7 WW2 Diplomacy

Big Three (WOR) Allies during WWII; Soviet Union - Stalin, United Kingdom - Churchill, United States - Roosevelt. Casablanca Conference (WOR) A wartime conference held at Casablanca, Morocco that was attended by de Gaulle, Churchill, and FDR. The Allies demanded the unconditional surrender of the axis, agreed to aid the Soviets, agreed on the invasion Italy, and the joint leadership of the Free French by De Gaulle and Giraud. unconditional surrender (WOR) Roosevelt and Churchill agreed on the grand strategy to win the war, including to invade Sicily and Italy and to demand "unconditional surrender" from the Axis powers. Tehran, Yalta, Potsdam (WOR) The Big Three-Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin-met for the first time in the Iranian city of Teheran in November 1943. They agreed that the British and Americans would begin their drive to liberate France in the spring of 1944 and that the Soviets would invade Germany and eventually join the war against Japan. In February 1945, the Big Three conferred again at Yalta, a resort town on the Black Sea coast of the Soviet Union. Their agreement at Yalta would prove the most historic of the three meetings. After victory in Europe was achieved, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed that • Germany would be divided into occupation zones • there would be free elections in the liberated countries of Eastern Europe (even though Soviet troops controlled this territory) • the Soviets would enter the war against Japan, which they did on August 8, 1945-just as Japan was about to surrender • the Soviets would control the southern half of Sakhalin Island and the Kurile Islands in the Pacific and would have special concessions in Manchuria • a new world peace organization (the future United Nations) would be formed at a conference in San Francisco In late July, after Germany's surrender, only Stalin remained as one of the Big Three. Truman was the U.S. president, and Clement Attlee had just been elected the new British prime minister. The three leaders met in Postsdam, Germany (July 17-August 2, 1945) and agreed (1) to demand that Japan surrender unconditionally, and (2) to hold war-crime trials of Nazi leaders. United Nations (WOR) Unlike the rejection of the League of Nations following World War I, Congress readily accepted the peacekeeping organization that was conceived during World War II and put in place immediately after the war. Meeting in 1944 at Dumbarton Oaks near Washington, D.C., Allied representatives from the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and China proposed an international organization to be called the United Nations. Then in April 1945, delegates from 50 nations assembled in San Francisco, where they took only eight weeks to draft a charter for the United Nations. The Senate quickly voted to accept U.S. involvement in the U.N. On October 24, 1945, the U.N. came into existence when the majority of member-nations ratified its charter.

Era 9 GHWB Domestic

Clarence Thomas (POL, WOR) This man was an African American jurist, and a strict critic of affirmative action. He was nominated by George H. W. Bush to be on the Supreme Court in 1991, and shortly after was accused of sexual harassment by Anita Hill. Hearings were reopened, and he became the second African American to hold a seat in the Supreme Court. "no new taxes" (POL, WOR) President George H. W. Bush had promised "no new taxes" during the presidential campaign, but he agreed to accept the Democratic Congress' proposed $133 billion in new taxes. Americans With Disabilities Act (1990) (POL, WOR) A law that requires employers and public facilities to make "reasonable accommodations" for people with disabilities and prohibits discrimination against these individuals in employment. election of 1992 (POL, WXT) In the 1992 presidential election, Democrat Bill Clinton defeated George H. W. Bush. Clinton presented himself as a moderate "New Democrat" who focused on economic issues.

Era 7 Depression labor

Congress of Industrial Organizations (WXT) . A group of unions within the A.F. of L. wanted union membership to be extended to all workers in an industry regardless of their race and sex, including those who were unskilled. In 1935, the industrial unions, as they were called, joined together as the Committee of Industrial Organizations (C.1.0.). Their leader was John L. Lewis, president of the United Mine Workers union. In 1936, the A.F. of L. suspended the C.1.0. unions. , The C.1.0. broke away from the A.F. of L. and became its chief rival. It concentrated on organizing unskilled workers in the automobile, steel, and southern textile industries. John L. Lewis (WXT) He was a miner known for creating the United Mine Workers. He helped found the CIO and was responsible for the Fair Labor Standards Act. sit-down strike (WXT) At the huge General Motors plant in Flint, Michigan, in 1937, the workers insisted on their right to join a union by participating in this. Neither the president nor Michigan's governor agreed to the company's request to intervene with troops. Finally, the company yielded to striker demands by recognizing the United Auto Workers union (U.A.W.). Union organizers at the Ford plant in Michigan, however, were beaten and driven away.

Era 8 JFK

Election of 1960 (POL) Brought about the era of political television. Between Kennedy and Nixon. Issues centered around the Cold War and economy. Kennedy argued that the nation faces serious threats from the soviets. Nixon countered that the US was on the right track under the current administration. Kennedy won by a narrow margin. John F. Kennedy (POL) President 1961-63. Brought US out of Cuban Missile Crisis, negotiated the NTBT of 1963. Responsible for the Bay of Pigs disaster. Domestic Agenda called New Frontier. Strongly supported space program and the civil rights movement. First roman catholic. New Frontier (POL) The campaign program advocated by JFK in the 1960 election. He promised to revitalize the stagnant economy and enact reform legislation in education, health care, and civil rights. Robert Kennedy (POL) JFK's brother, appointed as Attorney General. Jacqueline Kennedy (POL) American first lady and wife of president Kennedy; she was known for her style and social grace; was used to create a favorable public opinion about his presidency. race to the moon (POL) President Kennedy committed the U.S. to land on the moon by the end of the 1960s decade. assassination in Dallas (POL) On November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, after just two and a half years in office, President John Kennedy was shot and killed. Warren Commission (POL) Commission made by LBJ after killing of John F. Kennedy. (Point is to investigate if someone paid for the assasination of Kennedy.) Conclusion is that Oswald killed Kennedy on his own. Commissioner is Chief Justice Warren. Peace Corps (JFK) Volunteers who help third world nations and prevent the spread of communism by getting rid of poverty, Africa, Asia, and Latin America Alliance for Progress (JFK) (1961) A program in which the United States tried to help Latin American countries overcome poverty and other problems, money used to aid big business and the military. Trade Expansion Act (1962) October, 1962 - The Act gave the President the power to reduce tariffs in order to promote trade. Kennedy could lower some tariffs by as much as 50%, and, in some cases, he could eliminate them. Bay of Pigs Kennedy made a major blunder shortly after entering office. He approved a Central Intelligence Agency scheme planned under the Eisenhower administration to use Cuban exiles to overthrow Fidel Castro's regime in Cuba. In April 1961, the CIA-trained force of Cubans landed at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba but failed to set off a general uprising as planned. Trapped on the beach, the anti-Castro Cubans had little choice but to surrender after Kennedy rejected the idea of using U.S. forces to save them. Castro used the failed invasion to get even more aid from the Soviet Union and to strengthen his grip on power. Berlin Wall Kennedy agreed to meet Soviet premier Khrushchev in Vienna in the summer of 1961. Khrushchev seized the opportunity in Vienna to threaten the president by renewing Soviet demands that the United States pull its troops out of Berlin. Kennedy refused. In August, the East Germans, with Soviet backing, built a wall around West Berlin. Its purpose was to stop East Germans from fleeing to West Germany. As the wall was being built, Soviet and U.S. tanks faced off in Berlin. Kennedy called up the reserves, but he made no move to stop the completion of the wall. In 1963, the president travelled to West Berlin to assure its residents of continuing U.S. support. The Berlin Wall stood as a gloomy symbol of the Cold War until it was torn down by rebellious East Germans in 1989. Cuban missile crisis (1962) (WOR) The most dangerous challenge from the Soviets came in October 1962. U.S. reconnaissance planes discovered that the Russians were building underground sites in Cuba for the launching of offensive missiles that could reach the United States in minutes. Kennedy responded by announcing to the world that he was setting up a naval blockade of Cuba until the weapons were removed. A full-scale nuclear war between the superpowers seemed likely if Soviet ships challenged the U.S. naval blockade. After days of tension, Khrushchev finally agreed to remove the missiles from Cuba in exchange for Kennedy's pledge not to invade the island nation and to later remove some U.S. missiles from Turkey. flexible response (WOR) A different Cold War challenge were the many "brushfire wars" in Africa and Southeast Asia, in which insurgent forces were often aided by Soviet arms and training. Such conflicts in the Congo (later renamed Zaire) in Africa and in Laos and Vietnam in Southeast Asia convinced the Kennedy administration to adopt a policy of flexible response. Moving away from Dulles' idea of massive retaliation and reliance on nuclear weapons, Kennedy and McNamara increased spending on conventional (nonnuclear) arms and mobile military forces. While the flexible-response policy reduced the risk of using nuclear weapons, it also increased the temptation to send elite special forces, such as the Green Berets, into combat all over the globe. Nuclear Test Ban Treaty (JFK) (WOR) (1963) Wake of Cuban Missile Crisis (climax of Cold War, closest weve ever come to nuclear war) Soviets & US agree to prohibit all above-ground nuclear tests, both nations choose to avoid annihilating the human race w/ nuclear war, France and China did not sign.

Era 8 Truman Domestic Policies

Employment Act of 1946 (WXT, CUL) Enacted by Truman, it committed the federal government to ensuring economic growth and established the Council of Economic Advisors to confer with the president and formulate policies for maintaining employment, production, and purchasing power. Council of Economic Advisers (WXT, CUL) A three-member body appointed by the president to advise the president on economic policy. Created form the Employment Act of 1946 inflation and labour unions (WXT, CUL) Truman urged Congress to continue the price controls of wartime in order to hold inflation in check. Instead, southern Democrats joined with Republicans to relax the controls of the Office of Price Administration. The result was an inflation rate of almost 25 percent during the first year and a half of peace. Workers and unions wanted wages to catch up after years of wage controls. Over 4.5 million workers went on strike in 1946. Strikes by railroad and mine workers threatened the national safety. Truman took a tough approach to this challenge, seizing the mines and using soldiers to keep them operating until the United Mine Workers finally called off its strike. Committee on Civil Rights (WXT, CUL) In 1946, President Truman used his executive powers to create this committee to challenge racial discrimination. racial integration of military (WXT, CUL) In 1948, President Truman ordered the end of racial discrimination throughout the federal government including the armed forces. The end of segregation changed life on military bases, many of which were in the South. 22nd Amendment (WXT, CUL) Reacting against the election of Roosevelt as president four times, the Republican-dominated Congress proposed a constitutional amendment to limit a president to a maximum of two full terms in office. The 22nd Amendment was ratified by the states in 1951. Taft-Hartley Act (1947) (WXT, CUL) In 1947, Congress passed the probusiness Taft-Hartley Act. Truman vetoed the measure as a "slave-labour" bill, but Congress overrode his veto. The one purpose of the Republican-sponsored law was to check the growing power of unions. Its provisions included • outlawing the closed shop (contract requiring workers to join a union before being hired) • permitting states to pass "right to work" laws outlawing the union shop (contract requiring workers to join a union after being hired) • outlawing secondary boycotts (the practice of several unions supporting a striking union by joining a boycott of a company's products) • giving the president the power to invoke an 80-day cooling-off period before a strike endangering the national safety could be called Henry Wallace (POL) A former Democrat who ran on the New Progressive Party due to his disagreement on Truman's policy with the Soviets. He caused the Democratic party to split even more during the election season. States-Rights party (Dixiecrats) (POL) In 1948, Southern Democrats formed this new party in reaction the President Truman's support of civil rights. J. Strom Thurmond (POL) He was nominated for president on a States' Rights Party (Dixiecrats) in the 1948 election. Split southern Democrats from the party due to Truman's stand in favor of Civil Rights for African American. He only got 39 electoral votes. Thomas Dewey (POL) He was the Governor of New York (1943-1955) and the unsuccessful Republican candidate for the U.S. Presidency in 1944 and 1948. As a leader of the liberal faction of the Republican party he fought the conservative faction led by Senator Robert A. Taft, and played a major role in nominating Dwight D. Eisenhower for the presidency in 1952. Fair Deal (POL) An economic extension of the New Deal proposed by Harry Truman that called for higher minimum wage, housing and full employment. It led only to the Housing Act of 1949 and the Social Security Act of 1950 due to opposition in congress.

Era 6 Politics

Election of 1880 (POL) In 1880, James A. Garfield was elected president in a very close election. His vice president was Chester A. Arthur. assassination of James Garfield (POL) President James Garfield was shot while preparing to board a train. He died after an 11 week struggle. Chester Arthur (POL) Appointed customs collector for the port of New York - corrupt and implemented a heavy spoils system. He was chosen as Garfield's running mate. Garfield won but was shot, so Arthur became the 21st president. Pendleton Act of 1881 (POL) Set up by the Civil Service Commission, it created a system where federal jobs were awarded based on competitive exams. civil service reform (POL) Congress took action in the late 19th century to protect ethical politicians and create standards for political service; including, a civil service test for those seeking a job in government. election of 1884 (POL) James G Blaine was nominated by the Republicans, while Grover Cleveland was the Democratic nominee. The Independent Republicans, known as "Mugwumps," supported Cleveland, which cost Blaine the election. The Democrats controlled the House, while the Republicans dominated the Senate. Grover Cleveland (POL) 22nd and 24th president, Democrat, Honest and hardworking, fought corruption, vetoed hundreds of wasteful bills, achieved the Interstate Commerce Commission and civil service reform, violent suppression of strikes high tariff (POL, WXT) In the 1890s, tariffs provided more than half of the federal revenue. Some Democrats objected to the tariffs because the raised the price on consumer goods and made it for difficult for farmers to sell to export because foreign countries enacted their own tariffs. business vs. consumers (POL, WXT) Some people objected to the high tariffs because the raised the prices on consumer goods. Cleveland threatens lower Tariff (POL, WXT) Toward the end of Grover Cleveland's first term he urged Congress to lower the tariff rates. McKinley Tariff of 1890 (POL, WXT) In 1890, this tariff raised the tax on foreign products to a peacetime high of 48 percent. Wilson-Gorman Tariff of 1894 (POL, WXT) This tariff provided a moderate reduction in tariff rates and levied a 2 percent income tax. Dingley Tariff of 1897-46.5 Percent (POL, WXT) McKinley passed this tariff in 1897, which raised tariff rates to their highest point in US History up to this point in time, which favored the industrial interests and put further strain on farmers finances. "soft" money; debtors vs. "hard" money; banks, creditors (WXT, POL) - Debtors, farmers, and start-up businesses wanted more "easy" or "soft" money in circulation, this would enable them to: (1) borrow money at low interest rates (2) pay off their loans more easily with inflated dollars. - Bankers, creditors, investors, and established businesses stood firm for "sound" or "hard money" - meaning currency backed by gold stored in government vaults. - Argued that dollars backed by gold would hold their value against inflation. Holders of money understood that as the U.S. economy and population grew faster than the number of gold-backed Panic of 1873, "Crime of 73" (WXT, POL) Many Americans blamed the gold standard for restricting the money supply in causing the depression. To expand the supply of US currency, easy money advocates campaigned first for more paper money (greenbacks) and then for the unlimited minting of silver coins. Specie Resumption Act of 1875 (WXT, POL) Congress sided with creditors and investors when it passed this act which withdrew all greenbacks (paper money not backed by gold or silver) from circulation. Greenback party (WXT, POL) Political party devoted to improving the lives of laborers and raising inflation, reaching its high point in 1878 when it polled over a million votes and elected fourteen members of Congress. James B. Weaver (WXT, POL) American politician who leaned toward agrarian radicalism; he twice ran unsuccessfully for the U.S. presidency, as the Greenback-Labor candidate (1880) and as the Populist candidate (1892). Bland-Allison Act of 1878 (WXT, POL) Authorized coinage of a limited number of silver dollars and "silver certificate" paper money. First of several government subsidies to silver producers in depression periods. Required government to buy between $2 and $4 million worth of silver. Created a partial dual coinage system referred to as "limping bimetallism." Repealed in 1900. Sherman Silver Purchase of 1890 (WXT, POL) Congress to buy 4.5 mil oz of silver each month at market price, issues Treasury notes. run on gold reserves, J. P. Morgan bail out (WXT, POL) A decline in silver prices encouraged investors to trade their silver dollars for gold dollars. The gold reserve (bars of gold billion stored by the U.S. Treasury) fell to a dangerously low level, and President Cleveland saw no alternative but to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890. This action, however, failed to stop the gold drain. The president then turned to this Wall Street banker to bail out the government by loaning $65 million in gold to support the government and the gold standard. This deal convinced many Americans that the government in Washington was only a tool of rich easterner bankers. repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act (WXT, POL) A decline in silver prices encouraged investors to trade their silver dollars for gold dollars. The gold reserve fell dangerously low and President Grover Cleveland was forced to repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890. election of 1888, Harrison (POL) Democrats campaigned for Cleveland and a lower tariff, Republicans campaigned for Benjamin Harrison and a high tariff. Republicans argued that a lower tariff would wreck business prosperity, and played on this fear to raise campaign funds from businesses and workers in the North. Republicans also attacked Cleveland's vetoes of pension bills to get the veteran vote. --The election was extremely close: Cleveland got more popular votes than Harrison, but lost the election b/c Harrison swept the North and gained majority of votes in electoral college. "Billion Dollar Congress" (POL) Republican congress of 1890. Gave pensions to Civil War veterans, increased government silver purchases, and passed McKinley Tariff Act of 1890. First billion dollar budget. election of 1892, Cleveland returns (POL) The 1892 presidential election was between President Benjamin Harrison and former president Grover Cleveland. Cleveland became the only president to win a presidential election after having left the office. Panic of 1893 (POL) Serious economic depression beginning in 1893. Began due to rail road companies over-extending themselves, causing bank failures. Was the worst economic collapse in the history of the country until that point, and, some say, as bad as the Great Depression of the 1930s. unlimited coinage of silver at 16 to 1 (POL) In 1896, the Democrats favored silver coinage at this traditional but inflationary rate. "Gold Bug" Democrats (POL) Part of the Democratic Party that broke away from the principle of unlimited coinage of silver and the rest of the Democratic Party; included Grover Cleveland. Mark Hanna, money and mass media (POL) A master of high-finance politics, he managed William McKinley's winning presidential campaign by focusing on getting favorable publicity in newspapers. McKinley victory (POL) William McKinley won the presidential election of 1896 by carrying the all the Northeast and the upper Midwest. gold standard and higher tariff (POL) In 1897, William McKinley became president just as gold discoveries in Alaska increased the money supply under the gold standard. The Dingley Tariff increased the tariff rate to 46 percent. rise of modern urban-industrial society (POL) The 1896 election was a victory for big business, urban centers, conservative economics, and moderate middle-class values. Rural America lost its dominance of American politics. decline of traditional rural-agricultural (POL) The election of 1896 was a clear victory for big business, urban centers, conservative economics, and moderate, middle class values; marking the rise of modern urban-industrial society and the ________. start of the modern presidency (POL) William McKinley emerged as the first modern president, he would make America an important country in international affairs. era of Republican dominance (POL) The election of McKinley in 1896 started an era of Republican dominance of the presidency (seven of next nine elections) and Congress.

Era 2 Culture and people

English culture domination (CUL) The Georgian style of London was widely imitated in colonial houses, churches, and public buildings. Brick and stucco homes built in this style were characterised by a symmetrical placement of windows and dormers and a spacious centre hall flanked by two fireplaces. (eastern seaboard). Benjamin West (CUL) Shortly before the Revolution, two American artists, Benjamin West and John Copley, went to England where they acquired the necessary training and financial support to establish themselves as prominent artists. John Copley (CUL) Shortly before the Revolution, two American artists, Benjamin West and John Copley, went to England where they acquired the necessary training and financial support to establish themselves as prominent artists. Benjamin Franklin (CUL) The most popular and successful American writer of the 18th century was Benjamin Franklin. Benjamin Franklin won fame for his work with electricity and his developments of bifocal eyeglasses and the Franklin stove. Poor Richard's Almanack (CUL) Ben. Franklin's witty aphorism and advice were collected in Poor Richard's Almanack, a best-selling book that was annually revised from 1732 to 1757. Phillis Wheatley (CUL) The poet Phillis Wheatley is noteworthy for both her triumph over slavery and the quality of her verse. John Bartram (CUL) Most scientists, such as botanist John Bartram of Philadelphia were self-taught. J. Hector St. John Crevecoeur (ID) A Frenchman who wrote , "America is a new man, who acts upon new principles; he must therefore entertain new ideas, and form new opinions. From involuntary idleness, servile dependence, and useless labor, he has passed to toils of a very different nature, rewarded by ample subsistence. This is an American." (1782) colonial families (ID) Economic and social centre of colonial life. (Expanding economy and ample food supply) People married at a younger age and reared more children than in Europe. Most colonist had a high standard of living. Germans (ID) Settled chiefly on the farmlands west of Philadelphia (Pennsylvania Dutch country). Maintained their German language, customs, and religion (Lutheran, Amish, Brethren, Mennonite) and showed little interest in English politics. (1775) Compromised 6 percent of the population. Scotch-Irish (ID) Emigrated from northern Ireland. Had little respect for the British government. Most settled along the frontier in the western parts of Pennsylvania, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia. (1775) Compromised 7 percent of the population. Huguenots, Dutch, Swedes (ID) (Immigration) Other Europeans: Included French Protestants (Huguenots), the Dutch and the Swedes. Made up 5 percent of the population (1775). Africans (ID) Largest group of non-English immigrants. They were Africans - or descendants of Africans - who had been enslaved and transported to southern plantation owners or other colonists. Outside the South, thousands worked as labourers, bricklayers, blacksmiths, etc. Some were enslaved, others were free wage earners and property owners. Every colony passed laws that discriminated against African Americans and limited their rights and opportunities. (1775) Made up 20 percent of the population. immigrants (PEO) Immigrants were not only from England, Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, but also Protestants from France and German-speaking kingdoms and principalities. Motives varied, some escaping religious persecution and wars. Others sought economic opportunity. Most settled in the middle colonies (Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware) and on the western frontier of the southern colonies (Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia). Few headed to Puritan-controlled New England. social mobility (PEO) (minus African Americans) All people in colonial society had an opportunity to improve their standard of living and social status by hard work. Enlightenment (POL) A major influence on the Enlightenment and on American thinking was John Lock, a 17th-century English philosopher and political theorist. Locke's ideas about "natural laws," sovereignty, and protest greatly inspired and impacted the American Revolution.

Era 7 FDR Response

Franklin D. Roosevelt (POL) The new president was a distant cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt and was married to Theodore's niece, Eleanor. More than any other president, Franklin Delano Roosevelt - popularly known by his initials, FDR - expanded the size of the federal government, altered its scope of operations, and greatly enlarged presidential powers. He would dominate the nation and the government for an unprecedented stretch of time, 12 years and two months. FDR became one of the most influential world leaders of the 20th century. Eleanor Roosevelt (POL) Roosevelt's wife, Eleanor, emerged as a leader in her own right. She became the most active first lady in history, writing a newspaper column, giving speeches, and traveling the country. Though their personal relationship was strained, Eleanor and Franklin Roosevelt had a strong mutual respect. She served as the president's social conscience and influenced him to support minorities and the less fortunate. New Deal (POL) In his campaign for president in 1932, Roosevelt offered vague promises but no concrete programs. He did not have a detailed plan for ending the depression, but he was committed to action and willing to experiment with political solutions to economic problems. relief, recovery, reform (POL) During the early years of his presidency, it became clear that his New Deal programs were to serve three R's: relief for people out of work, recovery for business and the economy as a whole, and reform of American economic institutions. Brain Trust (POL) Many of the advisers who helped Roosevelt during his presidential candidacy continued to aid him after he entered the White House. A newspaperman once described the group as "Roosevelt's Brain Trust." They were more influential than the Cabinet. Frances Perkins (POL) The people that Roosevelt appointed to high administrative positions were the most diverse in U.S. history, with a record number of African Americans, Catholics, Jews, and women. For example, his secretary of labour was Frances Perkins, the first woman ever to serve in a president's cabinet. Hundred Days (POL) Immediately after being sworn into office on March 4, 1933, Roosevelt called Congress into a hundred-day-long special session. During this brief period, Congress passed into law every request of President Roosevelt, enacting more major legislation than any single Congress in history. Most of the new laws and agencies were commonly referred to by their initials: WPA, AAA, CCC, NRA. bank holiday (POL) To restore confidence in those banks that were still solvent, the president ordered the banks closed for a bank holiday on March 6, 1933. He went on the radio to explain that the banks would be reopened after allowing enough time for the government to reorganize them on a sound basis. repeal of Prohibition (POL) The new president kept a campaign promise to enact repeal of Prohibition and also raised needed tax money by having Congress pass the Beer-Wine Revenue Act, which legalized the sale of beer and wine. Later in 1933, the ratification of the Twenty-First Amendment repealed the Eighteenth Amendment, bringing Prohibition to an end. fireside chats (POL) Roosevelt went on the radio on March 12, 1933, to present the first of many fireside chats to the American people. The president assured his listeners that the banks which reopened after the bank holiday were safe. The public responded as hoped, with the money deposited in the reopened banks exceeding the money withdrawn.

Era 3 English

George III (WXT) British King responsible for increasing punitive taxes on the colonies, breaking away from the previous policy of salutary neglect. Whigs (WXT) Dominant political party in Britain that wanted the American colonies to bear more of the cost of maintaining the British empire. Parliament (WXT) Wanted the American colonies to bear more of the cost of maintaining the British empire. Lord Fredrick North (WXT) (1769) Lord Fredrick North became the new prime minister. He urged Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts because they damaged trade and generated a disappointingly small amount of revenue.

Era 9 George W Bush Domestic

George W. Bush (POL) 43rd president of the US who began a campaign toward energy self-sufficiency and against terrorism in 2001. Bush v. Gore (POL) 5-4 Supreme Court declared that Florida vote recount violated equal protection clause (some votes would be examined more closely than others); ended Gore's challenge to 2000 election results. Power of judicial review (effectively decided 2000 election). Bush tax cuts (POL) President George W. Bush cut taxes on the top tax bracket, gradually eliminated estate taxes, increased child tax credits, gave all taxpayers an immediate rebate. Bush pushed for tax cuts for stock dividends, capital gains, and married couples. No Child Left Behind Act (POL) A U.S. law enacted in 2001 that was intended to increase accountability in education by requiring states to qualify for federal educational funding by administering standardized tests to measure school achievement. Enron, corporate corruption (POL) This large corporation falsified stated earnings and profits with the help of accounting companies. campaign finance reform (POL) Legislation aimed at placing limits on political candidates accepting money and gifts from individuals and special interest groups. housing bubble (POL) A rapid increase in the value of houses followed in a sharp decline in their value. election of 2004 (POL) The Democrats approached the elections of 2004 optimistic that they could unseat the incumbent president burdened by an increasingly unpopular war and limited economic recovery. Democratic voters selected Senator John Kerry of Massachusetts as their presidential candidate. The Republicans successfully energized their conservative base on issues such as the war against terrorism, more tax cuts, and opposition to gay marriage and abortion. President Bush received 51 percent of the popular vote and captured 286 electoral votes to Kerry's 252. The Republicans also expanded their majorities in the Senate and House, and continued to gain on the state level, especially in the South. This left the party in its strongest position since the 1920s. privatization of Social Security (POL) President Bush pushed Congress to privatize Social Security by encouraging Americans to invest part of their Social Security payroll deductions into various market investments. Hurricane Katrina (POL) Considered to be the one crisis of the Bush administrations second term and in is inefficiency to deal with the crisis. It destroyed 80% of New Orleans and more than 1300 people died, while the damages were $150 billion. corruption in Congress (POL) In George W. Bush's second term, Republican's reputations were tarnished by scandals including, taking bribes from lobbyists, committing perjury and obstruction of justice, and having improper relations with congressional pages. John Roberts (POL) Bush appointed him to the Supreme Court as chief justice, which increased conservative majorities in the federal courts. Served and serves as the Chief Justice. Samuel Alito (POL) President George W. Bush appointed this conservative judge to the Supreme Court.

Era 7 FDR Diplomacy

Good Neighbour policy (WOR) In his first inaugural address in 1933, Roosevelt promised a "policy of the good neighbour" toward other nations of the Western Hemisphere. First, interventionism in support of dollar diplomacy no longer made economic sense because U.S. businesses during the depression lacked the resources to invest in foreign operations. Second, the rise of militarist regimes in Germany and Italy prompted Roosevelt to seek Latin American's cooperation in defending the region from potential danger. FDR implemented it through several actions. Pan-American conferences (WOR) At Roosevelt's direction, the U.S. delegation at the Seventh Pan-American Conference in Montevideo, Uruguay, in 1933, pledged never again to intervene in the internal affairs of a Latin American country. Another Pan-American conference was held in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1936. Roosevelt himself attended the conference. He personally pledged to submit future disputes to arbitration and also warned that if a European power such as Germany attempted "to commit acts of aggression against us," it would find "a hemisphere wholly prepared to consult together for our mutual safety and our mutual good." Soviet Union recognised (WOR) The Republican presidents of the 1920s had refused to grant diplomatic recognition to the Communist regime that ruled the Soviet Union. Roosevelt promptly changed this policy by granting recognition in 1933. His reason for doing so, he said, was to increase U.S. trade and thereby boost the economy. Independence for Philippines (WOR) Governing the Philippines cost money. As an economy measure, Roosevelt persuaded Congress to pass the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1934, which provided for the independence of the Philippines by 1946 and the gradual removal of U.S. military presence from the islands. reciprocal trade agreements (WOR) President Roosevelt favoured lower tariffs as a means of increasing international trade. In 1934, Congress enacted a plan suggested by Secretary of State Cordell Hull, which gave the president power to reduce U.S. tariffs up to 50 percent for nations that reciprocated with comparable reductions for U.S. imports. Stimson Doctrine (WOR) The United States would honour its treaty obligations under the Nine-Power Treaty (1922) by refusing to recognize the legitimacy of any regime like "Manchukuo" that had been established by force. The League of Nations readily endorsed the Stimson Doctrine and issued a similar declaration.

Era 8 Nixon Foreign

Henry Kissinger (WOR) Awarded 1973 Nobel Peace Prize for helping to end Vietnam War and withdrawing American forces. Heavily involved in South American politics as National Security Advisor and Secretary of State. Condoned covert tactics to prevent communism and facism from spreading throughout South America. Vietnamisation (WOR) The US policy of withdrawing its troops and transferring the responsibility and direction of the war effort to the government of South Vietnam, is summarised by which word. Nixon Doctrine (WOR) During the Vietnam War, the Nixon Doctrine was created. It stated that the United States would honor its exisiting defense commitments, but in the future other countries would have to fight their own wars without support of American troops. Kent State (WOR) An Ohio university where National Guardsmen opened fire on students protesting the Vietnam War on May 4, 1970, wounding nine and killing four. My Lai (WOR) (1968) In which American troops had brutally massacred innocent women and children in the village of My Lai, also led to more opposition to the war. Pentagon Papers (WOR) A 7,000-page top-secret United States government report on the history of the internal planning and policy-making process within the government itself concerning the Vietnam War. Paris Accords of 1973 (WOR) In January 1973, the North Vietnamese agreed to an armistice, in which the United States would withdraw the last of its troops and get back over 500 prisoners of war (POWs). The agreement also promised a cease-fire and free elections. However, the armistice did not end the war, but it allowed the United States to extricate itself. détente (WOR) Nixon and Kissinger strengthened the U.S. position in the world by taking advantage of the rivalry between the two Communist giants, China and the Soviet Union. Their diplomacy was praised for bringing about a deliberate reduction of Cold War tensions. Even after Watergate ended his presidency in disgrace, Nixon's critics would admit that his conduct of foreign affairs had enhanced world peace. China visit (WOR) Following a series of secret negotiations with Chinese leaders, Nixon traveled to Beijing in February 1972 to meet with Mao Zedong. The visit initiated diplomatic exchanges that ultimately led to US recognition of the Communist govt in 1979. antiballistic missiles (WOR) President Nixon used his new relationship with China to put pressure on the Soviets to agree to a treaty limiting antiballistic missiles (ABMs). Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) (WOR) Two sets of agreements reached during the 1970s between the United States and the Soviet Union that established limits on strategic nuclear delivery systems. Middle East War (1973) (WOR) On October 6, 1973, the Syrians and Egyptians launched a surprise attack on Israel in an attempt to recover the lands lost in the Six-Day War of 1967. President Nixon ordered the U.S. nuclear forces on alert and airlifted almost $2 billion in arms to Israel to stem their retreat. The tide of battle quickly shifted in favor of the Israelis. OPEC; oil embargo (WOR) The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries that placed an embargo on oil sold to Israel's supporters. Caused worldwide oil shortage and long lines at gas stations in the US. War Powers Act (1973) (POL) Gave any president the power to go to war under certain circumstances, but required that he could only do so for 90 days before being required to officially bring the matter before Congress.

Era 4 Reformers

Horace Mann; public schools movement (ID) Horace Mann was the leading advocate of the common (public) school movement. As secretary of the newly found Massachusetts Board of Education, Mann worked for compulsory attendance for all children, a longer school year, and increased teacher preparation. In the 1840s, the movement for public schools spread rapidly to other states. temperance (POL) The high rate of alcohol consumption (five gallons of hard liquor per person in 1820) prompted reformers to target alcohol as the cause of social ills, and explains why temperance became the most popular reform movements. By the 1840s, various temperance societies together had more than a million members.German and Irish immigrants were largely opposed to the temperance campaign. Thirteen states before the Civil War banned the sale of liquor. In the 1850s, the issue of slavery came to overshadow the temperance movement. American Temperance Society (POL) In 1826, protestant members and other concerned with drinking founded the American Temperance Society. It tried to persuade drinkers to take a pledge of total abstinence. Washingtonians (POL) In 1840, a group of recovering alcoholics formed the Washingtonians and argued that alcoholism was a disease that needed practical, helpful treatments. Women's Christian Temperance Union (POL) This organization was dedicated to the idea of the 18th Amendment - the Amendment that banned the manufacture, sale, or transportation of alcohol. asylum movement (POL) To alleviate the suffering of the increasing number of criminals, emotionally distributed persons, and paupers from abuse and neglect, reformers proposed setting up new public institutions - state-supported prisons, mental hospitals, and poorhouses. Dorothea Dix (POL) Dorothy Dix, a former schoolteacher from Massachusetts, was horrified to find mentally ill persons locked up with convicted criminals in unsanitary cells. She launched a cross-country crusade, publicising the awful treatment she had witnessed. In the 1840s one state legislature after another built new mental hospitals or improved existing institutions and mental patients began receiving professional treatment. Thomas Gallaudet (POL) Thomas Gallaudet opened a school for the deaf. By the 1850s, special schools modelled after the work of these reformers had been established in many states. Samuel Gridley Howe (POL) Dr. Samuel Gridley Howe started a school for the blind. By the 1850s, special schools modelled after the work of these reformers had been established in many states. penitentiaries (POL) Pennsylvania took the lead in prison reform, building new prisons called penitentiaries to take the place of crude jails. Attempted solitary confinement but soon quite after high rates of suicide. Reflected a major doctrine of the asylum movement: structure and discipline would bring about moral reform. Auburn system (POL) A similiar penial experiment to penitatries was the the Auburn system in New York, which enforced rigid rules of discipline while also providing moral instruction and work programs. McGuffey readers (POL) William Holmes McGuffey, a Pennsylvania teacher, created a series of elementary a series of textbooks that became widely used to teach reading and morality. The McGuffey readers extolled the virtues of hard work, punctuality, and sobriety. Objecting to the protestant tone of the public schools, Roman Catholics founded private schools for the instruction of Catholic children. American Peace Society (POL) The American Peace Society, founded in 1828 with the objective of abolishing war, which actively protested the war with Mexico in 1846. American Colonisation Society (POL) In 1822, the American Colonisation Society established an African-American settlement in Monrovia, Liberia. Colonisation never proved a practical course. Between 1820-1860, only about 12,000 African Americans were settled in Africa, while the slave population grew by 2.5 million. American Antislavery Society (POL) The organization was founded in 1833 by William Lloyd Garrison and others. They advocated the immediate abolition of all slavery in every state. abolitionism William Lloyd Garrison; The Liberator (POL) William Lloyd Garrison began publication of an abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator, an event that marks the beginning of the radical abolitionist movement. He advocated for immediate abolition without compensating slave owners. (1833) Liberty party (POL) Garrison's radicalism soon led to a split in the abolitionist movement. A group of northerners (believing that political action was more practical) formed the Liberty party in 1840. The party's one campaign pledge was to bring about the end of slavery by political and legal means. Fredrick Douglass; The North Star (POL) A former slave such as Fredrick Douglass could speak about the brutality and degradation of slavery from first-hand experience. In 1847, he started the antislavery journal The North Star. Harriet Tubman (POL) United States abolitionist born a slave on a plantation in Maryland and became a famous conductor on the Underground Railroad leading other slaves to freedom in the North (1820-1913) David Ruggles (POL) An anti-slavery activist who was active in the New York Committee of Vigilance and the Underground Railroad. He claimed to have led over six hundred people, including friend and fellow abolitionist Frederick Douglass, to freedom in the North. Sojourner Truth (POL) United States abolitionist and feminist who was freed from slavery and became a leading advocate of the abolition of slavery and for the rights of women. William Still (POL) African American abolitionist and author; 18th son of ex-slaves; wrote The Underground Railroad which chronicles how he helped 649 slaves escape to freedom via the Underground Railroad David Walker (POL) He and Henry Highland Grant were two northern African Americans who advocated the most radical solution to the slavery question. They argued that slaves should take action themselves by rising up in revolt against their owners. Henry Highland Grant (POL) He and Devid Walker were two northern African Americans who advocated the most radical solution to the slavery question. They argued that slaves should take action themselves by rising up in revolt against their owners. antebellum period (CUL) Period before the Civil War (1861) marked by several historic reform movements in the Jacksonian ear and in the following decades. romantic movement (CUL) A movement in response to the cold rationality of the Enlightenment that stressed poetic, religious, and visionary human experience; sought to combine the "reason" of the Enlightenment with a renewed "faith" in the poetic powers of the human being. transcendentalists (CUL) Followers of a belief which stressed self-reliance, self- culture, self-discipline, and that knowledge transcends instead of coming by reason. They promoted the belief of individualism and caused an array of humanitarian reforms. Ralph Waldo Emersion, "The American Scholar" (CUL) Best-known transcendentalist, was a very popular American speaker. His essays and lectures expressed the individualistic and nationalistic spirit of Americans ("The American Scholar") by urging them not to imitate European culture but to create a distinctive American culture. He argued for self-reliance, independent thinking, and the primacy of spiritual matters over material ones. He became a leading critic of slavery in the 1850s and then an ardent supporter of the Union during the Civil War. Henry David Thoreau, Walden, "On Civil Disobedience" (CUL) Close friend of Emerson, also lived in Concord Massachusetts. To test his transcendentalist philosophy, Thoreau conducted a two-year experiment of living simply in a cabin in the woods outside town. He used observation of nature to discover essential truths about life and the universe. His writings were published in the book for which he is best known, Walden (1854). His essay "On Civil Disobedience," presented his argument for peacefully disobeying unjust laws and accepting the penalty, a philosophy later used in nonviolent movements of both Mohandas Gandhi in India and Martin Luther King Jr. in the United States. feminists (CUL) A supporter of women's claims to the same rights and treatment as men. Margaret Fuller (CUL) Social reformer, leader in women's movement and a transcendentalist. Edited "The Dial" which was the publication of the transcendentalists. It appealed to people who wanted "perfect freedom" "progress in philosophy and theology and hope that the future will not always be as the past". Theodore Parker (CUL) A theologian and radical reformer who lived at Brook Farm. Washington Irving (CUL) Transcendentalist writer who wrote fiction using American settings. Remembered for the stories "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," contained in The Sketch Book (1819-1820). James Fenimore Cooper (CUL) Transcendentalist American novelist who is best remembered for his novels of frontier life, such as The Last of the Mohicans (1826). Nathaniel Hawthorne (CUL) Originally a transcendentalist; later rejected them and became a leading anti-transcendentalist. He was a descendant of Puritan settlers. The Scarlet Letter shows the hypocrisy and insensitivity of New England puritans by showing their cruelty to a woman who has committed adultery and is forced to wear a scarlet "A". Sylvester Graham (CUL) American clergyman whose advocacy of health regimen emphasizing temperance and vegetarianism found lasting expression in graham cracker Amelia Bloomer (CUL) Female reformer who promoted short skirts and trousers as a replacement for highly restrictive women's clothing

Era 4 Jackson Era

Indian Removal Act (1830) (ID, PEO) Passed by Congress under the Jackson administration, this act removed all Indians east of the Mississippi to an "Indian Territory" where they would be "permanently" housed. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (ID, PEO) Georgia and other states passed laws requiring the Cherokees to migrate to the West. When the Cherokees challenged Georgia in the courts, the Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) that Cherokees were not a foreign nation with the right to sue in the federal court. Worchester v. Georgia (ID, PEO) Following Cherokke Nation v. Georgia, the high court ruled that the laws of Georgia had no force within Cherokee territory. Cherokee trail of tears (ID, PEO) Most Cherokees repudiated the settlement of 1835, which provided land in the Indian territory. In 1838, after Jackson had left office, the U.S. Army forced 15,000 Cherokees to leave Georgia. The hardships on the "trail of tears" westward caused the deaths of 4,000 Cherokees. Bank of the United States (WXT) Jackson believed the bank to be unconstitutional. Henry Clay challenged Jackson and managed to get the charter passed, which was promptly vetoed by Jackson, winning him the election in 1832. Nicholas Biddle (WXT) Nicholas Biddle, the Bank of the United States' president, managed it well, but drew suspicion that he abused its power and served the interests of only the wealthy because of his arrogance. Roger Taney Secretay of Treasury under Jackson who helped transfer to various state banks as a way deplete and ultimately destroy the Bank of the United States. "pet banks" Jackson attacked the bank by withdrawing all federal funds. Aided by Secretary of Treasury Roger Taney, he transferred the funds to various state banks, which Jackson's critics called "pet banks." Specie Circular (WXT) ices for land and various goods became badly inflated. Jackson hoped to check the inflationary trend by issuing a presidential order known as the Specie Circular. It required all future purchases of federal lands be made in specie (gold and silver) rather than in paper banknotes. Soon afterward, banknotes lost their value and land sales plummeted. Panic of 1837 (WXT) Right after Jackson left office, a financial crisis - the Panic of 1837 - plunged the nation's economy into a depression. Martin Van Buren (WXT) Following the two-term tradition, Jackson did not seek reelection. To make sure his policies were carried out even in his retirement, Jackson persuaded the Democratic party to nominate his loyal vice president, Martin Van Buren, who was a master of practical politics. Just after Van Buren took office, the country suffered a financial panic as one bank after another closed its door. The Whigs were quick to blame the Democrats for their laissez-faire economic, which advocated for little federal involvement in the economy. common man (ID/ POL) Politics moved from fine homes of rich southern planters and northern merchants to middle- and lower-class homes. Several factors contributed, including new suffrage, laws, changes in the political parties and campaigns, improved education, and increases in newspaper circulation. universal white male suffrage (ID/ POL) Newley admitted western states (Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), and Missouri (1821)) adopted state constitutions that allowed all when men to vote and hold office. Most eastern states soon followed suit, eliminating such restrictions. Throughout the country, all white males could vote regardless of their social class or religion. Voting for president rose from about 350,00 in 1824 to more than 2.4 million in 1840. party nominating convention (ID/ POL) Past - candidates for office commonly nominated either by state legislatures or by "King Caucus" - a closed-door meeting, of a political party's leaders in congress. Common citizens had no opportunity to participate. 1830s - caucuses were replaced by nominating conventions, where party politicians and voters would gather in a large meeting hall to nominate the party's candidates. "King Caucus" (ID/ POL) Candidates for office were commonly nominated by a closed-door meeting, of a political party's leaders in congress. popular election of president (ID/ POL) 1832 - only South Carolina used the old system in which the state legislature chose the electors for the president. All other states adopted the more democratic method of allowing the voters to choose a state's slate of presidential electors. Anti-Masonic party (POL) The Anti-Masonic party was the first to hold a nominating convention. , reached out to groups of people who previously had shown little interest in politics. The Anti-Mason attacked the secret societies of Masons and accused them of belonging to a privileged, antidemocratic elite. Workingmen's party (POL) Was the first Marxist-influenced political party in the United States.was formed in 1876, when a congress of socialists from around the United States met in Philadelphia in an attempt to unify their political power. Seven societies sent representatives. Represented socialistic ideas. Reached out to groups of people who previously had shown little interest in politics. spoils system (POL) The practice of dispensing government jobs in return for party loyalty was called the spoils system because of a comment that, in a war, victors seize the spoils, or wealth, of the defeated. rotation in office (POL) By limiting a person to one term in office he could then appoint some other deserving Democrat in his place. role of the president (POL) Jackson presented himself as the representative of all people and the protector of the common man against abuses of power by the rich and privileged. He was a frugal Jeffersonian. His closest advisers were a group known as his "kitchen cabinet," who did not belong to his official cabinet. Because of him, the appointed cabinet had less influence on policy than earlier presidents. Peggy Eaton affair (POL) Peggy Eaton, the wife of Jackson's secretary of war, was the target of malicious gossip by other cabinet wives. When Jackson tried to force them to accept her socially, most of the cabinet resigned. The controversy contributed to the resignation of Jackson's vice president, John C. Calhoun, a year later. Martin Van Buren, who remained loyal, was chosen as vice president for Jackson's second term. nullification crisis (POL) Jackson favoured states' rights - but not disunion. 1828 - South Carolina legislature declared the increased tariff of 1828 (Tariff of Abominations) to be unconstitutional, affirming John C. Calhoun's theory of nullification (theory). Nullification Theory claims that each state had the right to decide whether to obey federal law or to declare it null and void (of no effect). Webster-Hayne debate (POL) In 1830, Daniel Webster debated Robert Hayne on the nature of the federal Union under the Constitution. He attacked the idea that a state could defy or leave the Union. Following this famous Webster-Hayne debate, President Jackson declared his own position in a toast he presented at a political union, claiming it must be preserved. John C. Calhoun (POL) Calhoun's South Carolina went to convention with nullification, in which Jackson responded with militarising. Proclamation to the People of South Carolina (POL) Jackson issued a Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, stating that nullification and disunion were treason. Military intervention was avoided with a compromise of Congress lowering the tariff. two-party system (POL) The one-party system under Monroe gave way to a two-party system under Jackson. Supporters of Jackson were now known as Democrats, while supporters of his leading rival, Henry Clay, were called Whigs. The Democratic party harked back to the old Republican party of Jefferson, and the Whig party resembled the defunct Federalist party of Hamilton. Democrats (POL) - local rule - limited government - free trade - opportunity for white male - monopolies - national bank - high tariffs - high land prices - the South and West - urban workers Whigs (POL) American System: - A national bank - Federal funds for internal improvements - A protective tariff - Crime associated with immigrants - New England and the Mid-Atlantic states - Protestants of English heritage - Urban professionals

Era 3 Laws

Intolerable Acts (ID, POL) In retaliation to the Boston Tea Party, the British government enacted a series of punitive acts (the Coercive Acts), together with a separate act dealing with French Canada (the Quebec Act). The colonists were outraged by these various laws, which were given the epithet "Intolerable Acts." Proclamation of 1763 (PEO) In an effort to stabilise the western frontier, the British government issued a proclamation that prohibited colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains. Colonists reacted to the proclamation with anger and defiance, feeling as though they deserved the land they fought for in the Seven Years' Wars. So, they continued on expanding west. Sugar Act (1764) (WOR) This act placed duties on foreign sugar and certain luxuries, aiming to raise money for the crown while also prosecuting (Navigation Acts) those smuggling in sugar in juryless courts. Quartering Act (1765) (WOR) This act required colonists to provide food and living quarters for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. Stamp Act (1765) (WOR) The Stamp Act (to help fund the British Military) required that revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies, including all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, and advertisements. This was the first direct tax - collected from those who used goods - paid by the people in the colonies. Boycotts against British imports were the most effective form of protest. Faced with a sharp drop in trade, London merchants put pressure on Parliament to repeal the controversial Stamp Act. Declaratory Act (1766) (WOR) This act asserted that Parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever." Townshend Acts (1767) (WOR) Parliament enacted new duties to be collected on colonial imports of tea, glass, and paper. The Townshend Acts also provided for the search of private homes for smuggled goods. All that an official needed to conduct such a search would be a writ of assistance rather than a judge's warrant permitting a search only of a specifically named property. Another of the Townshend Acts suspended New York's assembly for that colony's defiance of the Quartering Act. Writs of Assistance (WOR) A general licence to search anywhere in lieu of a judge approved search warrant. It was established in the Townshend Acts. Tea Act (1773) (WOR) The colonists continued their refusal to buy British tea because the British insisted on their right to collect the tax. Parliament passed the Tea Act (1773), which made the price of the British East India Company's tea - even with the tax included - cheaper than that of smuggled Dutch tea. Coercive Acts (1774) - Port Act - Massachusetts Government Act - Administration of Justice Act (WOR) The Port Act closed the port of Boston, prohibiting trade in and out of the harbour until the destroyed tea was paid for. The Massachusetts Government Act reduced the power of the Massachusetts legislature while increasing the power of the royal governor. The Administration of Justice Act allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in Great Britain instead of in the colonies. Quebec Act (1774) (WOR) The Quebec Act established Roman Catholicism as the official religion in Quebec, set up a government without a representative assembly, and extended Quebec's boundary to the Ohio River. This was perceived as a direct act to American colonists' lands, as well as the fear that Britain would enact similar laws in the predominantly protestant colonies. Prohibitory Act (1775) (WOR) (King's Response to "Olive Branch Petition) Declared the colonies in rebellion. A few months later, Parliament forbad all trade and shipping between Britain and the colonies.

Era 8 Civil Rights

Jackie Robinson The first African American player in the major league of baseball. His actions helped to bring about other opportunities for African Americans. causes of movement The origins of the 1950s civil rights movement was the migration of African Americans to the North where they gained more political power. As the United States battled the Soviets for the hearts and minds of people around the world, it was clear that racial discrimination in the U.S. was a wrong that needed to be corrected. NAACP Had been working through the courts for decades trying to overturn the Supreme Court's 1896 decision, Plessy v. Ferguson, which allowed segregation in "separate but equal" facilities. In the late 1940s, the NAACP won a series of cases involving higher education. Thurgood Marshall American civil rights lawyer, first black justice on the Supreme Court of the United States. Marshall was a tireless advocate for the rights of minorities and the poor. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) Segregation of students in public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, because separate facilities are inherently unequal. District Court of Kansas reversed. Earl Warren Chief Justice during the 1950's and 1960's who used a loose interpretation to expand rights for both African-Americans and those accused of crimes. Southern Manifesto The manifesto was a document written by legislators opposed to integration. Most of the signatures came from Southern Democrats, showing that they would stand in the way of integration, leading to another split/shift in the Democratic Party. Little Rock crisis 1957 - Governor Faubus sent the Arkansas National Guard to prevent nine Black students from entering Little Rock Central High School. Eisenhower sent in U.S. paratroopers to ensure the students could attend class. Rosa Parks United States civil rights leader who refused to give up her seat on a bus to a white man in Montgomery (Alabama) and so triggered the national civil rights movement (born in 1913). Montgomery bus boycott In 1955, after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a city bus, Dr. Martin L. King led a boycott of city busses. After 11 months the Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public transportation was illegal. Martin Luther King Jr. U.S. Baptist minister and civil rights leader. A noted orator, he opposed discrimination against blacks by organizing nonviolent resistance and peaceful mass demonstrations. He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Nobel Peace Prize (1964). Civil Rights acts of 1957, 1960 The first civil rights laws since Reconstruction, they formed the Civil Rights Commission and provided some protection for the voting rights of blacks. Civil Rights Commission Set up by the Civil Rights Act and was made to investigate violations of civil rights and authorized federal injunctions to protect voting rights. Southern Christian Leadership Conference An organization founded by MLK Jr., to direct the crusade against segregation. Its weapon was passive resistance that stressed nonviolence and love, and its tactic direct, though peaceful, confrontation. sit-in movement Began in Greensboro, North Carolina when four students sat at a "whites only" lunch counter. Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Was formed a few months later to keep the movement organized. In the 1960s, African Americans used the sit-in tactic to integrate restaurants, hotels, buildings, libraries, pools, and transportation throughout the South. The results of the boycotts, sit-ins, court rulings, and government responses to pressure marked a turning point in the civil rights movement. Progress was slow, however. In the 1960s, a growing impatience among many African Americans would be manifested in violent confrontations in the streets.

Era 7 Domestic fears of Communism

Loyalty Review Board (POL, CUL) (1947) federal board set up by President Truman that checked up on government workers, and dismissed those found to be communist. Smith Act (1940) (POL, CUL) Made it illegal to advocate the overthrow of the US government by force or violence. Dennis et al. v. United States McCarran Internal Security Act (1950) (POL, CUL) Over Truman's veto, Congress passed the McCarran Internal Security Act, which (1) made it unlawful to advocate or support the establishment of a totalitarian government, (2) restricted the employment and travel of those joining Communist-front organizations, and (3) authorized the creation of detention camps for subversives House Un-American Activities Committee (POL, CUL) (HUAC) Originally established in 1939 to seek out Nazis, was reactivated in the post-war years to find Communists. The committee not only investigated government officials but also looked for Communist influence in such organizations as the Boy Scouts and in the Hollywood film industry. Hollywood blacklists (POL, CUL) Actors, directors, and writers were called before the committee to testify. Those who refused to testify were tried for contempt of Congress. Others were blacklisted from the industry. freedom of expression in arts (POL, CUL) Creators of the gritty crime dramas in the film noir style, and playwrights, such as Arthur Miller (Death of a Salesman, 1949) came under attacks as anti-American. Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical, South Pacific (1949), was criticized, especially by southern politicians, as a communistic assault on racial segregation. Loyalty oaths were commonly required of writers and teachers as a condition of employment. The American Civil Liberties Union and other opponents of these security measures argued that the 1st Amendment protected the free expression of unpopular political views and membership in political groups, including the Communist party. Hiss Case; Whittaker Chambers (POL, CUL) Whittaker Chambers, a confessed Communist, became a star witness for the House Un-American Activities Committee in 1948. His testimony, along with the investigative work of a young member of Congress from California named Richard Nixon, led to the trial of Alger Hiss, a prominent official in the State Department who had assisted Roosevelt at the Yalta Conference. Hiss denied the accusations that he was a Communist and had given secret documents to Chambers. In 1950, however, he was convicted of perjury and sent to prison. Many Americans could not help wondering whether the highest levels of government were infiltrated by Communist spies. Rosenberg case (POL, CUL) When the Soviets tested their first atomic bomb in 1949, many Americans were convinced that spies had helped them to steal the technology from the United States. Klaus Fuchs, a British scientist who had worked on the Manhattan Project, admitted giving A-bomb secrets to the Russians. An FBI investigation traced another spy ring to Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in New York. After a controversial trial in 1951, the Rosenbergs were found guilty of treason and executed in 1953. Civil rights groups charged that anti-Communist hysteria was responsible for the conviction and punishment of the Rosen bergs. Joseph McCarthy (POL, CUL) 1950s; Wisconsin senator claimed to have list of communists in American gov't, but no credible evidence; took advantage of fears of communism post WWII to become incredibly influential; "McCarthyism" was the fearful accusation of any dissenters of being communists. McCarthyism (POL, CUL) The term associated with Senator Joseph McCarthy who led the search for communists in America during the early 1950s through his leadership in the House Un-American Activities Committee. (Witch Hunt)

Era 8 LBJ Great Society Stuff

Lyndon Johnson (1963-1969) Vice President who took office after Kennedy was shot. Democrat , signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. he had a war on poverty in his agenda. In an attempt to win, he set a few goals, including the great society, the economic opportunity act, and other programs that provided food stamps and welfare to needy famillies. He also created a department of housing and urban development. his most important legislation was probably medicare and medicaid. Great Society President Johnson called his version of the Democratic reform program the Great Society. In 1965, Congress passed many Great Society measures, including Medicare, civil rights legislation, and federal aid to education. War on Poverty Lyndon Johnson declared war on poverty in his 1964 State of the Union address. A new Office of Economic Opportunity oversaw a variety of programs to help the poor, including the Job Corps and Head Start. Michael Harrington, The Other America As described in his book, the poor were trapped in a vicious cycle of want and a culture of deprivation. Because they could not afford good housing, a nutritious diet, and doctors, the poor got sick more often and for longer than more affluent Americans. Election of 1964 In this presidential election, Democrats Lyndon Johnson and Hubert Humphrey ran against the very conservative Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona. Johnson and Humphrey easily won, capturing 61 percent of the popular vote. Barry Goldwater (1964) Republican contender against LBJ for presidency; platform included lessening federal involvement, therefore opposing Civil Rights Act of 1964; lost by largest margin in history. Medicare; Medicaid (GS) (1965) Expanded the federal program to help poor people buy food, (1965) Provided funds to states to pay for medical care for the poor and disabled Elementary and Secondary Education Act (1965) (GS) Provided federal funds to poor school districts; funds for special education programs; and funds to expand Head Start, an early childhood education program. Immigrant Act (1965) (GS) Abolished discriminatory quotas based on national origins DOT and HUD President Lyndon Johnson established the Department of Transportation (DOT) and the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). National Foundation on the Arts and Humanities This agency formed in 1965 provided federal funding for the arts and for creative and scholarly projects. Ralph Nader, Unsafe at Any Speed (1965) Nader said that poor design and construction of automobiles were the major causes of highway deaths. He upset Congress by asking for legislation regulating car design and creation of national auto safety board, NATSA. Rachel Carson, Silent Spring An American marine biologist wrote in 1962 about her suspicion that the pesticide DDT, by entering the food chain and eventually concentrating in higher animals, caused reproductive dysfunctions. In 1973, DDT was banned in the U.S. except for use in extreme health emergencies. Lady Bird Johnson This first lady contributed to improving the environment with her Beautify America campaign which lead to the Highway Beautification Act.

Era 3 Revolutionary war

Lexington (POL) On April 18 1775, General Thomas Gage (British), sent a large force to seize colonial military supplies in the town of Concord. Warned of the British march by two riders, Paul Revere and William Daws, the militia (or minutemen) of Lexington assembled on the village green to face the British. Americans were ultimately forced to retreat. Concord (POL) Continuing their march from Lexington, the British entered Concord, where they destroyed some military supplies. On the return march to Boston, British soldiers were attacked by hundreds of militiamen firing at them from behind stone walls. Battle of Bunker Hill (POL) (After Lexington & Concord) A colonial militia of farmers fortified Breed's Hill, next to Bunker Hill (ensuing battle wrongly named). A British force attacked and managed to take hill, suffering over a thousand causalities. Americans claimed a victory of sorts. Battle of Saratoga (POL) The turning point for the American revolutionaries came with a victory at Saratoga in upstate New York. British forces had marched from Canada in an ambitious effort to link up with other forces. The troops instead were attacked, at Saratoga and were forced to surrender. News of the surprising American victory persuaded France to join the war against the Britain. George Rogers Clark (POL) In campaign through 1778-1779, the Patriots, led by George Rogers Clark, captured a series of British forts in the Illinois country to gain control of parts of the vast Ohio territory. Battle of Yorktown (POL) In 1781, the last major battle was found near Yorktown, Virginia. Strongly supported by French naval and military forces, Washington's army forced the surrender of a large British army commanded by General Cornwallis Treaty of Paris (1763) (WOR) Provided the following: (1) Britain would recognise the existence of the United States as an independent nation. (2) The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of that nation. (3) Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada. (4) Americans would pay debts owed to British merchants and honour Loyalist claims for property confiscated during the war. Patriots (CUL) About 2.6 million people lived in 13 colonies at the time of the war. Maybe 40 percent of the population actively participated in the struggle against Britain. They called themselves American Patriots. Most of the soldiers were reluctant to travel outside their own region. Thus, even though several hundred thousand people fought on the Patriot side, General Washington never had more than 20,000 regular troops under his command at one time. His army was chronically short of supplies, poorly equipped, and rarely paid. Loyalists (Tories) (CUL) About 2.6 million people lived in 13 colonies at the time of the war. Around 20 to 30 percent sided with the British as Loyalists (Tories). The Revolutionary War was in some respects a civil war in which anti-British Patriots fought pro-British Loyalists. Members of the same family sometimes joined opposite side. Loyalists tended to be wealthier and more conservative than the Patriots. Most government officials and Anglican clergy in America remained loyal to the crown. Minutemen (CUL) Also known as the militia of Lexington, this group came together to face the British when word got out that they were going to try to steal colonial military supplies. The ensuing short encounter was the first battle of the Revolutionary War. Continentals (CUL) Paper money issued by Congress which was almost worthless due to inflation. Valley Forge (CUL) Place where Washington's army spent the winter of 1777-1778, a 4th of troops died here from disease and malnutriton, Steuben comes and trains troops Abigail Adams (CUL) Wife of John Adams. During the Revolutionary War, she wrote letters to her husband describing life on the homefront. She urged her husband to remember America's women in the new government he was helping to create. Deborah Sampson (CUL) Patriot who disguised herself as a man and served in the Continental Army. Mary McCauley (Molly Pitcher) (CUL) Heroine of the American Revolution who carried water to soldiers during the Battle of Monmouth Court House and took over her husband's gun when he was overcome by heat

Era 8-9 Leading up to Reagan

Milton Freidman (POL, CUL) Free market economist who gave evidence in the 1970s of a steady shift to the right, away from the liberalism of the 1960s. political action committees (PACs) (POL, CUL) A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations. Proposition 13 (POL, CUL) Also known as the "tax revolt", it was a Californian ballot measure in 1978 that slashed property taxes and forced deep cuts in government services. Arthur Laffer (POL, CUL) Conservative economist who believed that tax cuts would increase government revenues. religious fundamentalism (POL, CUL) An interpretation of the principles of one's faith in such a way that they come to shape all aspects of one's private and public life. televangelists (POL, CUL) Pat Robertson, Oral Roberts, and Jim Baker brought in 100 million viewers in which religion became an instrument of electoral politics. Moral Majority (POL, CUL) "Born-Again" Christians become politically active. The majority of Americans are moral people, and therefore are a political force. abortion rights; Roe v. Wade (POL, CUL) The legalisation of abortion in the 1973 Roe v. Wade Supreme Court case, sparked the right-to-life movement. The movement united Catholics and fundamentalist Protestants, who believed that life begins at conception. reverse discrimination (POL, CUL) The practice or policy of favoring individuals belonging to groups known to have been discriminated against previously. Regents of University of California v. Bakke (POL, CUL) A 1978 Supreme Court decision holding that a state university could not admit less qualified individuals solely because of their race.

Era 1 English

Roanoke Island (ID, POL) Sir Walter Raleigh attempted to establish a settlement at Roanoke Island off the North Carolina cast in 1587, but the venture failed. An early example of English interest in the Americas. John Cabot (ENV) Earliest English claims to American land Earliest claims rested on the voyages of John Cabot, an Italian sea captain (1497). Jacques Cartier (ENV) French claims to American territory were also based on the voyages of Jacques Cartier (1534-1542), who explored the St. Lawrence River extensively. Samuel de Champlain (ENV) First permanent French settlement was established by Samuel de Champlain ("Father of New France") in 1608 at Quebec, a fortified village on the St. Lawrence River.

Era 3 Start of war

Second Continental Congress (1774) (ID) Soon after fighting broke out, delegates to the Second Constitutional Congress met in Philadelphia in May 1775. The congress was divided, with one group supporting a declaration of independence (mainly New England) and the other hoping for a new relationship negotiated with Britain (Mainly middle colonies). Olive Branch Petition (ID) In July 1775, the delegates voted to send an "Olive Branch Petition" to King George III, in which they pledged their loyalty and asked the king to intercede with Parliament to secure peace and the protection of colonial rights. King George angrily dismissed the congress' plea and agreed instead to Parliaments Prohibitory Act (1775). Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms (ID) The 2nd Cont. Congress adopted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms and called the colonies to provide troops. George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of a new colonial army and sent to Boston. Congress also authorised a force under Benedict Arnold to raid Quebec in order to draw Canada away from the British empire. And American navy and marine corps was organised for the purpose of attacking British shipping. Thomas Jefferson (ID) Committee delegate of the 2nd Cont. Congress tasked with draftinf the Deceleration of Indepedence. Declaration of Independence (ID) On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring the colonies to be independent. Five delegates including Thomas Jefferson formed a committee to write a statement in support of Lee's resolution. The declaration drafted by Jefferson listed specific grievances against George III's government and also expressed the basic principles that justified revolution. George Washington (ID) (Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms) George Washington was appointed commander-in-chief of a new colonial army and sent to Boston.

Era 2 native Americans

Wampanoags (PEO) (King Phillip's War) Native peoples led under Metacom (King Philip) to protect encroached land settlements from the Europeans. Metacom (PEO) A chief of the Wampanoags - known to the colonists as King Phillip - united many tribes in southern New England against the English settlers, who were constantly encroaching on the Native Americans' land. King Philip's War (PEO) The New England confederation helped the New England colonists cope successfully with a dire threat against the Wampanogs). In a vicious war (1675-1676), thousands on both sides were killed, and dozens of towns and villages were burned. The colonial forces prevailed, killing King Philip and ending most Native American resistance in New England.

Era 7 WW2 domestic policies

War Production Board (WXT, POL) During WWII, FDR established it to allocated scarce materials, limited or stopped the production of civilian goods, and distributed contracts among competing manufacturers. Office of Price Administration government spending, debt (WXT, POL) Regulated almost every aspect of civilians' lives by freezing prices, wages, and rents and rationing such commodities as meat, sugar, gasoline, and auto tires, primarily to fight wartime inflation. Deficit spending during the depression was dwarfed by the deficits incurred during the war. Federal spending increased 1,000 percent between 1939 and 1945. As a result the gross national product grew by 15 percent or more a year. World War II proved what the New Deal did not, that the government could spend its way of a depression. By war's end, the national debt had reached the then staggering figure of $250 billion, five times what it had been in 1941. role of large corporations (WXT, POL) Stimulated by wartime demand and government contracts, U.S. industries did a booming business, far exceeding their production and profits of the 1920s. The depression was over, vanquished at last by the coming of war. By 1944, unemployment had practically disappeared. research and development (WXT, POL) Government worked closely not only with industries, but also universities and research labs to create and improve technologies that could be used to defeat the enemy. The Office of Research and Development was established to contract scientists and universities to help in the development of electronics, such as radar and sonar, medicines such as penicillin, jet engines, rockets, and in the top secret Manhattan Project, the atomic bomb. Ironically, many of the European scientists that had to flee Fascist persecution would contribute to its defeat working in United States. Manhattan Project (WXT, POL) Code name for the U.S. effort during World War II to produce the atomic bomb. Much of the early research was done in New York City by refugee physicists in the United States. Office of War Information "the Good War" (WXT, POL) Controlled news about troop movements and battles. Movies, radio, and popular music all supported and reflected a cheerful, patriotic view of the war. For example, Norman Rockwell's popular illustrations of the "Four Freedoms" captured the liberties and values at stake in the war. The unity of Americans behind the war's democratic ideals helped that generation remember it as "the Good War." executive order on jobs (MIG, POL) During World War II, President Roosevelt issued an executive order to prohibit discrimination in government and in businesses that received federal contracts. Smith v. Allwright (MIG, POL) A supreme court case in 1944 that ruled that it was unconstitutional to deny membership in political parties to African Americans as a way of excluding them from voting in primaries. Braceros program (MIG, POL) A program the American and Mexican governments agreed to, in which contract laborers would be admitted to the United States for a limited time as migrant farm workers. Japanese internment (MIG, POL) Japanese and Japanese Americans from the West Coast of the United States during WWII. While approximately 10,000 were able to relocate to other parts of the country of their own choosing, the remainder-roughly 110,000 me, women and children-were sent to hastly constructed camps called "War Relocation Centers" in remote portions of the nation's interior. Korematsu v. U.S. (MIG, POL) (1944) Supreme Court case where the Supreme Court upheld the order providing for the relocation of Japanese Americans. It was not until 1988 that Congress formally apologized and agreed to pay $20,000 2 each survivor Servicemen's Readjustment Act (GI Bill) (1944) (WXT, CUL) In 1944, the federal government made unprecedented educational opportunities available to World War II veterans. It subsidized veterans so they could continue their formal education, learn new trades, or start new businesses. It also contained pension, hospitalization, and other benefits.

Era 8 Courts

Warren Court (POL) The chief justice that overturned Plessy v. Ferguson in Brown v. Board of Education (1954); he was the first justice to help the civil rights movement, judicial activism. Mapp V. Ohio (POL) (1961) Ruled that illegally seized evidence cannot be used in court against the accused. Gideon v. Wainwright (POL) (1963) Required that state courts provide counsel (services of an attorney) for indigent (poor) defendants. Escobedo v. Illinois (POL) (1964) Required the police to inform an arrested person of his or her right to remain silent. Miranda v. Arizona (POL) (1966) Extended the ruling in Escobedo to include the right to a lawyer being present during questioning by the police. Baker v. Carr; reapportionment (POL) Before 1962, many states included at least one house of its legislature (usually the senate) that had districts that strongly favoured rural areas to the disadvantage of cities (County-Unit system.) In the landmark case of Baker v. Carr (1962), the Warren Court declared this practice unconstitutional. In Baker and later cases, the Court established the principle of "one man, one vote," meaning that election districts would have to be redrawn to provide equal representation for all citizens. "one man, one vote" (POL) This principle meant that election districts would have to be redrawn to provide equal representation for all of a state's citizens. Yates v. United States (POL) (1957) Said that the 1st Amendment protected radical and revolutionary speech, even by Communists, unless it was a "clear and present danger" to the safety of the country. Engel v. Vitale; separation of church and state (POL) (1962) Ruled that state laws requiring prayers and Bible readings in the public schools violated the 1st Amendment's provision for separation of church and state. Griswold v. Connecticut; privacy and contraceptives (POL) (1965) Ruled that, in recognition of a citizen's right to privacy, a state could not prohibit the use of contraceptives by adults. (This privacy case provided the foundation for later cases establishing a woman's right to an abortion.)

Era 8 Watergate

Watergate cover-up (POL) In June 1972, a group of men hired by Nixon's reelection committee were caught breaking into the offices of the Democratic national headquarters in the Watergate complex. This break-in and attempted bugging were only part of a series of illegal activities. No proof demonstrated that Nixon had ordered the illegal activities. However, it was shown that Nixon participated in the illegal cover up of the scandal. "plumbers" (POL) Name given to the special investigations committee established along with CREEP in 1971. Its job was to stop the leaking of confidential information to the public and press. "enemies list" (POL) The White House created this list of prominent Americans who opposed Nixon or the Vietnam War. United States v. Nixon (POL) The 1974 case in which the Supreme Court unanimously held that the doctrine of executive priveledge was implicit in the Constitution but could not be extended to protect documents relevant to criminal prosecutions. impeachment and resignation "imperial presidency" (POL) In 1974, Nixon made triumphal visits to Moscow and Cairo, but at home his reputation continued to slide. In October 1973, the president appeared to be interfering with the Watergate investigation when he fired Archibald Cox, the special prosecutor assigned to the case. In protest, the U.S. attorney general resigned. The House of Representatives began impeachment hearings, which caused Nixon to reveal transcripts of some of the Watergate tapes in April 1974. Still, it took a Supreme Court decision in July to force him to turn over the tapes to the courts and Congress. Included on one tape made just days after the Watergate burglary was an 18 ½-minute gap that had been erased. Meanwhile, the House Judiciary Committee voted three articles of impeachment: (1) obstruction of justice, (2) abuse of power, and (3) contempt of Congress. Gerald Ford (WOR, POL) (1974-1977), Solely elected by a vote from Congress. Pardoned Nixon. Evacuated nearly 500,000 Americans and South Vietnamese from Vietnam, closing the war. We are heading toward rapid inflation. He runs again and debates Jimmy Carter. At the debate he is asked how he would handle the communists in eastern Europe and he said there were none and this apparently sealed his fate. pardon of Nixon (WOR, POL) The pardon of Richard Nixon, which occurred in 1974, was US history's most significant presidential pardon. Given by Gerald Ford, the President at that point in time, the pardon of Richard Nixon removed all punishment towards Richard Nixon as a result of Nixon's attempt to steal information from the Democratic Party at Watergate. Richard Nixon was impeached as a result of the Watergate incident, although he did not have to serve any time in prison as a result of this pardon. This is significant as this was the first and only pardon of a presidential impeachment.

Era 3 Washington

Washington's Farewell Address (ID, CUL) Assisted by Alexander Hamilton (And Madison, Founding Brothers), Washington wrote a farewell address for publication in the newspapers in late 1776. Washington spoke about policies and practices that he considered unwise. He warned Americans o not to get involved in European affairs o not to make "permanent alliances" in foreign affairs o not to form political parties o not to fall into sectionalism "permanent alliances" (ID, CUL) Keeping alliances with countries that cannot change. Washington warned against them in his farewell address. infant industries (WXT) (Part of Alexander Hamilton's financial program) Protect the young nation's "infant" industries and collect adequate revenues at the same time by imposing high tariffs on imported goods. national bank (WXT) Part of Alexander Hamilton's financial program) Create a national bank for depositing government funds and printing banknotes that would provide that would provide the basis for a stable U.S. currency. tariffs; excise taxes (WXT) Hamilton persuaded Congress to pass excise taxes, particularly on the sale of whiskey in hopes of paying off the national debt at face value. Lead to the Whiskey Rebellion. Battle of Fallen Timbers (PEO, POL) In 1794 the U.S. army led by General Anthony Wayne defeated the Northwest Confederacy (a formation of Native American tribes that tried to hinder U.S. westward expansion), at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in north-western Ohio. Treaty of Greenville (PEO, POL) A year after the Battle of Falllen Timbers (1795), the tribe chiefs of the defeated peoples agreed to the Treaty of Greenville, in which they surrendered claims to the Ohio Territory and promised to open it up to settlement. Public Land Act (1796) (PEO, POL) In the 1790s, the Jay Treaty and the victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers gave the federal government control of the vast tracts of land. Congress encourage the rapid settlement of these lands by passing the Public Land Act (1796), which established orderly procedures for dividing and selling federal lands at reasonable prices. The process for adding new states to the Union, as set forth in the Constitution, went smoothly. In 1791 Vermont became the first new state, followed by Kentucky in 1792 and Tennessee in 1796. Edmund Randolph (POL) (Cabinent) First attorney general of the United States. Judiciary Act (1789) (POL) One of the Congress' first law was the Judiciary Act of 1789, which established a Supreme Court with one chief justice and five associate judges. The highest court was empowered to rule on the constitutionality of decisions made by state courts. The act also provided for a system of 13 district courts and three circuit courts of appeals. federal courts (POL) Congres was given the power to create other federal courts with lesser powers Supreme Court (POL) The only federal court mentioned in the Constitution is the Supreme Court. Congress, however, was given the power to create other federal courts with lesser powers and to determine the number of justices making up the Supreme Court. The highest court was empowered (Judiciary Acts of 1789) to rule on the constitutionality of decisions made by state courts. national debt (POL) (Alexander Hamilton Finacial Plan) Pay off the national debt at face value and have the federal government assume the war debts of the states. Whiskey Rebellion (POL) In western Pennsylvania, the refusal of a group of farmers to pay the federal excise tax on whiskey seemed to pose a major challenge to the viability of the U.S. government under the Constitution. The rebelling farmers could ill afford to pay a tax on whiskey they that distilled from surplus corn. Rather than pay the tax, they defended their "liberties" by attacking the revenue collectors. Washington responded to this crisis by federalising 15,000 state militiamen and placing them under the command of Alexander Hamilton. The show of force had its intended effect, causing the Whiskey Rebellion to collapse with almost no bloodshed. Federalist era (POL) In the 1790s, sometimes called the Federalist era because it was dominated largely by Federalist policies, political parties began to form around two leading figures, Hamilton and Jefferson (Federalists and the Democratic-Repuplicans). Democratic-Republican party (Federalist era) Led by Thomas Jefferson, believed people should have political power, favored strong state governments, emphasized agriculture, strict interpretation of the Constitution, pro-French, opposed National Bank. political parties (POL) Political parties began to form around two leading figures, Hamilton and Jefferson (Federalists and the Democratic-Repuplicans). two-term tradition (POL) One long-range consequence of Washington's decision to leave office after two terms was that later presidents followed his example. The two-term tradition continued unbroken until 1940 when Franklin Roosevelt won election to a third term (and then fourth). Then, the 22nd Amendment, ratified in 1951, made the two-term limit part of the Constitution. Proclamation of Neutrality (1793) (WOR) Washington believed the young nation was not strong enough to engage in a European war. Resisting popular clamour, in 1793 he issued a proclamation of U.S. neutrality in conflict. Jefferson resigned from cabinet in disagreement with Washington's policy. "Citizen" Genêt (WOR) (Neutrality) Objecting to Washington's policy, "Citizen" Edmond Genêt (French minister to the United States) broke all normal rules of diplomacy by appealing directly to the American people to support the French cause. Jefferson, so outraged, even approved of Washington's request to the French government that they remove the offending diplomat. Recalled by his government, Genêt chose to remain in the U.S., where he married and became a U.S. citizen. Jay Treaty (1794) (WOR) After years of negotiating with Britain under Washington's charge, Chief Justice John Jay brought back a treaty in which Britain agreed to evacuate its posts in the U.S. western frontier. But the treaty said nothing about seizures of American merchant ships. Narrowly ratified by the Senate, the unpopular Jay Treaty angered American supports of France, but it did maintain Washington's policy of neutrality, which kept the United States at peace. Pickney Treaty (1795) (WOR) Seeing Jay's Treaty as a sign that the United States might be drawing closer to Spain's long-time foe Britain, Spain decided to consolidate its holdings in North America. Thomas Pickney, the U.S. minister to Spain, negotiated a treaty in which Spain agreed to open the lower Mississippi River and New Orleans to American trade. right of deposit (WOR) (Pickney Treaty - 1795) The right of deposit was granted to Americans so that they could transfer cargoes in New Orleans without paying duties to the Spanish government. Spain further agreed to accept the U.S. claim that Florida's northern boundary should be at the 31st parallel. French Revolution (WOR) (Neutrality) Americans were conflicted on the French Revolution because while they did support the French peoples' aspirations for a Republic, colonists were horrified of stories of mob hysteria and mass executions. Also, the U.S. still had a military alliance with France, but not with the revolutionary republic. Jefferson and his supporters sympathised and argued that because Britain was seizing American merchant ships in French ports, the United States should join France in a defensive war against Britain.

Era 9 Clinton

William (Bill) Clinton (POL, WXT) Democratic president (1993-2001) whose two-term presidency witnessed rapid economic growth but also a sexual scandal that fueled an impeachment effort, which he survived. H. Ross Perot (POL, WXT) Billionaire Texas businessman, best remembered for running for President in 1992 and 1996 under Independent Party banner. failure of health reform (POL, WXT) President Clinton asked Hillary Rodham Clinton (his wife) to head a task force to propose a plan for universal health coverage. It ran into opposition from the insurance industry, small business organizations, and the Republicans. It failed to pass. "don't ask, don't tell" (POL, WXT) Clinton managed to gain support for a compromise measure under which homosexual servicemen and servicewomen could remain in the military if they did not openly declare their sexual orientation. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) (POL, WXT) Clinton also won a notable victory by signing an agreemnet which created a free-trade zone with Canada and Mexico. A trade agreement between Canada, the United States and Mexico that encourages free trade between these North American countries. Brady Bill (POL, WXT) Law passed in 1993 requiring a waiting period on sales of handguns, along with a criminal background check on the buyer. National Rifle Association (NRA) (POL, WXT) In 1974, this organization, which led the gun lobby, was angered when the Anti-Crime Bill banned the sale of most assault rifles. deficit reduction budget (POL, WXT) In 1994, Congress passed this budget which included $225 billion in spending cuts and $241 billion in tax increases. Part of the budget would go towards increased spending on education and job training. Anti-Crime Bill (POL, WXT) Bill Clinton's bill that provided $30 billion in funding for more police protection and crime prevention programs, also banned the sale of most assault rifles. Election of 1994 (POL, WXT) In these midterm elections, Republicans gained control of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1954. Newt Gingrich (POL, WXT) Representative from Georgia who led the "Contract with America" and eventually became the Speaker of the House; he and Clinton battled many times while he demanded tax cuts and a balancing of the budget. Contract with America (POL, WXT) In the 1994 congressional elections, Congressman Newt Gingrich had Republican candidates sign a document in which they pledged their support for such things as a balanced budget amendment, term limits for members of Congress, and a middle-class tax cut. government shutdowns (POL, WXT) The confrontations of between Newt Gingrich and President Clinton resulted in two shutdowns of the federal government in late 1995. Many Americans blamed overzealous Republicans in Congress for the shutdown. Oklahoma City bombing (POL, WXT) Bombing of Murrah Federal Building. The blast, set off by Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, killed 168 people, including 19 children in the building's day-care center. welfare reform (POL, WXT) Ended guarantees of federal aid to children, turned over programs such programs to states, food stamp spending cut, added five year limit on payments to any family. balanced budgets (POL, WXT) The spending cuts and tax increases during President Clinton's first term, along with record growth in the economy, created this budget in 1998. election of 1996 (POL, WXT) Senator Bob Dole of Kansas, the majority leader of the Senate, became Clinton's Republican opponent. His campaign, which proposed a 15 percent tax cut, never captured voters' imagination. Character attacks and massive campaign spending by both sides did little to bring more people to the polls, and the turnout dropped below 50 percent of eligible voters. The Clinton-Gore ticket won with 379 electoral votes (49.2 percent of the popular vote), while Dole and his running mate, Jack Kemp, captured 159 electoral votes (40.8 percent of the popular vote). Ross Perot ran again but had little impact on the election. Clinton became the first Democrat since Franklin Roosevelt to be re-elected president. The Republicans could celebrate retaining control of both houses of Congress, which they had not done since the 1920s. Clinton impeachment (POL, WXT) After Clinton confessed before a jury that he and Lewinsky had an improper relationship, the prospect of impeachment became an issue, especially in the congressional elections. The House narrowly approved 2 counts of impeachment; lying to the grand jury and obstructing justice, and the matter moved to the Senate where a trial continued for weeks without generating any significant public support. It ended with a decisive acquittal of the president. Madeleine K. Albright (WOR) Became the first woman to serve as secretary of state. She proved more assertive in the use of American power, but questions still remained about the role of the United States, especially the use of its armed forces for peacekeeping in foreign nations' internal conflicts. humanitarian missions (WOR) The first deaths of U.S. soldiers in humanitarian missions during the Clinton administration came in the civil war in Somalia in 1993. In 1994, after some reluctance, the president sent 20,000 troops into Haiti to restore its elected president, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, after a military coup and deteriorating economic conditions had caused an exodus of Haitians to Florida. Northern Ireland accords (WOR) In 1998, the U.S. played a key diplomatic role in negotiating an end to British rule and the armed conflict in Northern Ireland. Yugoslavia breakup (WOR) Serbian dictator, Slobodan Milosevic carried out a series of armed conflicts to suppress independence movements in the former Yugoslav provinces of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Kosovo. Balkan Wars: Bosnia, Kosovo (WOR) Diplomacy, bombing, and NATO ground troops stopped the bloodshed in Bosnia in 1995, then in Kosovo in 1999. These were the worst battles Europe had seen since World War II. nuclear proliferation (WOR) Became a growing concern in the 1990s, when North Korea stepped up its nuclear reactor and missile programs, and India and Pakistan tested nuclear weapons for the first time in 1998. North Korea agreed to halt the development of nuclear weapons after direct negotiations with the Clinton administration, but later secretly restarted the program. West Bank, Gaza Strip (WOR) Israel granted home rule to the Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank territories, and signed a peace treaty with Jordan in 1994. Israeli-Palestinian peace process slowed down after the assassination of the Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in 1995.

Era 6 Diplomacy

William Seward (WOR) Was the most influential Secretary of State since John Quincy Adams (who formulated the Monroe Doctrine in 1823). He led the drive to annex Midway Island in the Pacific, gained right to build a canal in Nicaragua, and purchase the vast territory of Alaska. French in Mexico (WOR) In 1865, Secretary of State William Seward invoked the Monroe Doctrine when Napoleon III sent French troops to occupy Mexico. He threatened U.S. military action unless France withdrew their troops, and they did. Alaska purchase (1867) (WOR) As a result of Seward's lobbying, and also in appreciation of Russian support during the Civil War, Congress in 1867 agreed to buy Alaska for $ 7.2 million. However, for many years, Americans saw no value in Alaska and refer to it derisively as "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox." Pan-American Conference (1889) (WOR) In 1889, this conference was called by Secretary of State James G. Blaine. It created an organization of cooperation between the United States and Latin American countries. James Blaine (WOR) Benjamin Harrison's secretary of state and played an important role in the Pan-American Conference. The charming and popular man was the Republican nominee for president in 1884 who lost to Grover Cleveland. His candidacy was hurt by charges of corruption with the railroads exposed in the Mulligan letters. Venezuela boundary dispute (WOR) Dispute between Great Britain and Venezuela over the boundary between Venezuela and British Guiana; British had ignored American demands to arbitrate the matter with Sec. of State Olney saying that Britain was violating the Monroe Doctrine; president Cleveland supported Venezuela and decided to determine the boundary line and if Britain resisted this, the U.S. could declare war to enforce it; Britain eventually agreed to arbitration Cleveland and Olney (WOR) In 1895 and 1896, President Grover Cleveland and Secretary of State Richard Olney insisted that Great Britain agree to arbitrate the border dispute between Venezuela and the British colony of Guiana. Hawaii (WOR) Since the mid-1800s, American missionaries and entrepreneurships settled in the Pacific islands of Hawaii. Expansionists coveted the islands and, in 1893, American settlers aided in the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarch, Queen Liliuokalani. However, President Cleveland opposed imperialism and blocked Republican efforts to annex Hawaii. Then the outbreak of war in the Philippines gave Congress and President McKinley the pretext to complete annexation in July 1898. The Hawaiian islands became a territory of the United States in 1900 and the fiftieth state in the union in August 1959. Queen Liliuokalani (WOR) The Hawaiian queen who was forced out of power by a revolution started by American business interests. Cleveland blocks annexation (WOR) In 1893, President Grover Cleveland block the annexation of Hawaii because he opposed imperalism. However, in 1898, President McKinley did annex Hawaii. international Darwinism (WOR, ID) Darwin's concept of the survival of the fittest was applied not only to competition in the business world but also to competition among nations. Therefore, in the international arena, the US had to demonstrate its strength by acquiring territories overseas, a sort of continuing of the manifest destiny business and imperialist competitors (WOR, ID) Some in the United States believed that the nation needed to compete with the imperialistic nations for new territory or it would be reduced to a second class power. spreading religion and science (WOR, ID) Some Protestant Americans believed that the United States had a religious duty to colonize other lands in order to spread Christianity and our superior science technology. Josiah Strong (WOR, ID) A popular American minister in the late 1800s who linked Anglo-Saxonism to Christian missionary ideas. steel and steam navy (WOR, ID) By 1900, The United States had the third largest navy in the world. "Great White Fleet." Teddy Roosevelt and Aflred Mahan greatly invested in the U.S. navy. Alfred Thayer Mahan (WOR, ID) Navy officer whose ideas on naval warfare and the importance of sea-power changed how America viewed its navy; wrote "The influence of Sea Power upon History" nationalist media (WOR, ID) Newspapers and magazines published printed stories about distant and exotic places. This increased public interest and stimulated demands for a larger U.S. role in world affairs. Cuban revolt (WOR, POL) A Nationalist-initiated conflict broke out in Cuba in 1895, the Spanish, remembering the lengthy Ten Years' War, sent 200,000 troops to Cuba. The Cuban insurrectos responded by wrecking Spanish property in hopes that the Spanish would leave, or at least hoping for US intervention (since the US had significant economic investment in Cuba). The insurrectos directed their destructive rampage at both sugar mills and sugar fields. Valeriano Weyler (WOR, POL) He was a Spanish General referred to as "Butcher" Weyler. He undertook to crush the Cuban rebellion by herding many civilians into barbed-wire reconcentration camps, where they could not give assistance to the armed insurrectionists. The civilians died in deadly pestholes. "Butcher" was removed in 1897. "jingoism" (WOR, POL) Extreme, chauvinistic patriotism, often favoring an aggressive, warlike foreign policy. An intense form of nationalism calling for an aggressive foreign policy. American public was swept up in it in the 1890s.

Era 9 Obama Foreign

ban on torture (WOR) In 2009, President Obama placed a formal ban on torture by requiring that Army field manuals be used as the guide for interrogating terrorist suspects. withdrawal from Iraq (WOR) In early 2009, President Obama developed a plan to wind down US ground combat operations in Iraq. In 2011, the last of U.S. forces were withdrawn. However, Sunni and Al-Qaeda insurgents continued to terrorize the majority Shiite government. Afghanistan surge (WOR) President Obama made fighting Al-Qaeda and the Taliban in Afghanistan a priority. He sent an additional 47,000 troops to Afghanistan. The counter-terrorism surge proved effective in Afghanistan, but the increase in drone attacks on terrorists in Pakistan intensified anger against the U.S. death of bin Laden (WOR) In May 2011, he was killed by the U.S. in clandestine operation in Pakistan. drawdown in Afghanistan (WOR) In 2012, the U.S. and Afghanistan signed a long-term agreement which called for the U.S. to train and support the Afghanistan military, and for the U.S. to end combat missions by 2014. Arab Spring (WOR) A series of popular revolts in several countries in the Middle East and North Africa that sought an end to authoritarian, often Western-supported regimes. fall of dictatorships (WOR) Arab spring, civil unrest and armed rebellions toppled dictatorships in North Africa and the Middle East. civil war in Syria (WOR) The Syrian leader, Bashar al-Assad used poisonous gas on the people in the country who were rising up against him. Military action was avoided when the Syrians agreed to give up all their chemical weapons. "pivot" to Asia (WOR) Events in the Middle East limited the president's planned "pivot" to Asia. The Obama administration realized that America's future would be closely tied to the Pacific Rim because within two decades the economies of Asia would soon be larger than the U.S. and Europe combined. euro crisis (WOR) In the early 2010s, the European Union was struggling with a debt crisis in Greece, Spain, and Ireland. It took German leadership to save the euro as a common currency.

Era 9 George W Bush Foreign

border security (POL) After the 9/11 commissions report, the most significant area that needed to be reformed was how easily potential terrorists could enter and exit the country - Homeland Security. Colin Powell (WOR) Colin Powell was an American military general and leader during the Persian Gulf War. He played a crucial role in planning and attaining America's victory in the Persian Gulf and Panama.. He was also the first black four star general and chairman of the Joint Chief of Staff. Islamic roots of anti-Americanism (WOR) After World War I, the Ottoman Empire, the last of Islamic empires, was replaced with Western-style secular nation states. The U.S. stationed troops in the Middle East after the Gulf War. Islamic religious fundamentalists objected to these actions. Al-Qaeda (WOR) A network of Islamic terrorist organizations, led by Osama bin Laden, that carried out the attacks on the US embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in 1998, the USS Cole in Yemen in 2000, and the World Trade Center and the Pentagon in 2001 Osama bin Laden (WOR) Founder of al Qaeda, the terrorist network responsible for the attacks of September 11, 2001, and other attacks. asymmetric warfare (WOR) Warfare conducted by terrorists when combatants have highly unequal military capabilities, such as when terrorists or rebel groups fight strong states. bombing of U.S. embassies (WOR) In 1998, terrorists bombed two U.S. embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. The U.S. responded by bombing Al-Qaeda camps in Afghanistan and the Sudan. U.S.S. Cole (WOR) In 2000, two suicide bombers in a small rubber boat nearly sank a billion dollar warship docked in Yemen, the USS Cole. World Trade Center (WOR) Once an icon for the global economy in New York, became a target for terrorism in 1993 and 2001; al Queda was solely responsible for the 9-11 attacks. September 11, 2001 (WOR) September 11, 2001 *Day of attacks by terrorist cells connected to the Al Qaeda network, which was led by Osama bin Laden, a Saudi dissident *Al Qaeda operatives hijacked two airliners and crashed them into NY's World Trade Center, destroying the buildings and killing thousands *Another hijacked plane hit the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. *A final hijacked plane was diverted from its mission, crashing in Pennsylvania *As a result of the attacks, Congress passed the USA Patriot Act, which broadened government authority to gather intelligence and further defined crimes that were punishable as terrorism *Attacks led to the invasion of Afghanistan. Afghanistan, Taliban (WOR) President Bush declared he wanted Osama bin Laden and other Al-Qaeda leaders "dead or alive". The Taliban refused to turn them over, so in response the U.S. quickly overthrew the Taliban government in Afghanistan. U.S. led troops pursued bin Laden to the mountains bordering Pakistan, but were unable to catch him. Hamid Karzai (WOR) President of Afghanistan, helped overthrow Taliban, sought international aid for Afghanistan. Homeland Security Department (WOR) This department combined over 20 federal agencies with 170,000 employees, including Customs, Immigration and Naturalization, the Coast Guard, and the Secret Service. It was one of the largest governmental reorganizations since the introduction of the Department of Defense following World War II. "connect the dots" (WOR) In 2004, a bipartisan commission on terrorism criticized the FBI, CIA, and the Defense Department for failing to work together to "connect the dots" that may have uncovered the 9/11 plot. Congress followed up on their recommendations, creating a Director of National Intelligence position. Kyoto Accord (WOR) The Bush administration refused to join this climate agreement to prevent global warming. Bush Doctrine (WOR) A policy adopted by the Bush administration in 2001 that asserts America's right to attack any nation that has weapons of mass destruction that might be used against U.S. interests at home or abroad. unilateralist approach (WOR) The United States would pursue its own defense policy with little or no cooperation with other nations. "axis of evil" (WOR) A group of nations accused by the Bush administration of sponsoring terrorism and threatening to develop weapons of mass destruction. Saddam Hussein (WOR) Was a dictator in Iraq who tried to take over Iran and Kuwait violently in order to gain the land and the resources. He also refused to let the UN into Iraq in order to check if the country was secretly holding weapons of mass destruction. UN inspections (WOR) U.N. inspections failed to find WMD's in Iraq. However, the Bush administration continued to present claims of their existence based on intelligence information that proved to be false. Operation Iraqi Freedom (WOR) Operation where U.S. troops invaded Iraq and Saddam's forces collapsed almost immediately. Baghdad fell, and Saddam and other Iraqi leaders went into hiding. In the months that followed Saddam and many of his supporters were captured. "regime change" (WOR) The replacement of a country's government with another government by facilitating the deposing of its leader or leading political party. "war of choice" (WOR) A term used for the Iraq War because it was not clear that is was a war that was required. Sunni vs. Shiite (WOR) After Saddam Hussein's death, the Sunni and Shiites attacked each other, and millions of Iraqis fled the country or were displaced. The Bush administration was widely criticized for going into Iraq without sufficient troops to control the country and to disband the Iraqi army. Abu Ghraib prison (WOR) A detention facility near Baghdad, Iraq. Under Saddam Hussein, the prison was the site of infamous torturing and execution of political dissidents. In 2004, during the U.S. occupation of Iraq, the prison became the focal point of a prisoner-abuse and torture scandal after photographs surfaced of American soldiers mistreating, torturing, and degrading Iraqi war prisoners and suspected terrorists. The scandal was one of several dark spots on the public image of the Iraq War and led to increased criticism of Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld. 2007 troop surge (WOR) In early 2007, President George W. Bush sent an additional 30,000 troops in a "surge" to establish order in Iraq.

Era 5 Civil War

border states (ID, POL) The slave holding states of Delaware, Maryland, Missouri, and Kentucky did not join the Confederacy, partly due to Union sentiment in those states and partly the result of shrewd federal policies. In Maryland and Missouri, martial law and military force prevented the success of pro-secessionist in the states, and Kentucky voted to stay neutral, something Lincoln initially respected, waiting for the South to violate that neutrality before moving in federal troops. The loss of these states would increase Confederate population by 50 percent. Lincoln rejected initial calls for the emancipation of slaves, as to not alienate them. Confederate States of America (ID, POL) A republic formed in February of 1861 and composed of the eleven Southern states that seceded from the United States. Constitution modelled after the U.S., except it provided a single six-year term for the president and gave the president an item veto (power to veto only part of a bill). Jefferson Davis (ID, POL) President of Confederate States of America, tried to increase his executive powers during the war, but Southern governors resisted attempts at centralisation, some holding back troops and resources to protect their own states. Alexander H. Stephens (ID, POL) Vice President of the Confederate States of America. He at one point, in defence of states' rights, urged the secession of Georgia for the Confederacy.. Second American Revolution (ID, POL) The transformation of American government and society brought about by the Civil War. Fort Sumter (POL, ENV, CUL) Southerners cut off vital control to the federal military fort in Charleston, South Carolina. Lincoln chose to announce his plan to send provisions of food. He gave South Carolina the choice of either permitting the fort to hold out or opening fire with its short batteries. They chose the latter and on April 1861, the war began. The attack on Fort Sumter and its capture after two days of incessant pounding united most Northerners behind a patriotic fight to save the Union. Bull Run (POL, ENV, CUL) First major battle of the war. 30,000 federal troops marched from Washington, D.C., to attack Confederate forces positioned near Bull Run Creek at Manassas Junction, Virginia. Confederate reinforcements under General Thomas (Stonewall) Jackson counterattacked at the Union's seeming victory and sent the inexperienced Union troops in disorderly and panicky flight bac to Washington. The battle ended the illusion of a short war and also promoted the myth that the rebels were invincible in battle. Thomas (Stonewall) Jackson (POL, ENV, CUL) Confederate reinforcements under this general, counterattacked at the Union's seeming victory at the Battle pf Bull Run and sent the inexperienced Union troops in disorderly and panicky flight back to Washington. Winfield Scott (POL, ENV, CUL) General-in-Chief veteran of the 1812 and Mexican wars, devised a three-part strategy for winning the war. Anaconda Plan (POL, ENV, CUL) Use the U.S. Navy to blockade Southern ports, cutting off essential supplies from reaching the Confederacy. George McClellan (POL, ENV, CUL) A general for northern command of the Army of the Potomac in 1861; nicknamed "Tardy George" because of his failure to move troops to Richmond; lost battle vs. General Lee near the Chesapeake Bay; Lincoln fired him twice. Robert E. Lee (POL, ENV, CUL) Confederate general who had opposed secession but did not believe the Union should be held together by force. Antietam (POL, ENV, CUL) Bloodiest day of the Civil War, with more than 22,000 soldiers wounded or killed. General McClellan was reinstated, but promptly fired after failing to go after the retreated Confederate military led by General Lee, who had crossed the Potomac to try to have a major victory on Union soil, Antietam Creek, Maryland. Lincoln used the partial triumph of Union arms to announce plan for a direct assault on slavery. Fredericksburg (POL, ENV, CUL) (December 1862) A large Union army under the new General, Ambrose Burnside, attacked Lee's army at Fredericksburg, Virginia, and suffered immense loses: 12,000 dead or wounded compared to 5,000 Confederate causalities. By the end of 1862, the awful magnitude of the war was too clear - with no prospect of military victory for either side. Monitor vs. Merrimac (POL, ENV, CUL) Anaconda Plan jeopardised by Confederate ironclad ship the Merrimac. It began defeating Union wooden ships until the Union's own ironclad, Monitor, engaged in a five-hour duel. The battle was a draw, but the Union prevented the Confederates from challenging U.S. naval blockades, and it also marked a turning point in naval warfare. Ulysses S. Grant (POL, ENV, CUL) An American general and the eighteenth President of the United States (1869-1877). He achieved international fame as the leading Union general in the American Civil War. Shiloh (POL, ENV, CUL) This was battle fought by Grant in an attempt to capture the railroad of the South. The battle was fought in the west prevented the north from obtaining an easy victory. However, the Confederates strong resistance showed that they would not go quietly and the war was far from over. David Farragut (POL, ENV, CUL) Admiral of the Union Navy during the Civil War. Led the daring attack on New Orleans the led to the Union's control of the Mississippi River. Gettysburg (POL, ENV, CUL) (East) One of the most crucial and bloodiest battles in the war. Lee led an offensive attack in Pennsylvania, ultimately destroying a key part of the Confederate army, with Lee's remaining forces retreating to Virginia. Vicksburg (POL, ENV, CUL) (West) Grant lead a seven-week artillery bombarded on the heavily fortified city of Vicksburg, Mississippi. The seized it on July 4, cutting off Texas, Louisiana, and Arkansas from the rest of the Confederacy with their control of the Mississippi. Sherman's March (POL, ENV, CUL) The chief instrument of Grant's aggressive tactics for subduing the South was a hardened veteran, General William Tecumseh Sherman. He set out from Chattanooga, Tennessee, on a campaign of deliberate destruction that went clear across the State of Georgia and the swept north into South Carolina. His troops marched and destroyed everything in their path, burning cotton fields, barns, and houses. Sherman took Atlanta in September 1864 and completed his campaign in February 1865 by setting fire to Columbia, the capital of South Carolina and cradle of the session. Appomattox Court House (POL, ENV, CUL) The Confederate government tried to negotiate peace, but Lincoln would only except a restoration of the Union, and Jefferson Davis still demanded nothing less than independence. Lee tried to retreat to the mountains with 30,000 men. He was cut off and forced to surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865. The Union general treated his long-time enemy with respect and allowed Lee's men to return to their houses with their horses. draft riots (POL) In July 1863, riots against the draft erupted in New York City, in which mostly Irish American mobs attacked blacks and wealthy mobs. Some 117 people were killed before federal troops and a temporary suspension of the draft restored the order. election of 1864 (POL) Lincoln and war veteran Andrew Johnson won the election with 212 electoral votes to the Democrats' nominated George McClellan's 21. The popular vote was closer, with McClellan taking 45 percent. Copperheads (POL) A party which opposed the Civil War and wanted to negotiate a peace with the Confederacy. The Copperheads did not gain too much popularity because of the Republican majority in both houses of Congress, and since Clement L. Vallandigham (the leader of the party) was banished from the United States for his pro-Confederacy speeches. Trent Affair (WOR) British aide to the Confederacy almost happened in late 1861 with the capture of two Confederate diplomats (James Mason and John Slidell), who were travelling on a British steamer, the Trent. After British pressure, Lincoln released them, but they lost recognition as a major power to the Brits. Laird rams (WOR) The U.S. minister to Britain prevented the Confederate purchase of Laird rams from Britain for use against the Union's blockade. He persuaded the British government to cancel the sale rather than risk war with the United States. John Wilkes Booth (CUL) An embittered actor and Confederate sympathiser, shot and killed the president while he was attending a performance in Ford's Theatre in Washington. A co-conspirator attacked but only wounded Secretary William Seward. The loss of Lincoln's leadership was widely mourned. Alabama (WOR) Confederates were able to gain enough recognition to purchase British warships, one captured more than 60 Union vessels before being sunk off the coast of France by the Union. segregated black troops (ID, CUL) Almost 200,000 African Americans joined the Union army during the Civil War. Massachusetts 54th Regiment (ID, CUL) One of the first black units in the US Armed Forces. Earned place in history at Fort Wagner. women in nursing (ID, CUL) Women played a critical role as military nurses and as volunteers in soldiers' aid societies. This paved the way for women in nursing to be accepted. war's long-term effects (ID, CUL) Included a transition to a complex modern-industrialised nation and a pro-business Whig-Republican economy. 4 million freedmen (ID, CUL) Greatly increased the prospects of America's future. women in the workplace (ID, CUL) Women stepped into the labour vacuum created by war, operating farms and plantations and taking factory jobs customarily held by men. They left the jobs when soldiers returned in the government and industry, while rural women gladly accepted male assistance on the farm. Two major things happened: women in nursing was now accepted, and the war gave impetus to the suffragist movement.

Era 7 Isolationism - interventionism

cash and carry (WOR) Policy adopted by the United States in 1939 to preserve neutrality while aiding the Allies. Britain and France could buy goods from the United States if they paid in full and transported them. Selective Training and Service Act (1940) (WOR) Provided for the registration of all American men between the ages of 21 and 35 and for the training of 1.2 million troops in just one year. There had been a military draft in the Civil War and World War I but only when the United States was officially at war. Isolationists strenuously opposed the peacetime draft, but they were now outnumbered as public opinion shifted away from strict neutrality. destroyers-for-bases deal (WOR) In September 1940, Britain was under constant assault by German bombing raids. German submarine attacks threatened British control of the Atlantic. Roosevelt knew that selling U.S. destroyers to the British outright would outrage the isolationists. He therefore cleverly arranged a trade. Britain received 50 older but still serviceable U.S. destroyers and gave the United States the right to build military bases on British islands in the Caribbean. Four Freedoms speech (WOR) Addressing Congress on January 6, 1941, the president delivered a speech that proposed lending money to Britain for the purchase of U.S. war materials. He justified such a policy by arguing that the United States must help others nations defend "four freedoms:" freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from want, and freedom from fear. Lend-Lease Act (1941) (WOR) Roosevelt proposed ending the cash-and-carry requirement of the Neutrality Act and permitting Britain to obtain all the U.S. arms it needed on credit. The president said it would be like lending a neighbour a garden hose to put out a fire. Isolationists in the America First Committee campaigned vigorously against the lend-lease bill. By now, however, majority opinion had shifted toward aiding Britain, and the Lend-Lease Act was signed into law in March 1941. Atlantic Charter (WOR) With the United States actively aiding Britain, Roosevelt knew that the United States might soon enter the war. He arranged for a secret meeting in August with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill aboard a ship off the coast of Newfoundland. The two leaders drew up a document known as the Atlantic Charter that affirmed that the general principles for a sound peace after the war would include self-determination for all people, no territorial expansion, and free trade. escort convoys (WOR) In July 1941, the U.S. began to provide protection for British ship carrying U.S. arms being transported to Britain. oil and steel embargo (WOR) In September 1940, Japan joined the Axis powers. The United States responded by prohibiting export of steel and scrap iron to Japan and other countries. In July 1941, when Japan invaded French Indochina, the U.S. cut off Japanese access to many vital materials, including U.S. oil. Pearl Harbour (WOR) Naval base in Hawaii attacked by Japanese aircraft on December 7, 1941. The sinking of much of the U.S. Pacific Fleet brought the United States into World War II.

Era 7 Depression Politics

election of 1936 (POL) Franklin D. Roosevelt easily defeated the Republican nominee, Alf Landon. (p. 507) New Deal coalition (POL) The economy was improving but still weak and unstable in 1936 when the Democrats nominated Roosevelt for a second term. Because of his New Deal programs and active style of personal leadership, the president was now enormously popular among workers and small farmers. Business, however, generally disliked and even hated him because of his regulatory programs and prounion measures such as the Wagner Act. John Maynard Keynes (POL) Writings taught Roosevelt that he had made a mistake in attempting to balance the budget. According to Keynesian theory, deficit spending was helpful in difficult times because the government needed to spend well above its tax revenues in order to initiate economic growth. Deficit spending "prime the pump" to increase investment and create jobs. Roosevelt's economic advisers adopted this theory in 1938 with positive results. As federal spending on public works and relief went up, so too did employment and industrial production. recession of 1937 (POL) A second period of economic decline during the Great Depression that resulted because FDR had largely stopped spending money and attempted to create a balanced budget, which lessened the effects of the New Deal on the people by laying off many more workers and giving less and less to the people. Father Charles Coughlin (POL) This Catholic priest attracted a huge popular following in the early 1930s through his weekly radio broadcasts. Father Coughlin founded the National Union for Social Justice, which called for issuing an inflated currency and nationalizing all banks. His attacks on the New Deal became increasingly anti-Semitic and Fascist until his superiors in the Catholic Church ordered him to stop his broadcasts. Francis Townsend (POL) Before the passage of the Social Security Act, a retired physician from Long Beach, California, became an instant hero to millions of senior citizens by proposing a simple plan for guaranteeing a secure income. Dr. Francis E. Townsend proposed that a 2 percent federal sales tax be used to create a special fund, from which every retired person over 60 years old would receive $200 a month. By spending their money promptly, Townsend argued, recipients would stimulate the economy and soon bring the depression to an end. The popularity of the Townsend Plan persuaded Roosevelt to substitute a more moderate plan of his own, which became the Social Security system. Huey Long (POL) Immensely popular in his own state, Long became a prominent national figure by proposing a "Share Our Wealth" program that promised a minimum annual income of $5,000 for every American family, to be paid for by taxing the wealthy. In 1935, Huey Long challenged Roosevelt's leadership of the Democratic party by announcing his candidacy for president. Both his candidacy and his populist appeal were abruptly ended when he was killed by an assassin. conservative coalition (POL) An alliance of Republicans and southern Democrats that can form in the House or the Senate to oppose liberal legislation and support conservative legislation. FDR, third term (WOR) FDR announced that, in those critical times, he would not turn down the Democratic nomination if it were offered (third term). Most Democrats were delighted to renominate their most effective campaigner. Wendell Willkie (WOR) The Republicans had a number of veteran politicians who were eager to challenge the president. Instead, they chose a newcomer to public office: Wendell Willkie, a lawyer and utility executive with a magnetic personality. Although he criticized the New Deal, Willkie largely agreed with Roosevelt on preparedness and giving aid to Britain short of actually entering the war. His strongest criticism of Roosevelt was the president's decision to break the two-term tradition established by George Washington.

Era 8 50's Culture

homogeneity (CUL) Television, advertising, and the middle-class movement to the suburbs contributed mightily to the growth. popular culture (CUL) Culture found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics. paperbacks (CUL) This innovation in books, started in the 1950s, and led to the sales of a million copies per day by 1960. television (CUL) 1950s-1960s *Invented in the 1930s *FDR was the first president to appear on TV; he gave a speech in 1939 at the New York World's Fair, where the television was being officially introduced to the mass public *Seminal shows during the 1950s and 1960s included The Honeymooners, I Love Lucy, and The Ed Sullivan Show *By 1960, over forty million homes had televisions rock and roll (CUL) Music that grew out of rhythm and blues and that became popular in the 1950s. consumer culture (CUL) A culture in which personal worth and identity reside not in the people themselves but in the products with which they surround themselves. fast food (CUL) The phenomenal proliferation of chains of fast food restaurants on the roadside was one measure of success for the new marketing techniques and standardized products as the nation turned from "mom and pop" stores to franchise operations. credit cards (CUL) The introduction of suburban shopping centres and the plastic credit card in the 1950s provided a quick means of satisfying them. conglomerates (CUL) In the business world, conglomerates with diversified holdings began to dominate such industries as food processing, hotels, transportation, insurance, and banking. For the first time in history, more American workers held white-collar jobs than blue-collar jobs. To work for one of Fortune magazine's top 500 companies seemed to be the road to success. Large corporations of this era promoted teamwork and conformity, including a dress code for male workers of a dark business suit, white shirt, and a conservative tie. social critics (CUL) In the 1950s, conformity was valued. William Whyte documented the loss of individuality in his book, "The Organization Man." The Lonely Crowd (CUL) Book written by David Riesman that criticized the people of the 50s who no longer made decisions based on morals, ethics and values; they were allowing society to tell them what is right and wrong. The Affluent Society (CUL) A 1958 book by John Kenneth Galbraith that analyzed the nation's successful middle class and argued that the poor were only an "afterthought" in the minds of economists and politicians. The Catcher in the Rye (CUL) (1951) Some of the most popular novelists of the 1950s wrote about the individual's struggle against conformity. J. D. Salinger provided a classic commentary on "phoniness" as viewed by a troubled teenager. Catch-22 (CUL) (1961) ) Joseph Heller satirized the stupidity of the military and war. beatniks (CUL) A group of rebellious writers and intellectuals made up the Beat Generation of the 1950s. Led by Jack Kerouac (On the Road, 1957) and poet Allen Ginsberg ("Howl," 1956), they advocated spontaneity, use of drugs, and rebellion against societal standards. The beatniks would become models for the youth rebellion of the 1960s.

Era 5 Civil War Laws

greenbacks (WXT) Name for Union paper money not backed by gold or silver. Value would fluctuate depending on status of the war (plural). Morrill Tariff Act (1861) (WXT) Raised tariff rates to increase revenue and protect American manufactures. It initiated a Republican program of high protective tariffs to help industrialists. Morrill Land Grant Act (1862) (WXT) Encouraged states to use the sale of federal land grants to maintain agricultural and technical colleges. Pacific Railway Act (1862) (WXT) Authorised the building of a transcontinental railroad over a northern route in order to link the economies of California and the western territories with the eastern states. Homestead Act (1862) (PEO) Promoted settlement of the Grant Plains by offering parcels of 160 acres of public land free to any person or family that farmed that land for at least five years. executive power (POL) More than any previous president, Lincoln acted in unprecedented ways when it came to federal authority. After Fort Sumter, without Congress, he (1) called for 75,000 volunteers to put down the "insurrection" in the Confederacy, (2) authorised spending for war, and (3) suspended the privilege of writ of habeas corpus. Since Congress was not in session, the president acted completely on his own authority. Confiscation acts (POL) Passed by Congress in August 1861 allowed for the legal basis of seizing "contrabands of war," as the South so referred to the capture of Southern slaves. The second protected freed blacks against rebels, empowering the president to use free slaves in the Union army in any capacity, including battle. Emancipation Proclamation (POL) (July 1862 Lincoln already decided to emancipate, asking border states to come up with compensation plans that emancipated) After the Battle of Antietam, Lincoln issued a warning that enslaved people in all states still in rebellion on January 1, 1863, would be "then, thenceforward, and forever free." As promised, the president issued his proclamation. Even though it freed only 1 percent of slaves, the Unions armies were now fighting against slavery, not merely against session. As it authorised the use of free slaves as Union soldiers as well, the Union army suddenly had thousands of dedicated new recruits. 13th Amendment (POL) By December 1865 (months after Lincoln's death), this amendment abolishing slavery was ratified by the required number of states. It read: Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. habeas corpus (POL) An order to produce an arrested person before a judge, was suspended by Congress after Fort Sumter. Ex Parte Milligan (POL) The Supreme Court ruled that the government had acted improperly in Indiana where, during the war, certain civil liberties had been subject to a military trial. The Court declared that such procedures could only be used when regular civilian courts were unavailable.

Era 4 Manifest Destiny

manifest destiny (ID) Manifest destiny expressed the popular belief that the Unite States had a divine mission to extend its power and civilisation across the breadth of North America. Not all Americans united behind this idea. Northern Critics argued vehemently that a root of the expansionist drive was the Southern ambition to spread slavery into western lands. Many Americans believed it to be their country's manifest destiny to take undisputed possession of all of Oregon and to annex the Republic of Texas as well. They were also hoping for Mexico's cession of California. overland trails (PEO/ENV) After the mountain men, a much larger group made the hazardous journey west in hopes of clearing the forests and farming the fertile valleys of California and Oregon. By 1860, hundreds of thousands had reached their westward goal by following the Oregon, California, Santa Fe, and Mormon trails. Inching at only 15 miles a day, a wagon train needed months to finally reach the foothills of the Rockies or face the hardships of the southwestern deserts. mining frontier (PEO/ENV) Discovery of gold in California in 1848 set off the first of many migrations to mineral-rich mountains of the West. Gold or silver rushes occurred in Colorado, Nevada, the Black Hills of the Dakotas, and other western territories. California's population soared from a mere 14,000 in 1848 to 380,000 by 1860. Booms attracted miners from around the world. By the 1860s, almost one-third of the miner in the West were Chinese. gold rush (PEO/ENV) A period from 1848 to 1856 when thousands of people came to California in order to search for gold. silver rush (PEO/ENV) Miners rused to Coloroado, Nevado, the Black Hills of the Dakotas, and other western states to search for silver. farming frontier (PEO/ENV) Most pioneer families moved west to start homesteads and being farming. The trek to California and Oregon was largely a middle-class movement, despite federal aid and reduction of acreage per sail, as it cost about $200-$300 to make the overland trip. The isolation of the frontier made life for the pioneers especially difficult during the first years, but rural communities soon developed. The institutions that the people established (schools, churches, clubs, and political parties) were modelled after those that they had known in the East or, for immigrants from abroad, their native lands. urban frontier (PEO/ENV) Western cities that arose as a result of railroads, mineral wealth, and farming attracted a number of professionals and business owners. For example, San Francisco and Denver became instant cities created by the gold and silver rushes. Salt Lake City grew because it offered fresh supplies to travellers on overland trails for the balance of their westward journey. John Tyler (POL) (1845) President responsible for annexation of Mexico after receiving mandate from Polk, opposed many parts of the Whig program for economic recovery. Oregon territory (POL) Split between U.S. and Great Britain, the U.S. had finally achieved its goal of Manifest Destiny. "Fifty-four Forty or Fight!" Political slogan of the Democrats in the election of 1844, which claimed fifty-four degrees, forty minutes as the boundary of the Oregon territory claimed by the United States. "log cabin and hard cider" campaign (POL) In the election of 1840, the Whigs were in a strong position to defeat Van Buren and the Jacksonian Democrats. Voters were happy with the economy, and the Whigs were better organised. They had a popular war hero, William Henry "Tippecanoe" Harrison. They took campaign hoopla to new heights, by putting log cabins on wheels and parading them down streets of cities and towns, demonstrating Harrison's humble origins. They also passed out hard cider for voters to drink and buttons and hats to wear. The Whigs won with 53 percent of the vote, with 78 percent of eligible voters voting. This election established the Whigs as a national party. Franklin Pierce (POL) Though a Northerner, he was acceptable to Southern Democrats because he supported the Fugitive Slave Law. In the electoral college vote, Pierce and the Democrats won all but four states in a sweep that suggested the days of the Whig party were numbered. He adopted pro-Southern policies and dispatched three American diplomats to Ostend, Belgium, where they secretly negotiated to buy Cuba from Spain, a document come to known as the Ostend Manifesto (1852). Ostend Manifesto (1852) (POL) President Polk offered to purchase Cuba from Spain for $100 million, but Spain refused to sell the last major remnant of its once glorious empire. Several Southern adventurers led small expeditions to Cuba in an effort to take the island by force. They were easily defeated and those who participated were executed by a Spanish firing squad. Elected to presidency in 1852, Franklin Pierce adopted pro-Southern policies and dispatched three American diplomats to Ostend, Belgium, where they secretly negotiated to buy Cuba from Spain. The manifesto that diplomats dew up was leaked to the press in the United States and provoked an angry reaction from antislavery members of Congress. President Pierce was forced to drop the scheme. James K. Polk (POL) President in March 1845. wanted to settle oregon boundary dispute with britain. Wanted to aquire California. wanted to incorperate Texas into union. Aroostook War (WOR) Series of clashes between American and Canadian lumberjacks in the disputed territory of northern Maine, resolved when a permanent boundary was agreed upon in 1842. Webster-Ashburton Treaty (1842) (WOR) U.S. and Great Britain settled the boundary dispute between Maine and Canada. Ended the slave trade on the high seas. Clayton-Bulwer Treaty (1850) (WOR) Another American ambition was to build a canal through Central America. Great Britain had the same ambition. To prevent each other from seizing this opportunity on its own, Great Britain and the United States agreed to the treaty. It provided that neither nation would attempt to take exclusive control of any future canal rout in Central America. This treaty continued in force until the end of the century. A new treaty signed in 1901 (the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty) gave the United States a free hand to build the canal without British participation. Mathew C. Perry; Japan (WOR) The federal government expanded U.S. trade by sending him to Japan to force that country to open up its ports to trade with Americans. In 1854, he made Japan's government sign a treaty that opened two Japanese ports to U.S. trading vessels

Era 6 Farmers and populists

markets and farmers (POL) In the late 1800s, farming became increasingly commercialized and specialized. They became dependent on large and expensive machinery and small, marginal farms were often driven out of business. crop price deflation (POL) After the Civil War, increased American and foreign food production caused a downward pressure on prices. For instance, corn per bushel prices, went from $.78 in 1867 to .$.28 in 1889. railroads and middlemen (POL) Railroads and middlemen were able to charge high or discriminatory rates in the food supply chain because they had little competition. National Grange Movement (POL) Organized by Oliver H. Kelley primarily as a social and educational organization for farmers and their families. By the 1870s however, the Grange organized economic ventures and took political action to defend members against the middlemen, trusts, and railroads. cooperatives (POL) A social and educational organisation for farmers and their families. As it expanded, it became active in economics and politics to defend members against middlemen, trusts, and railroads. They established businesses owned and run by the farmers to save the costs charged by middlemen. Ocala Platform of 1890 (POL) In 1890, a national organization of farmers, called the National Alliance, met in Florida to address the problems of rural America. It fell short of becoming a political party, but many of the reform ideas would become part of the Populist movement. rise of the Populist Party (POL) In 1892, delegates met in Omaha, Nebraska to draft a political platform that would reduce the power of trusts and bankers. They nominated James Weaver as their candidate for president. Farmers' Alliances in South and West (POL) In 1890, this group of discontented farmers elected senators, representatives, governors, and majorities in state legislatures in the West. Alliance of whites and blacks in South (POL) The Populist party tried to form a political alliance with these poor farmers. Thomas Watson (POL) He was from Georgia and he appealed to poor farmers of both races to join the Populists party. reformers vs. racism in South (POL) The Populist party declined after 1896 and soon ceased to be a national party because Populist part leaders gave up trying to unite poor whites and blacks, having learned that racism was stronger than common economic interests. Omaha Platform (POL) Political agenda adopted by the populist party in 1892 at their Omaha, Nebraska convention. Called for unlimited coinage of silver (bimetallism), government regulation of railroads and industry, graduated income tax, and a number of election reforms. government regulation and ownership (POL) The Populist movement attacked laissez-faire capitalism and attempted to form a political alliance between poor whites and poor blacks. Coxey's Army, March on Washington (POL) In 1894, Populist Jacob A. Coxey led a march to Washington to demand that the federal government spend $500 million on public works programs. Coin's Financial School (POL) In 1894, this book taught Americans that unlimited silver coining would end the economic problems. William Jennings Bryan (POL) Democratic candidate for president in 1896 under the banner of "free silver coinage" which won him support of the Populist Party. "Cross of Gold" Speech (POL) An impassioned address by William Jennings Bryan at the 1896 Deomcratic Convention, in which he attacked the "gold bugs" who insisted that U.S. currency be backed only with gold. fusion of Democrats and Populists (POL) In the 1896 presidential election the Democrats and Populists both nominated William Jennings Bryan for president in fused campaign.

Era 8 Vietnam

military "advisers" (WOR) President Kennedy adopted Eisenhower's domino theory that, if Communist forces overthrew South Vietnam's government, they would quickly overrun other countries of Southeast Asia - Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. Kennedy therefore continued U.S. military aid to South Vietnam's regime and significantly increased the number of military "advisers," who trained the South Vietnamese army and guarded weapons and facilities. By 1963, there were more than 16,000 U.S. troops in South Vietnam in support, not combat, roles. They provided training and supplies for South Vietnam's armed forces and helped create "strategic hamlets" (fortified villages). fall of Diem (WOR) Captured and assassinated by his own generals in a coup. The US was in favor of this- November 1963, monks in vietnam protested the diem regime. Tonkin Gulf Resolution (WOR) This gave the president authority to take "all neccessary measures to repel any armed attack against forces of the United States." escalation of troops (WOR) In April 1965, President Johnson used U.S. combat troops in Vietnam for the first time. Johnson continued a step-by-step escalation and by March 1969 there were 540,000 troops deployed to Vietnam. General Westmoreland (WOR) General based in Vietnam that helped cause the credibility gap by telling the American people the war was almost over when 1000 of Americans were being killed. credibility gap (WOR) American public's growing distrust of statements made by the government during the Vietnam War. Tet Offensive (WOR) (1968) National Liberation Front and North Vietnamese forces launched a huge attack on the Vietnamese New Year (Tet), which was defeated after a month of fighting and many thousands of casualties; major defeat for communism, but Americans reacted sharply, with declining approval of LBJ and more anti-war sentiment. hawks and doves (WOR) The supporters of the war, the "hawks," believed that the war was an act of Soviet-backed Communist aggression against South Vietnam and that it was part of a master plan to conquer all of Southeast Asia. The opponents of the war, the "doves," viewed the conflict as a civil war fought by Vietnamese nationalists and some Communists who wanted to unite their country by overthrowing a corrupt Saigon government. LBJ withdraws (POL) On March 23, 1968, President Johnson made a television address in which he said that the U.S. would limit bombing of North Vietnam and negotiate peace. He also announced that he would not run for president in 1968.

Era 8 Ford

reform of CIA (WOR, POL) Former Congressman George H. W. Bush was appointed by President Ford to reform this agency after it had been accused of assassinating foreign leaders. fall of Saigon (WOR, POL) Marked the end of the Vietnam War in April, 1975 when North Vietnamese invaded South Vietnam, forcing all Americans left to flee in disarray as the capitol was taken. Cambodia genocide (WOR, POL) In 1975, the U.S. supported government in Cambodia fell to the Khmer Rouge, a radical Communist faction that killed over one million of its people in an effort to rid the country of western influence. battle over inflation (WOR, POL) In 1979-1980, inflation seemed completely out of control and reached the unheard of rate of 13 percent. Bicentennial (WOR, POL) In 1976, the United States celebrated its 200th birthday. Americans' pride in their history helped to put Watergate and Vietnam behind them. Even the lacklustre presidency of Gerald Ford served the purpose of restoring candour and humility to the White House. election of 1976 (WOR, POL) Watergate still cast its gloom over the Republican party in the 1976 elections. President Ford was challenged for the party's nomination by Ronald Reagan, a former actor and ex-governor of California, who enjoyed the support of the more conservative Republicans. Ford won the nomination in a close battle, but the conflict with Reagan hurt him in the polls.

Era 2 Economy

rice plantations (ENV) By the middle of the 18th century, South Carolina's large rice-growing plantations worked by enslaved Africans resembled the economy and culture of the West Indies. tobacco farms (ENV) Farmers from Virginia and New England established small, self-sufficient tobacco farms. joint-stock company (WOR) Joint-stock company that pooled the savings of many investors, thereby spreading the risk. Virginia Company (WOR) (Jamestown) England's King James I chartered the Virginia Company, a joint-stock company that founded the first permanent English colony in America at Jamestown in 1907. (corporate colony) mercantilism (WOR) Mercantilism looked upon trade, colonies, and the accumulation of wealth as the basis for a country's military and political strength. According to mercantilist doctrine, a government should regulate trade and production to enable it to become self-sufficient. Colonies were to provide raw materials to the parent county for the growth and profit of that country's industries. Colonies existed for one purpose: to enrich the parent country. Navigation Acts (WOR) (Mercantilist Policy By English Government): indentured servants (WXT) The Virginia Company first tried to use indentured servants. Under contract with a master or landowner who paid for their passage, young people from the British Isles agreed to work for a specified period - usually between four to seven years - in return for room and board. Once their contracts expired, they gained their freedom and either worked for wages or obtained land of their own farm. For landowners, the system provided labourers, but only temporarily. headright system (WXT) Virginia attempted to attract immigrants through offers of land. The colony offered 50 acres of land to (1) each immigrant who paid for his own passage and (2) any plantation owner who paid for an immigrant's passage. (Jamestown) slavery (WXT) In 1619, a Dutch ship brought black African indentured servants to Virginia. English law did not recognise hereditary slavery so the first Africans in Virginia were not in bondage for life, and any children born to them were free. By 1650, there were only about 400 African labourers in Virginia. However, by the end of the 1660s, the Virginia House of Burgesses had enacted laws that discriminated between blacks and whites. Africans and their offspring were to be kept in permanent bondage. They were slaves. triangular trade (WXT) English trade in enslaved Africans had been monopolised by a single company, the Royal African Company. But after this monopoly expired, many New England merchants entered the lucrative slave trade. Merchant ships would regularly follow a triangular, or three-part, trade route. First, a ship starting from a New England port such as Boston would carry rum across the Atlantic to West Africa. There the rum would be traded from hundreds of captive Africans. Next, the ship would set out on the horrendous Middle Passage. Those Africans who survived the frightful voyage would be traded as slaves in the West Indies for a cargo of sugarcane. Third, completing the last side of the triangle, the ship would return to a New England port where the sugar would be sold to be used in making rum. Middle Passage (WXT) A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies subsistence farming (ENV) (South) Most people lived on small subsistence family farms with no slaves.

Era 9 2008 Recession

securitization (WXT) The housing boom of 2002-2007 was fuelled by risky subprime mortgages and speculators who borrowed to "flip" properties for a quick profit. Wall Street firms packaged these high-risk loans into a variety of complex investments and sold them to unsuspecting investors around the world. liquidity crisis (WXT) (Securitization, Housing Bubble) Prices collapsed, foreclosures climbed, and investments worth trillions of dollars lost value. Investors panicked, which caused many banks and financial institutions at home and overseas to face failure. This resulted in a credit crisis, because banks either lacked funds or were afraid to make the loans to businesses and consumers necessary for the day-to-day functioning of the economy. Fannie May, Freddie Mac (WXT) These government backed institutions reassured investors who were worried about homeowners defaulting on mortgages by selling bonds to investors and using the funds to purchase mortgages from banks. Lehman Brothers (WXT) In September 2008, this large Wall Street investment bank declared bankruptcy, which led to a panic in the financial industry. Troubled Assets Relief Program (TARP) (WXT) The Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 created this controversial program. The federal government used $700 million to purchase failing assets, that included mortgages and mortgage-related securities, from financial institutions. Conservatives called it socialism, and liberals called it a bailout of the people who had caused the problems in the first place. poor regulation of financial institutions (WXT) The causes of the Great Recession will be debated for years, causes include: Excessive deregulation of the financial industry Real estate bank fraud Federal Reserve kept interest rates too low Government efforts to promote home ownership.

Era 4 Cities

urbanisation; urban life (PEO) Urban population grew from 5 percent of the population in 1800 to 15 percent by 1850. Crowded housing, poor sanitation, infectious diseases, and high rates of crime soon became characteristic of large working-class neighbourhoods. new cities (PEO) At key transportation points, small villages and towns grew into thriving cities after 1820: Buffalo, Cleveland, Detroit, and Chicago on the Great Lakes, Cincinnati on the Ohio River, and St. Louis on the Mississippi River. The cities served as transfer points, processing farm products for shipment to the East, and distributing manufactured foods from the East to their region.

Era 7 Teddy Roosevelt

trust-busting (POL, ENV) (Law) government activities seeking to dissolve corporate trusts and monopolies (especially under the United States antitrust laws). bad vs. good trusts (POL, ENV) President Theodore Roosevelt did make a distinction between breaking up "bad trusts", which harmed the public and stifled competition, and regulating "good trusts" which through efficiency and low prices dominated a market. Elkins Act (1903) (POL, ENV) Sponsored by President Theodore Roosevelt, provided for the regulation of interstate railroads. The act forbade rebates or other rate reductions to shipping companies. Railroads were not allowed to offer rates different from the published rates. Hepburn Act (1906) (POL, ENV) This Act tightened existing railroad regulation. Empowered the Interstate Commerce Commission to set maximum railroad rates and to examine railroad's financial records. Upton Sinclair The Jungle; Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) (POL, ENV) Described in horrifying detail the conditions in the Chicago stockyards and meatpacking industry. The public outcry following the publication of Sinclair's novel caused Congress to enact two regulatory laws in 1906: Meat Inspection Act (1906) (POL, ENV) Made it so that meat would be inspected by the government from coral to can. It began a quality rating system as well as increased the sanitation requirements for meat producers. conservation of public lands (POL, ENV) President Theodore Roosevelt's most original and lasting contribution in domestic policy may have been his efforts to protect the nation's natural resources. Newlands Reclamation Act (1902) (POL, ENV) Authorized the use of federal funds from public land sales to pay for irrigation and land development projects, mainly in the dry Western states. White House Conference (POL, ENV) Used to publicize the need for conservation , also to promote coordinated conservation planning by federal and state governments. Gifford Pinchot (POL, ENV) Head of the U.S. Forest Servic under Roosevelt, who believed that it was possible to make use of natural resources while conserving them. Socialist Party of America (POL) A third party developed in the first decade of the 1900s that was dedicated to the welfare of the working class. Originally called the Socialist Labour party in 1897, it changed its name in 1901. The Socialist platform called for more radical reforms than the Progressives favoured: public ownership of the railroads, utilities, and even of major industries such as oil and steel. Eugene V. Debs (POL) Leader of the American Railway Union, he voted to aid workers in the Pullman strike. He was jailed for six months for disobeying a court order after the strike was over. Bull Moose party (POL) The Republicans were badly split in the 1912 election, so Roosevelt broke away forming his own Progressive Party (or Bull Moose Party because he was "fit as a bull moose..."). His loss led to the election of Democratic nominee Woodrow Wilson, but he gained more third party votes than ever before. New Nationalism New Freedom (POL) In the election of 1912, the Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson were the main competitors. Roosevelt called for a "New Nationalism", with more government regulation of business and unions, women's suffrage (voting rights), and more social welfare programs. Wilson supported a "New Freedom", which would limit both big business and big government, bring about reform by ending corruption, and revive competition by supporting small business.

Era 7 WW2 Domestic Front

wartime migration (MIG, POL) Attracted by jobs in the North and West, over 1.5 million African Americans left the South. In addition, a million young men left home to serve in the armed forces. Whether as soldiers or civilians, all faced continued discrimination and segregation. White resentment in urban areas led to dozens dying in race riots in New York and Detroit during the summer of 1943. civil rights, "Double V" (MIG, POL) During World War II civil rights leaders encouraged African Americans to adopt the Double V slogan - one for victory, one for equality. "Rosie the Riveter" (MIG, POL) A propaganda character designed to increase production of female workers in the factories. It became a rallying symbol for women to do their part. wartime solidarity (MIG, POL) The New Deal helped immigrant groups feel more included, and serving together in combat or working together in defense plants helped to reduce prejudices. election of 1944 (MIG, POL) Year in which Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey for president and John W, Bricker (an isolationist senator) for vice president. Democrats renominated Roosevelt but changed vice president to Harry S. Truman. Roosevelt won with sweeping victory. 4th term for Roosevelt. Harry S. Truman (MIG, POL) Became president when FDR died; gave the order to drop the atomic bomb

Era 9 Reagan Domestic

election of 1980 (POL, WXT) Ronald Reagan won this presidential election, defeating Jimmy Carter because of the Iranian hostage crisis and America's stagflation. It was significant because the Senate had Republican majority and more seats in the house allowing them to pass many key Republican programs. The 1980 election ended a half-century of Democratic dominance of Congress. Ronald Reagan (POL, WXT) 1981-1989,"Great Communicator" Republican, conservative economic policies, replaced liberal Democrats in upper house with consevative Democrats or "boll weevils" , at reelection time, jesse jackson first black presdiential candidate, Geraldine Ferraro as VP running mate (first woman). supply-side economics (Reaganomics) (POL, WXT) The Reagan administration advocated supply-side economics, arguing that tax cuts and reduced government spending would increase investment by the private sector, which would lead to increased production, jobs, and prosperity. This approach contrasted with the Keynesian economics long favoured by the Democrats, which relied on government spending during economic downturns to boost consumer income and demand. Critics of the supply-side theory compared it to the "trickle-down" economics of the 1920s, in which wealthy Americans prospered, and some of their increased spending benefited the middle class and the poor. Economic Recovery Tax Act (1981) (POL, WXT) A measure signed by Reagan in 1981 which cut personal income taxes by 25 percent, lowered the maximum rate from 70 to 50 percent for 1982, cut the capital gains tax by a third, and offered the wealthy a broad array of other tax concessions. business deregulation (POL, WXT) Reagan followed up on the promise of "getting governmnet off the backs of people" by reducing federal regulations on business and industry. Restrictions were eased on savings and loans, mergers and takeovers by large corporations, and environmental protection. PACTO strike (POL, WXT) Reagan took a tough stand against unions, he fired thousands of striking federal air traffic controllers for violating their contract and decertified their union. Sandra Day O'Connor (POL, WXT) First woman supreme court justice. Appointed by Reagan William Rehnquist (POL, WXT) United States jurist who served as an associate justice on the United States Supreme Court from 1972 until 1986, when he was appointed chief justice (born in 1924). growth of upper incomes (POL, WXT) In the 1980s, well educated workers and yuppies (young urban professionals) enjoyed higher incomes from the deregulated marketplace while the standard of living for the middle class remained stagnant or declined. budget and trade deficits (POL, WXT) President Reagan's tax cuts combined with large increases in military spending lead to federal deficits of more than $200 million a year. During his two terms the national debt tripled from $900 million to $2.7 trillion. The U.S. trade deficit reached $150 billion a year. election of 1984 (POL, WXT) The return of prosperity, even if not fully shared by all Americans, restored public confidence in the Reagan administration. At their convention in 1984, Republicans nominated their popular president by acclamation. Among Democrats, Jesse Jackson became the first African American politician to make a strong run for the presidency by seeking the support of all minority groups under the banner of the National Rainbow Coalition. However, Democrats nominated Walter Mondale, Carter's vice president, to be their presidential candidate. For vice president, they chose Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York, the first woman to run for vice president on a major party ticket. Reagan took every state except Mondale's home state of Minnesota. Two-thirds of white males voted for Reagan. Analysis of voting returns indicated that only two groups still favoured the Democrats: African Americans and those earning less than $12,500 a year.

Era 9 Obama Domestic

election of 2008 (POL) In this presidential election Democrats Barack Obama and Joseph Biden ran against Republicans John McCain and Sarah Palin. The Republican Bush administration was unpopular and the country faced was facing an economic crisis. Obama's message for change and his well-funded grassroots campaign led him to victory. Barack Obama (POL) 2008; Democrat; first African American president of the US, health care bill; Gulf of Mexico oil spill disaster; economy: huge stimulus package to combat the great recession, is removing troops from Iraq, strengthened numbers in Afghanistan; repeal of Don't Ask Don't Tell; New Start treaty with Russia. John McCain (POL) This Republican senator was a prisoner of war during the Vietnam War and is seeking the Republican nomination in the 2008 presidential election. Sarah Palin (POL) In 2008, this Republican governor of Alaska was the vice presidential candidate, running with John McCain. effects of Great Recession (POL) The Great Recession started in late 2007. The stock market dropped dramatically but recovered by 2013, unemployment peaked at 10 percent in 2009 and stayed at 7 percent until 2013. Obama enacted a number of Keynesian programs to promote recovery. 2009 stimulus bill (POL) The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 provided $787 billion economic stimulus package designed to create or save 3.5 billion jobs. It featured tax cuts, aid to state and local governments, and funding for construction projects, health care, education, and renewable energy. Dodd-Frank Act (POL) A law enacted in the aftermath of the financial crisis of 2008-2009 that strengthened government oversight of financial markets and placed limitations on risky financial strategies such as heavy reliance on leverage. aid to auto industry (POL) With General Motors and and Chrysler near collapse, the Obama administration stepped in to help. The government temporarily took over General Motors while in bankruptcy, and guided the sale of Chrysler to Italian automaker Fiat. Affordable Care Act (POL) An expansion of medicaid, most of employers must provide health insurance, have insurance or face surtax, prevents rejection based on pre-existing condition. Also referred to as "Obamacare", signed into law in 2010. Bowles-Simpson plan (POL) This plan would have eliminated the deficit by 2035 through $2 of spending cuts for every $1 increase in revenues. It was rejected by both parties. Tea Party (POL) The Tea Party is a political movement that largely began in 2009 with protests that were sponsored both locally and nationally. In general the movement is considered conservative, favoring decreased taxes & decreased spending by the government. The focus is on fiscal conservatism. So far the Tea Party has endorsed Republican candidates. debt ceiling (POL) An explicit, legislated limit on the amount of outstanding national debt. super-committee (POL) The bipartisan committee that was to determine what the $900 billion spending cuts were to be. U.S. credit rating (POL) In 2011, the uncertainty and gridlock in Washington led Standard & Poor's to downgrade the US AAA credit rating. election of 2012 (POL) In this presidential election the Great Recession and Obamacare (new healthcare act) were the top issues. Barack Obama defeated Mitt Romney in this election. Mitt Romney (POL) In 2012, this conservative, Mormon, former governor of Massachusetts, was the Republican presidential candidate. Latino voters (POL) In 2012, 1 in every 6 American voter was a Latino voter, and President Obama won 71 percent of the Latino votes in this election. sequester cuts (POL) In 2013, Congress was unable to compromise on the budget so these cuts went into effect. 2013 shutdown of government (POL) In October 2013, the Republican effort to defund the Affordable Care Act resulted in a shutdown of the government for 16 days, and threatened default on the national debt. The approval rating of Congress dropped to 10 percent. gun violence (POL) Mass shootings at a Colorado movie theater and a Connecticut school sparked another debate over guns. President Obama's proposals to tighten gun laws went nowhere because of gun rights advocates. Boston Marathon bombing (POL) Fear of home-grown terrorism became real when two brothers set off two bombs at the finish line of the Boston Marathon killing three and injuring more than 250 people. The young men who did the bombing seemed motivated by extremist Islamic beliefs. Sonia Sotomayor (POL, CUL) Appointed by President Obama in 2009, first Hispanic Supreme Court Justice. Elena Kagan (POL, CUL) Appointed by Barack Obama in 2010. More liberal justice. Shelby County v. Holder (2013) (POL, CUL) Struck down provision of Voting Rights Act of 1965 requiring states engaged in past discrimination to get federal preclearance before instituting changes in voting laws or practices; allowed restrictive state voter ID laws to go forward (Roberts Court). repeal of "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" (POL, CUL) In 2010, Congress repealed the Clinton era "Don't Ask, Don't Tell" to end discrimination of gays in the military. same-sex marriage (POL, CUL) Federally recognized marriage between members of the same sex; made legal in the United States in 2015. 2nd Amendment and Heller case (POL, CUL) In 2008, the Supreme Court ruled that the 2nd amendment protects an individual's right to posses a firearm unconnected with service in a militia. campaign financing (POL, CUL) In 2013, the Supreme Court heard arguments to overturn the federal limits on campaign contributions, which some worried would open the door to wider corruption of elected officials. Citizens United (2010) (POL, CUL) Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, case in which the U.S. Supreme Court on January 21, 2010, ruled (5-4) that laws that prevented corporations and unions from using their general treasury funds for independent "electioneering communications" (political advertising) violated the First Amendment's guarantee of freedom of speech. NFIB v. Sibelius (2012) (POL, CUL) 5-4 decision that requirement that individuals must purchase health insurance or pay penalty constitutional, angered conservatives, further ruling ltd. Congress's authority under interstate commerce clause & ltd. power to force states to expand Medicaid→ low-income ppl not received health insurance.

Era 8 Eisenhower Domestic

elections of 1952, 1956 (POL) In these two presidential elections Dwight Eisenhower and Richard Nixon defeated Adlai Stevenson quite easily. Dwight Eisenhower (POL) Eisenhower (nicknamed "Ike") later became a very popular second term Republican American president. He was elected because he was a WWII war hero. Ike planned the successful Operation Torch attack and was later appointed to be "Supreme Allied Commander" in Europe (he was placed in charge of all generals for all nations allied with the US). His next big plan was Operation Overlord. Adlai Stevenson (POL) An Illinois governor and the Democratic presidential nominee in 1952 and 1956. He lost both elections to Dwight Eisenhower and Richard Nixon. modern Republicanism (POL) Eisenhower was a fiscal conservative whose first priority was balancing the budget after years of deficit spending. Although his annual budgets were not always balanced, he came closer to curbing federal spending than any of his successors. As a moderate on domestic issues, he accepted most of the New Deal programs as a reality of modem life and even extended some of them. During Eisenhower's two terms in office, Social Security was extended to 10 million more citizens, the minimum wage was raised, and additional public housing was built. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) (POL) In 1953, President Eisenhower consolidated welfare programs under this new department, run by Oveta Culp Hobby, the first woman in a Republican cabinet. soil-bank program (POL) President Eisenhower created this program as a way to reduce farm production, thereby increasing farm income. Highway Act (1956); interstate highway system (POL) Popularly known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act. It appropriated $25 billion for the construction of 41,000 miles of interstate highways over a 10-year period, it was the largest public works project in American history to that point. The money was handled in a highway trust fund that paid for 90 percent of highway construction costs with the states required to pay the remaining 10 percent. It was expected that the money would be generated through new taxes on fuel, automobiles, trucks and tires. It is said he drew six lines (three vertical and three horizontal) on a piece of paper and told his people to base their freeway system on it. Operation Wetback (POL, NAT) In the early 1950s, U.S. officials, responding to complaints from native-born workers and from Mexico, launched the operation which forced an estimate 3.8 million people to return to Mexico. Mexicans migrants remaining in the United States often faced discrimination and exploitation by commercial farmers.

Era 7 Depression People

depression mentality (MIG) Millions of people who lived through the Great Depression developed an attitude of insecurity and economic concern that remained throughout their lives. drought; dust bowl; Okies (MIG) As if farmers did not already have enough problems, a severe drought in the early 1930s ruined crops in the Great Plains. This region became a dust bowl, as poor farming practices coupled with high winds blew away millions of tons of dried topsoil. With their farms turned to dust, and their health often compromised, thousands of "Okies" from Oklahoma and surrounding states migrated westward to California in search of farm or factory work that often could not be found. John Steinbeck, The Grapes of Wrath (MIG) (1939) a story of dustbowl victims who travel to California to look for a better life; a novel set during the great depression,focuses on a poor family of sharecroppers driven from their home by drought, economic hardship, and changes in the agriculture industry. Marian Anderson (MIG) The distinguished African American singer, had been refused the use of Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C., by the all-white Daughters of the American Revolution. Eleanor Roosevelt and Ickes promptly arranged for Anderson to give a special concert at the Lincoln Memorial. Mary McLeod Bethune (MIG) One of a hundred African Americans were appointed to middle-level positions in federal departments by President Roosevelt, had been a long-time leader of efforts for improving education and economic opportunities for women. Invited to Washington to direct a division of the National Youth Administration, she established the Federal Council on Negro Affairs for the purpose of increasing African American involvement in the New Deal.

Era 8 Environment

Earth Day (1970) (GEO) 20 million Americans celebrated the first day in April 1970; speeches and demonstrations spotlighted such problems as thermal pollution, dying lakes, oil spills, and dwindling resources, introducing Americans to the idea of "living lightly on the earth." Organic gardening, vegetarianism, solar power, recycling, composting, and preventive health care were popular, like Zero population growth. Exxon Valdez accident (GEO) In 1989, this oil tanker ran aground and created a massive oil spill off the coast of Alaska. Three Mile Island (GEO) (1979) A mechanical failure and a human error at this power plant in Pennsylvania combined to permit an escape of radiation over a 16 mile radius. Chernobyl meltdown (GEO) On April 26, 1986, a sudden surge of power during a reactor systems test destroyed Unit 4 of the nuclear power station at Chernobyl, Ukraine, in the former Soviet Union. The accident and the fire that followed released massive amounts of radioactive material into the environment. Clean Air Act (1970) (GEO) Required EPA to develop and enforce regulations to protect the public from airborne contaminants; forced states to follow and make sure the laws for followed in relation to the EPA. States allowed to decide officials for enforcement. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (GEO) An independent federal agency established to coordinate programs aimed at reducing pollution and protecting the environment. Clean Water Act (1972) (GEO) Establishes and maintains goals and standards for U.S. water quality and purity. It has been amended several times, most prominently in 1987 to increase controls on toxic pollutants, and in 1990, to more effectively address the hazard of oil spills. Environmental Superfund (1980) (GEO) Created to clean up toxic dumps such as Love Canal in Niagara Falls, NY. Endangered Species Act (1973) (GEO) Identifies threatened and endangered species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic considerations

Era 9 Growing Globalism and General Changes

European Union (EU); euro (WOR) In 2002, the European Union (EU) became a unified market of 15 nations, 12 of which adopted the euro as their currency. The EU grew to include 27 European nations by 2007, including ten former satellites of the USSR. World Trade Organisation (WOR) (WTO) Was established in 1994 to oversee trade agreements, enforce trade rules, and settle disputes. The powerful International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank made loans to and supervised the economic policies of poorer nations with debt troubles. World Bank, G-8 (WOR) This powerful bank made loans to and supervised the economic policies of poorer nations with debt problems. The Group of Eight, made up of the world's largest industrial powers (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, and United States), controlled two-thirds of the world's wealth. China, India, Brazil (WOR) In the 21st century, these three countries would soon surpass many of the older industrial powers. The growing gap between rich and poor nations of the world caused tensions. effects on jobs (WOR) Workers and unions in the richest nations often resented globalization, because they lost their jobs to cheaper labor markets in the developing world. prosperity of 1990s (WXT, NAT) During President Clinton's two terms in office the U.S. enjoyed the longest peacetime economic expansion in history, with annual growth rates of more than 4 percent. technology boom (WXT, NAT) In the 1990's national productivity was improved by personal computers, software, Internet, cable, and wireless communications. Internet, e-commerce (WXT, NAT) The 1990s saw growth in the Internet and in electronic commerce (purchases made online). rise of South and West (WXT, NAT) The 2000 census reported the population of the United States was 281.4 million people. The fastest growing regions were the West and the South. Greater populations meant more congressional representatives and electoral votes. Immigration Act of 1986 (WXT, NAT) This act attempted to create a fair entry process for immigrants, but failed to stop the problem of illegal entry into the U.S. from Mexico. It was criticized for granting amnesty to undocumented immigrants from Mexico and the Americas. growth of Hispanics (WXT, NAT) In 2000, the Hispanic population was the fasted growing segment of the population and emerged as the largest minority part in the nation. "graying" America (WXT, NAT) The aging of the American population, or increase of the proportion of elderly citizens, caused by a declining birth rate and increased life expectancy. Caused an increase in costliness of Social Security pensions, rapid increase in health costs, and meant the elderly would be politically formidable. single-parent families (WXT, NAT) In the 1990s there was a decline of traditional family, and a growing number of single-parent families. By 2000, there were 12.8 million single-parent families. distribution of income (WXT, NAT) Varied widely by race, gender, and education. For example, the median income in 2000 was $53,256 for white families, $35,054 for Hispanic families, and $34,192 for black families. High school graduates earned only half the income of college graduates. The United States was the richest country in the world, but among industrialized nations, it had the largest gap between lowest and highest paid workers. concentration of wealth (WXT, NAT) Among industrialized nations, the United States had the largest gap between the lowest and the highest paid workers and the greatest concentration of wealth at the top. debate over freedom (WXT, NAT) Freedom is a main theme in American history, but an essentially contested concept. Through the years it has meant many different things to different people: freedom to enslave others, equal rights for all, liberation from big government and federal regulations, unregulated capitalism, among others. political polarisation (POL) In the 2000s the political parties became regionally divided. Traditional, religious, and anti-government voters were often in rural and suburban areas and voted Republican. Liberals were commonly found in urban areas and voted Democrat.

Era 9 Reagan Foreign

Expand military (WOR) President Reagan expanded the military to fight against the Soviet Union which he referred to as the "evil empire". The defense budget grew from $171 billion in 1981 to $300 billion in 1985. Strategic Defence Initiative (Star Wars) (WOR) Reagan administration also increased spending on the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), an ambitious plan for building a high-tech system of lasers and particle beams to destroy enemy missiles before they could reach U.S. territory. Critics called the SDI "Star Wars" and argued that the costly program would only escalate the arms race and could be overwhelmed by the Soviets building more missiles. Although Congress made some cuts in the Reagan proposals, the defence budget grew from $171 billion in 1981 to more than $300 billion in 1985. Nicaragua; Sandinistas (WOR) In Central America, Reagan supported right-wing dictators as long as they were friendly to the United States and anti-Communists. In Nicaragua, a Marxist movement known as the Sandinistas had overthrown the dictator. The U.S. responded by providing military aid to the "contras" in their efforts to remove the Sandinistas. Boland Amendment (WOR) The name given to three U.S. legislative amendments between 1982 and 1984, all aimed at limiting U.S. government assistance to the rebel Contras in Nicaragua. Iran-contra affair (WOR) Americans kidnapped in Beirut by Iranian govt, so deal, scandal including arms sales to the Middle East in order to send money to help the Contras in Nicaragua even though Congress had objected, Poindexter and North involved. Beirut bombings (WOR) In April 1983, an Arab suicide bomber killed 63 people at the U.S. embassy in Beirut. A few months later, an Arab terrorist drove a bomb-filled truck into a U.S. Marines barracks, killing 241 servicemen. Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) (WOR) Created in 1964, a loose union of Palestinian refugee groups opposed to Israel and united in the goal of gaining Palestinian home rule. Yasser Arafat (WOR) Palestinian statesman who is chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (born in 1929). "evil empire" (WOR) Ronald Reagan's description of Soviet Union because of his fierce anti-communist views and the USSR's history of violation of human rights and aggression. Mikhail Gorbachev; glasnost, perestroika (WOR) New Soviet leader who impletmented changes in their domestic politics with these reforms: 1) glasnost: an openness to end political repression and move toward greater political freedom for Soviet citizens. 2) perestroika: reconstruction of the Soviet economy by introducing some free-market practices. "tear down this wall" (WOR) Reagan said this in a speech in front of the Berlin Wall to challenge Mikhail Gorbachev into falling through with his reforms. INF agreement (WOR) With this agreement, Reagan and Gorbachev agreed to remove and destroy all intermediate-range missiles.

Era 9 GHWB Foreign

Expand military (WOR) President Reagan expanded the military to fight against the Soviet Union which he referred to as the "evil empire". The defense budget grew from $171 billion in 1981 to $300 billion in 1985. Strategic Defence Initiative (Star Wars) (WOR) Reagan administration also increased spending on the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI), an ambitious plan for building a high-tech system of lasers and particle beams to destroy enemy missiles before they could reach U.S. territory. Critics called the SDI "Star Wars" and argued that the costly program would only escalate the arms race and could be overwhelmed by the Soviets building more missiles. Although Congress made some cuts in the Reagan proposals, the defence budget grew from $171 billion in 1981 to more than $300 billion in 1985. Nicaragua; Sandinistas (WOR) In Central America, Reagan supported right-wing dictators as long as they were friendly to the United States and anti-Communists. In Nicaragua, a Marxist movement known as the Sandinistas had overthrown the dictator. The U.S. responded by providing military aid to the "contras" in their efforts to remove the Sandinistas. Boland Amendment (WOR) The name given to three U.S. legislative amendments between 1982 and 1984, all aimed at limiting U.S. government assistance to the rebel Contras in Nicaragua. Iran-contra affair (WOR) Americans kidnapped in Beirut by Iranian govt, so deal, scandal including arms sales to the Middle East in order to send money to help the Contras in Nicaragua even though Congress had objected, Poindexter and North involved. Beirut bombings (WOR) In April 1983, an Arab suicide bomber killed 63 people at the U.S. embassy in Beirut. A few months later, an Arab terrorist drove a bomb-filled truck into a U.S. Marines barracks, killing 241 servicemen. Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) (WOR) Created in 1964, a loose union of Palestinian refugee groups opposed to Israel and united in the goal of gaining Palestinian home rule. Yasser Arafat (WOR) Palestinian statesman who is chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (born in 1929). "evil empire" (WOR) Ronald Reagan's description of Soviet Union because of his fierce anti-communist views and the USSR's history of violation of human rights and aggression. Mikhail Gorbachev; glasnost, perestroika (WOR) New Soviet leader who impletmented changes in their domestic politics with these reforms: 1) glasnost: an openness to end political repression and move toward greater political freedom for Soviet citizens. 2) perestroika: reconstruction of the Soviet economy by introducing some free-market practices. "tear down this wall" (WOR) Reagan said this in a speech in front of the Berlin Wall to challenge Mikhail Gorbachev into falling through with his reforms. INF agreement (WOR) With this agreement, Reagan and Gorbachev agreed to remove and destroy all intermediate-range missiles. Panama Invasion (1989) (POL, WOR) Ordered by Bush in December 1989 to remove the autocratic General Manuel Noriega. The said purpose of the invasion was to stop Noriega from using the country as a "drug pipeline" to the US. Saddam Hussein (POL, WOR) Was a dictator in Iraq who tried to take over Iran and Kuwait violently in order to gain the land and the resources. He also refused to let the UN into Iraq in order to check if the country was secretly holding weapons of mass destruction. Persian Gulf War (1991) (POL, WOR) Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Kuwait over oil dispute on the border against US wishes (Saddam had formerly been US ally). US invaded Iraq to liberate Kuwait; Iraq set Kuwait's oil fields on fire so the Americans couldn't gain the oil; this conflict caused the US to set military bases in Saudi Arabia; also called Operation: Desert Storm. Operation Desert Storm (POL, WOR) Military operations that started on January 16, 1991, with a bombing campaign, followed by a ground invasion of February 23 and 24, 1991. The ground war lasted 100 hours and resulted in a spectacularly one-sided military victory for the Coalition.

Era 7 FDR Depression Laws

Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (POL) (FDI) A United States government corporation created by the Glass-Steagall Act of 1933. It provides deposit insurance, which guarantees the safety of deposits in member banks, currently up to $250,000 per depositor per bank Public Works Administration; Harold Ickes (POL) (PWA), directed by Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, allotted money to state and local governments for building roads, bridges, dams, and other public works. Such construction projects were a source of thousands of jobs. Civilian Conservation Corps (POL) (CCC) Hired young, unemployed people to do restoration projects throughout the country, employed over 3 million people. Tennessee Valley Authority (POL) (TVA) Was a huge experiment in regional development and public planning. As a government corporation, it hired thousands of people in one of the nation's poorest regions, the Tennessee Valley, to build dams, operate electric power plants, control flooding and erosion, and manufacture fertilizer. The TVA sold electricity to residents of the region at rates that were well below those previously charged by a private power company. National Recovery Administration (POL) (NRA) Directed by Hugh Johnson, the NRA was an attempt to guarantee reasonable profits for business and fair wages and hours for labour. With the antitrust laws temporarily suspended, the NRA could help each industry (such as steel, oil, and paper) set codes for wages, hours of work, levels of production, and prices of finished goods. The law creating the NRA also gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively. The complex program operated with limited success for two years before the Supreme Court declared the NRA unconstitutional (Schechter v. U.S.) in 1935. Schechter v. U.S (POL) In 1935, the Supreme Court declared the National Recovery Administration (NRA) unconstitutional. Securities and Exchange Commission (POL) (SEC) Was created to regulate the stock market and to place strict limits on the kind of speculative practices that had led to the Wall Street crash in 1929. The SEC also required full audits of and financial disclosure by corporations to protect investors from fraud and insider trading. Federal Housing Administration (POL) (FHA) Gave both the construction industry and homeowners a boost by insuring bank loans for building new houses and repairing old ones. Works Progress Administration (POL) Much bigger than the relief agencies of the first New Deal, the WPA spent billions of dollars between 1935 and 1940 to provide people with jobs. National Labour (Wagner) Act (1935) (POL) This major labour law of 1935 replaced the labour provisions of the National Industrial Recovery Act, after that law was declared unconstitutional. The Wagner Act guaranteed a worker's right to join a union and a union's right to bargain collectively. It also outlawed business practices that were unfair to labour. A new agency, the National Labour Relations Board (NLRB), was empowered to enforce the law and make sure that workers' rights were protected. Social Security Act (1935) (POL) The reform that, for generations afterward, would affect the lives of nearly all Americans was the passage in 1935 of the Social Security Act. It created a federal insurance program based upon the automatic collection of payments from employees and employers throughout people's working careers. The Social Security trust fund would then be used to make monthly payments to retired persons over the age of 65. Also receiving benefits under this new law were workers who lost their jobs (unemployment compensation), persons who were blind or otherwise disabled, and dependent children and their mothers. Supreme Court (FDR era) (POL) Of all the challenges to Roosevelt's leadership in his first term in office, the conservative decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court proved the most frustrating. In two cases in 1935, the Supreme Court effectively killed both the NRA for business recovery and the AAA for agricultural recovery by deciding that the laws creating them were unconstitutional. Roosevelt interpreted his landslide reelection in 1936 as a mandate to end the obstacles posed by the Court. reorganization plan (POL) President Roosevelt did not have an opportunity to appoint any Justices to the Supreme Court during his first term. He hoped to remove the Court as an obstacle to the New Deal by proposing a judicial-reorganization bill in 1937. It proposed that the president be authorized to appoint to the Supreme Court an additional justice for each current justice who was older than a certain age (70 ½ years). In effect, the bill would have allowed Roosevelt to add up to six more justices to the Court-all of them presumably of liberal persuasion. Critics called it a "Court-packing" bill. Fair Labour Standards Act (WXT) A final political victory for organized labour in the 1930s also represented the last major reform of the New Deal. In 1938, Congress enacted the Fair Labour Standards Act, which established several regulations on businesses in interstate commerce: • a minimum wage initially fixed at 40 cents an hour • a maximum standard workweek of 40 hours, with extra pay ("time-and-a-half ') for overtime • child-labour restrictions on hiring people under 16 years old Fair Employment Practices Committee (MIG) (FEPC) aimed at insuring morale and maximum use of labor force by preventing employer discrimination against workers because of race or religion. The efforts of this committee laid the foundation for the Civil Rights movement of the 1950's. Indian Reorganisation (Wheeler-Howard) Act (1934) (MIG) Collier won Roosevelt's support for a major change in policy. In 1934, Congress repealed the Dawes Act of 1887, which had encouraged American Indians to be independent farmers, and replaced it with the Indian Reorganization Act. The new measure returned lands to the control of tribes and supported preservation of Indian cultures. Despite this major reform, critics later accused the New Deal of being paternalistic and withholding control from American Indians. Mexican deportation (MIG) Mexican Americans also suffered from discrimination in the 1930s. In California and the Southwest, they had been a principal source of agricultural labor in the 1920s. However, during the depression, high unemployment and drought in the Plains and the Midwest caused a dramatic growth in white migrant workers who pushed west in search of work. Discrimination in New Deal programs and competition for jobs forced many thousands of Mexican Americans to return to Mexico.

Era 8 Jimmy Carter

James Earl (Jimmy) Carter (WOR, POL) His informal style signaled an effort to end the imperial presidency. He secured energy programs, set the framework for Egypt-Israel treaty, and sought to base foreign policy on human rights. Human Rights (Carter) (WOR, POL) Carter wanted to promote freedoms and liberties of the Bill of Rights throughout the world. Panama Canal Treaty (1978) (WOR, POL) A treaty ratified by the Senate in 1978 that would gradually transfer the operation and control of the Panama Canal from the US to the Panamanians, a process to be completed by the year 2000. Camp David Accords (1978) (WOR, POL) Peace treaty between Egypt and Israel; hosted by US President Jimmy Carter; caused Egypt to be expelled from the Arab league; created a power vacuum that Saddam hoped to fill; first treaty of its kind between Israel and an Arab state. Iranian hostage crisis (WOR, POL) In 1979, Iranian fundamentalists seized the American embassy in Tehran and held fifty-three American diplomats hostage for over a year. The Iranian hostage crisis weaked the Carter presidency; the hostages were finally released on January 20, 1981, the day Ronald Reagan became president. recognition of China (WOR, POL) Nixon established a trade policy and recognized the People's Republic of China, which surprised many because China had been an enemy during the Korean and Vietnam Wars. Soviet Afghanistan invasion (WOR, POL) In December 1979, Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan, an action that ended a decade of improving U.S.-Soviet relations. Paul Volcker, high interest rates (WOR, POL) Chairman of the Federal Reserve Board hoped to break inflation by pushing interest rates even higher to 20% in 1980. This hurt the automobile + building industries, and pushed middle-class people into higher tax brackets causing a 'tax payers revolt' Standard of living on the decline for the first time since WW2. "malaise" speech (WOR, POL) National address by Jimmy Carter in July 1979 in which the President chided American materialism and urged a communal spirit in the face of economic hardships. Although Carter intended the speech to improve both public morale and his standings as a leader, it had the opposite effect and was widely perceived as a political disaster for the embattled president. cultural pluralism (GEO) Was replacing the melting pot as the model for U.S. society, as diverse ethnic and cultural groups strove not only to end discrimination and improve their lives, but also to celebrate their unique traditions.

Era 8 WW2 Post-war boom

early marriages; baby boom (WXT, CUL) Resulted in 50 million babies entering the U.S. population between 1945 and 1960. As the baby boom generation gradually passed from childhood to adolescence to adulthood, it profoundly affected the nation's social institutions and economic life in the last half of the 20th century. Initially, the baby boom tended to focus women's attention on raising children and homemaking. Nevertheless, the trend of more women in the workplace continued. By 1960, one-third of all married women worked outside the home. suburban growth (WXT, CUL) Low interest rates on mortgages that were government-insured and tax duductible made the move from the city to the suburb affordable for almost any family. In a single generation the majority of middle-class Americans became suburbanites. Levittown (WXT, CUL) In 1947, William Levitt used mass production techniques to build inexpensive homes in surburban New York to help relieve the postwar housing shortage. Levittown became a symbol of the movement to the suburbs in the years after WWII. Sunbelt (WXT, CUL) Uprooted by the war, millions of Americans made moving a habit in the post-war era. A warmer climate, lower taxes, and economic opportunities in defence-related industries attracted many GIs and their families to the Sunbelt states from Florida to California. By transferring tax dollars from the Northeast and Midwest to the South and West, military spending during the Cold War helped finance the shift of industry, people, and ultimately political power from one region to the other.

Era 7 Crash and Hoover Response

disarmament (WOR) The Republican presidents of the 1920s tried to promote peace and also scale back expenditures on defence by arranging treaties of disarmament. The most successful disarmament conference - and the greatest achievement of Harding's presidency - was held in Washington, D.C., in 1921. Washington Conference (1921) (WOR) Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes initiated talks on naval disarmament, hoping to stabilize the size of the U.S. Navy relative to that of other powers and to resolve conflicts in the Pacific. Representatives to the Washington Conference came from Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, and Portugal. Five-Power Naval treaty (WOR) (1922) Treaty resulting from the Washington Armaments Conference that limited to a specific ratio the carrier and battleship tonnage of each nation. It created a moratorium for 10 years, during which no battleships would be built. The countries agreed to refrain from further fortification of their Pacific Possessions. The five countries were: US, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy Nine-Power China Treaty (WOR) A 1922 treaty affirming the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China as previously stated in the Open Door Policy. Kellogg-Briand Treaty (1928) (WOR) (1929) Created by Frank B. Kellogg and Aristide Briand, this pact promised to never make war again and settle all disputes peacefully. Sixty-two nations signed this pact. The treaty was hard to enforce and had no provisions for the use of economic or military force against a nation that may break the treaty. Latin America policy (WOR) In 1927, the United States signed an agreement with Mexico protecting U.S. interests in Mexico. war debts (WOR) During the war, the United States loaned huge amounts of funds to help with the war but the debts took too long to be paid back. Germany had a hard time paying back their debts. reparations (WOR) As part of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was ordered to pay fines to the Allies to repay the costs of the war. Opposed by the U.S., it quickly lead to a severe depression in Germany. Dawes Plan (1924) (WOR) This loan program was crafted to give money to Germany so that they could pay war reparations and lessen the financial crisis in Europe; the program ended with the 1929 stock market crash. Farm Board (POL) Created in 1929, before the stock market crash, but its powers were later enlarged to meet the economic crisis. The board was authorized to help farmers stabilize prices by temporarily holding surplus grain and cotton in storage. The program, however, was far too modest to handle the continued overproduction of farm goods. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (POL) Created by Congress early in 1932 as a measure for propping up faltering railroads, banks, life insurance companies, and other financial institutions. The president reasoned that emergency loans from the RFC would help to stabilize these key businesses. The benefits would then "trickle down" to smaller businesses and ultimately bring recovery. Democrats scoffed at this measure, saying it would only help the rich. bonus march (1932) (POL) Also in the desperate summer of 1932, a thousand unemployed World War I veterans marched to Washington, D.C., to demand immediate payment of the bonuses promised them at a later date (1945). They were eventually joined by thousands of other veterans who brought their wives and children and camped in improvised shacks near the Capitol. Congress failed to pass the bonus bill they sought. When two veterans were killed in a clash with police, Hoover ordered the army to break up the encampment. General Douglas MacArthur, the army's chief of staff, used tanks and tear gas to destroy the shantytown and drive the veterans from Washington. The incident caused many Americans to regard Hoover as heartless and uncaring. Twentieth Amendment ("lame-duck") (POL) For the four months between Roosevelt's election and his inauguration in March 1933, Hoover was still president. However, as a "lame duck," Hoover was powerless to cope with the depression, which continued to get worse. He offered to work with the president-elect through the long period, but Roosevelt declined, not wanting to be tied to any of the Republican president's ideas. The Twentieth Amendment (known as the lame-duck amendment), passed in February 1933 and ratified by October 1933, shortened the period between presidential election and inauguration. The amendment set the start of each president's term for January 20.

Era 8 Immigration and Indians

impact of 1965 immigration law (GEO) Ended the ethnic quota acts of the 1920s favouring Europeans and thereby opened the United States to immigrants from all parts of the world. Immigration Reform and Control Act (1986) (GEO) Act that prohibits discrimination against job applicants on the basis of national origin or citizenship; establishes penalties for hiring illegal aliens and requires employers to establish each employee's identity and eligibility to work. Hispanic Americans (GEO) Mexican workers, after suffering deportation during the Great Depression, returned to the United States in the 1950s and 1960s to take low-paying agricultural jobs. They were widely exploited. Mexican American activists also won a federal mandate for bilingual education requiring schools to teach Hispanic children in both English and Spanish. In the 1980s, a growing number of Hispanic Americans were elected to public office, including as mayors of Miami, San Antonio, and other large cities. The Census Bureau reported that, in 2000, Hispanics, including Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and other Latin Americans, had become the country's largest minority group. Cesar Chavez (GEO) Non-violent leader of the United Farm Workers from 1963-1970. Organized laborers in California and in the Southwest to strike against fruit and vegetable growers. Unionized Mexican-American farm workers. American Indian Movement (GEO) (AIM) A Native American organization founded in 1968 to protest government policies and injustices suffered by Native Americans; in 1973, organized the armed occupation of Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Indian Self-Determination Act (1975) (GEO) Authorised the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, and some other government agencies to enter into contracts with, and make grants directly to, federally recognized Indian tribes. Asian Americans (GEO) Americans of Asian descent had become the fastest growing ethnic minority by the 1980s. The largest group of Asian Americans were of Chinese ancestry, followed by Filipinos, Japanese, Indians, Koreans, and Vietnamese. A strong dedication to education resulted in Asian Americans being well represented in the best colleges and universities. However, at times, Asian Americans suffered from discrimination, envy, and Japan-bashing, while the less educated immigrants earned well below the national average.

Era 7 End of WW1

"peace without victory" (WOR) President Wilson call to the fighting nations that neither side would impose harsh terms on the others. Wilson hoped that all nations would join a "league for peace". Fourteen Points (WOR) A series of proposals in which U.S. president Woodrow Wilson outlined a plan for achieving a lasting peace after World War I. • Recognition of freedom of the seas • An end to the practice of making secret treaties • Reduction of national armaments • An "impartial adjustment of all colonial claims" • Self-determination for the various nationalities • Removal of trade barriers Wilson in Paris (WOR) In January 1919, President Wilson traveled to the World War I peace conference held at the Palace of Versailles outside Paris. Big Four (WOR) The Big Four were the four most important leaders, and the most important ones at the Paris Peace Conference. They were Woodrow Wilson- USA, David Lloyd George- UK, George Clemenceau- France, and Vittorio Orlando- Italy. Treaty of Versailles (WOR) (1919) Treaty that ended WW I. It blamed Germany for WW I and handed down harsh punishment. self-determination (ToV) (WOR) Territories once controlled by Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia were taken by the Allies; independence was granted to Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Finland, and Poland; and the new nations of Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were established. League of Nations (ToV) (WOR) A world organization established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed in 1918 by President Woodrow Wilson, although the United States never joined the League. Essentially powerless, it was officially dissolved in 1946. Article X (ToV) (WOR) The Treaty of Versailles required signers join the League of Nations. The League of Nations charter, Article X, called on each member nation to be ready to protect the independence and territorial integrity of the other nations. election of 1918 (POL) This Congressional Election was significant in that the days before the election, Wilson pleaded his support of his peace plans by voting for Democratic representation in Congress, but then Republicans gained control of both houses, which hurt the broad support of Wilson's plans. Henry Cabot Lodge (POL) Henry Cabot Lodge was a Republican who disagreed with the Versailles Treaty, and who was the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. He mostly disagreed with the section that called for the League to protect a member who was being threatened. Irreconcilables (POL) During World War I, senators William Borah of Idaho and Hiram Johnson of California, led a group of people who were against the United States joining the League of Nations. Also known as "the Battalion of Death". They were extreme isolationists and were totally against the U.S. joining the League of Nations. Reservationists (POL) A group of Senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, who opposed the Treaty of Versailles, to end WWI unless specific changes were included. Wilson's stroke (POL) President Woodrow Wilson went on a speaking tour to rally public support for the Treaty of Versailles which required joining the League of Nations. In September 1919, he collapsed after delivering a speech in Colorado. He returned to Washington and a few days later suffered a massive stroke from which he never recovered. rejection of treaty (POL) The Treaty of Versailles required the U.S. to join the League of Nations. It was never ratified by Congress.

Era 7 Imperialism

"yellow journalism" (WOR, POL) Sensationalistic reporting that featured bold and lurid headlines of crime, disaster, and scandal - promoted war fever in the United States. Believing what they read daily in their newspapers, many Americans urged Congress and the president to intervene in Cuba for humanitarian reasons and put a stop to the atrocities and suffering. De Lôme Letter (WOR, POL) Causing a storm outrage, Spanish diplomat's letter that was leaked to the press and put on the front page of Hearst's Journal, criticised American President William McKinley by calling him weak and concerned only with gaining the favour of the crowd. Written by the Spanish minister to United States, the letter was highly critical of President McKinley. Many considered it an official Spanish insult against the U.S. national honour. Diplomatic cable. (telegraph). sinking of the Maine (WOR, POL) One week after the de Lome letter made headlines on February 15,1898, the U.S. battleship Maine was at anchor in the harbor of Havana, Cuba when it suddenly exploded. 260 Americans were killed on board. The yellow press accused Spain of blowing up the ship, even though experts later concluded that the explosion was an accident. Teller Ammendment (WOR, POL) Responding to the president's message, Congress passed a joint resolution on April 20 authorising war. Part of the resolution, the amendment, declared that the United States had no intention of taking political control of Cuba and that, once peace was restored to the island, the Cuban people would control their own government. "a splendid little war" (WOR, POL) What Secretary of State John Hay called the Spanish American War because of America's swift victory. invade the Philippines (WOR, POL) Commodore Dewey was ordered by Roosevelt (T), anticipating war and recognizing the strategic value of Spain's territory in the Pacific. US troops captured the city of Manila on August 13. George Dewey (WOR, POL) A United States naval officer remembered for his victory at Manila Bay in the Spanish-American War, U.S. naval commander who led the American attack on the Philippines. Rough Riders (WOR, POL) The First United States Volunteer Calvary, a mixure of Ivy League athletes and western frontiermen, volunteered to fight in the Spanish-American War. Enlisted by Theodore Roosevelt, they won many battles in Florida and enlisted in the invasion army of Cuba. Theodore Roosevelt (WOR, POL) 1858-1919. 26th President. Increased size of Navy, "Great White Fleet". Added Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine. "Big Stick" policy. Received Nobel Peace Prize for mediation of end of Russo-Japanese war. Later arbitrated split of Morocco between Germany and France. Treaty of Paris: Puerto Rico (WOR, POL) This treaty was signed on December 10, 1898 with Spain. It provided for: 1) Cuban independence, 2) Purchase of Puerto Rico and Guam, 3) Purchase of the Philippines. Guam and Philippines (WOR, POL) On December 10, 1898, the Spanish-American War treaty was signed in Paris. Under the treaty the U.S. acquired Guam and also the Philippines. annexation dispute (WOR, POL) Anti-imperialist argued that for the first time, the US would be taking possession of a heavily populated area whose people had a different culture and race. They though it violated the principles of the Constitution and DOI because it deprived them of the right to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness," and would entangled the US in the political conflicts of Asia. The Filipino people were outraged that their hopes for independence from Spain and now the US has denied it. Emilio Aguinaldo (WOR, POL) Leader of the Filipino independence movement against Spain (1895-1898). He proclaimed the independence of the Philippines in 1899, but his movement was crushed and he was captured by the United States Army in 1901. Anti-Imperialist League (WOR, POL) Objected to the annexation of the Philippines and the building of an American empire. Idealism, self-interest, racism, constitutionalism, and other reasons motivated them, but they failed to make their case; the Philippines were annexed in 1900. Insular cases (WOR, POL) Beginning in 1901, a badly divided Supreme Court decreed in these cases that the Constitution did not follow the flag. In other words, Puerto Ricans and Filipinos would not necessarily enjoy all American rights. Platt Amendment (1901) (WOR, POL) Following its military occupation, the United States successfully pressured the Cuban government to write this amendment into its constitution. It limited Cuba's treaty-making abilities, controlled its debt, and stipulated that the United States could intervene militarily to restore order when it saw fit. spheres of influence (WOR) A country or area in which another country has power to affect developments although it has no formal authority. John Hay (WOR) Was the Secretary of State in 1899; dispatched the Open Door Notes to keep the countries that had spheres of influence in China from taking over China and closing the doors on trade between China and the U.S. Open Door policy (WOR) Statement of U.S. foreign policy toward China. Issued by U.S. secretary of state John Hay (1899), the statement reaffirmed the principle that all countries should have equal access to any Chinese port open to trade. Boxer Rebellion (WOR) As the 19th century ended, nationalism and xenophobia were on the rise in China. In 1900, a secret society of Chinese nationalists - the Society of Harmonious Fists, or Boxers - attacked foreign settlements and murdered dozens of Christian missionaries. U.S. joined international forces (WOR) In response to the Boxer Rebellion, to protect American lives and property, U.S. troops joined an international force that marched into Peking (Beijing) and quickly crushed the rebellion of the Boxers. The countries forced China to pay a huge sum in indemnities, which further weakened the imperial regime. Second Hay Note (WOR) In 1900, the U.S. was fearful that the international force sent to Beijing might try to occupy China. A second note was written to all the major imperialist countries, stating that China's territory must be preserved and that equal and impartial trade with all parts of China must be maintained. "big-stick policy" (WOR) Theodore Roosevelt's method for achieving American goals in the Caribbean; it featured the threat and use of military force to promote America's commercial supremacy, to limit European intervention in the region, and to protect the Panama Canal. Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty (1903) (WOR) In 1903, the Panama government signed this treaty with the United States. It granted the U.S. all rights to the 51 mile long and 10 mile wide Canal Zone, in exchange for U.S. protection. building the Panama Canal (WOR) The building of the Panama Canal was important because it would benefit American Commerce and military capability, but Columbia rejected the deal. When America realized Panama was its own nation, Panama accepted the deal. The building was hard because there was a big mosquito disease and the canal had to be dug. George Goethals (WOR) Army engineer who oversaw completion of Panama Canal. First governor of canal zone. William Gorgas (WOR) Army physician who helped eradicate Yellow Fever and Malaria from Panama so work on the Panama Canal could proceed. Roosevelt Corollary (WOR) Roosevelt's 1904 extension of the Monroe Doctrine, stating that the United States has the right to protect its economic interests in South And Central America by using military force. Santo Domingo (WOR) In 1904, it appeared that European powers stood ready to intervene in Santo Domingo for the same reason. Rather than let Europeans intervene in Latin America - a blatant violation of the Monroe Doctrine - Roosevelt declared in December 1904 that the United States would intervene instead, whenever necessary. Russo-Japanese War (WOR) (1904-1905) War between Russia and Japan over imperial possessions. Japan emerges victorious. Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) (WOR) Ended the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905); signed in Portsmouth, New Hampshire after negotiations brokered by Theodore Roosevelt (for which he won the Nobel Peace Prize). Nobel Peace Prize (1906) (WOR) President Theodore Roosevelt won this for negotiating an end to the Russo-Japanese War. segregation in San Francisco schools (WOR) In the early 20th century San Francisco schools required that Japanese American students attend segregated schools. In 1908, President Roosevelt worked out a "gentleman's agreement" with Japan, Japanese American students would be allowed to attend normal schools and Japan would restrict the emigration of Japanese workers to the United States. gentlemen's agreement (WOR) Agreement when Japan agreed to curb the number of workers coming to the US and in exchange Roosevelt agreed to allow the wives of the Japenese men already living in the US to join them. Great White Fleet (WOR) (1907-1909) Roosevelt sent the Navy on a world tour to show the world the U.S. naval power. Also to pressure Japan into the "Gentlemen's Agreement." Algeciras Conference (1906) (WOR) Frustrated by Britain's turn toward France in 1904 and wanting a diplomatic victory to gain popularity at home, Germany's leaders decided to test the strength of the entente and drive a wedge between Britain and France. First Germany threatened and bullied France into dismissing Déclassé, France foreign minister. However rather than accept the typical territorial payoff of imperial competition in return for French primacy in Morocco, the Germans foolishly rattled their swords by insisting in 1905 in an international conference on the whole Moroccan question; nor did the Germans present precise or reasonable demands. Germany's crude bullying forced France and Britain closer together and Germany left the resulting Algeciras Conference of 1906 empty-handed and isolated (except for Austria-Hungary). Hague Conference (1907) (WOR) Discussed rules for limiting warfare. As an expansionist, interventionist, and finally as an internationalist, Theodore Roosevelt embodied the vigour of a youthful nation arriving on world stage. Root-Takahira Agreement (1908) (WOR) An important executive agreement was concluded between the United States and Japan in 1908. Secretary of State Elihu Root and Japanese Ambassador Takahira exchanged notes pledging mutual respect for each nation's Pacific possessions and support for the Open Door Policy in China. William Howard Taft (WOR, WXT) (1908-1912) Was endorsed by Roosevelt because he pledged to carry on progressive program, then he didn't appoint any Progressives to the Cabinet, actively pursued anti-trust law suits, appoints Richard Ballinger as Secretary of the Interior, Ballinger opposed conservation and favored business interests, Taft fires Gifford Pinchot (head of U.S. forestry), ran for re-election in 1912 but lost to Wilson. role of American money (WOR, WXT) President Taft believed that private U.S. investment in China and Central America would lead to greater stability there. His policy, was thwarted by growing anti-imperliasm both in the U.S. and overseas. railroads in China (WOR, WXT) Taft succeeded in securing American participation in agreement in 1911 to buy railroads in China with Germany and France, US was excluded from buying railroads in Manchuria because of joint agreement between Russia and Japan, direct defiance of Open Door Policy. Manchurian problem (WOR, WXT) In 1911, the U.S. was excluded from investing in railroads in Manchuria because of a joint agreement between Russia and Japan, which was in direct defiance of the Open Door Policy. intervention in Nicaragua (WOR, WXT) The United States occupation of Nicaragua was part of the larger conflict known as the Banana Wars. The formal occupation began in 1912. United States military interventions in Nicaragua were intended to prevent the construction of the Nicaraguan Canal by any nation but the United States. Nicaragua assumed a quasi-protectorate status under the 1916 Chamorro-Bryan Treaty. The occupation ended as Augusto C. Sandino, a Nicaraguan revolutionary, led guerrilla armies against U.S. troops. The onset of the Great Depression made it costly for the U.S. government to maintain the occupation so a withdrawal was ordered in 1933. Henry Cabot Lodge (WOR, WXT) Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, he was a leader in the fight against participation in the League of Nations. Lodge Corollary (WOR, WXT) In 1912 Senate passed resolution to Monroe Doctrine. It stated that non-European powers (such as Japan) would be excluded from owning territory in Western Hemisphere. Woodrow Wilson (WOR) President of the United States (1913-1921) and the leading figure at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. He was unable to persuade the U.S. Congress to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations. anti-imperialism (WOR) President Woodrow Wilson differed from his Republican presidential predecessors. He believed that the U.S. should not expand its territory overseas. William Jennings Bryan (WOR) Democratic candidate for president in 1896 under the banner of "free silver coinage" which won him support of the Populist Party. Jones Act (1916) (WOR) The act that granted the Phillipines territorial status and promised independence as soon as stable government was achieved. Puerto Rico citizenship (WOR) In 1917, an act of Congress granted U.S. citizenship and limited self government for this island. Conciliation treaties (WOR) Wilson's commitment to democracy was shared by Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan. Bryan negotiated treaties in which nations pledged to submit disputes to international commissions and observe a one-year cooling-off period before taking military action. Thirty of these treaties were negotiated. Mexican civil war (WOR) Wanting democracy to triumph there, Wilson refused to recognize the military dictatorship of General Victoriano Huerta, who had seized power in Mexico in 1913 by arranging to assassinate the democratically elected president. General Huerta (WOR) Military dictator who assumed power of Mexico in 1913 after Diaz fled, forcing President Wilson to enunciate the new doctrine of no recognition out of sympathy for opposing factions; growing diplomatic pressure from the US and his foes ultimately forced him to leave office. Tampico incident (WOR) In April 1914, some U.S. sailors were arrested in Tampico, Mexico. President Wilson used the incident to send U.S. troops into northern Mexico. His real intent was to unseat the Huerta government there. After the Niagara Falls Conference, Huerta abdicated and the confrontation ended. ABC powers (WOR) The South American countries of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, which attempted to mediate a dispute between Mexico and the United States in 1914. Pancho Villa (WOR) A popular leader during the Mexican Revolution of 1910. An outlaw in his youth, when the revolution started, he formed a cavalry army in the north of Mexico and fought for the rights of the landless in collaboration with Emiliano Zapata. expeditionary force (WOR) Wilson ordered General Pershing to pursue Pancho Villa into Mexico. They were in nothern Mexico for months without being able to capture Villa. Growing possibility of U.S. entry into World War I caused Wilson to withdraw Pershing's troops. John J. Pershing (WOR) Commander of American Expeditionary Force of over 1 million troops who insisted his soldiers fight as independent units so US would have independent role in shaping the peace.

Era 7 20's people culture

Consumerism in the 1920s (WXT) Mass production, mass advertising, the creation of a national pop culture, deregulation of businesses and widely available credit led to a boom in the economy. electric appliances (WXT) In the 1920s, refrigerators, stoves, vacuum cleaners, and washing machines became very popular as prices dropped due to reduced production costs and as electrical power to run them became more available. impact of the automobile (WXT) In the 1920s, this product had the largest impact on society. It caused a growth of cities and suburbs, and workers no longer needed to live near their factories. It provided job opportunities and was a much more efficient way of transportation. jazz age (CUL) High school and college youth expressed their rebellion against their elders' culture by dancing to jazz music. Brought north by African American musicians, jazz became a symbol of the "new" and "modem" culture of the cities. radio, phonographs (CUL) Allowed mostly young people to listen to recorded music. The first radio station went on the air in 1920. Previously, newspapers had been the only form of mass communications. national networks (CUL) In the 1920s, radio suddenly appeared. By 1930 there were over 800 stations broadcasting to 10 million radios, about a third of all US homes. NBC and CBS enabled people from coast to coast to listen to the same programs: news broadcasts, sporting events, soap operas, quiz shows, and comedies. Hollywood (CUL) City in the Los Angeles area of California where, by the 1920s, nearly 90 percent of all films in the world were produced. movie stars (CUL) Greta Garbo and Rudolf Valentino. People began looking towards actors and celebrities as "heros" opposed to people looking towards military heros, presidents, and politicians. movie palaces (CUL) Developed solely as first run theaters to attract the most revenue, these were single screen movie theaters which provided a more hospitable movie going experience. With decor often rivaling opera theaters. popular heroes (CUL) Americans shifted role models from politicians to sports heroes and movie stars. Sports heros included Jack Dempsey, Jim Thorpe, Babe Ruth, and Bobby Jones. However, the most celebrated was Charles Lindbergh who flew from Long Island to Paris in 1927. high school education (CUL) In the 1920s, universal high school education became a new American goal. By 1930, the number of high school graduates had doubled to over 25 percent of school-age adults. consumer culture (CUL) A culture in which personal worth and identity reside not in the people themselves but in the products with which they surround themselves. Frederick Lewis Allen (CUL) Journalist who wrote "Only Yesterday" breath taking change from 1919 to 1920 overnight. Book had Mr. and Mrs. Smith who emulated typical 20's family and how progressed: can foods, radio, bob hair cuts, smoking , clubs, etc. Only Yesterday (CUL) A 1931 history book that portrayed the 1920s as a period of narrow-minded materialism in which the middle class abandoned Progressive reforms, embraced conservative Republican policies, and either supported or condoned nativism, racism, and fundamentalism.

Era 3 People

Patrick Henry (ID, POL) A Virginia lawyer, stood up in the House of Burgesses and demanded that the king's government recognise the rights of all citizens - including the right to not be taxed without representation. John Dickinson; "Letters From ..." (ID, POL) ("No Taxation Without Representation") In 1767 and 1768, John Dickinson of Pennsylvania in his Letter From a Farmer in Pennsylvania wrote that Parliament could regulate commerce but argued that because duties were a form of taxation, they could not be levied on the colonies without the consent of their representative assemblies. Dickinson argued that the idea of no taxation without representation was an essential principle of English law. Samuel Adams (ID, POL) The more radical of the two brothers. Samuel jointly wrote the Massachussetts Circular with James Otis. He also initiated the Committee of Correspondence, a principal device for spreading the view that British officials were undermining colonial liberties. James Otis (ID, POL) Initiated a call for cooperative action among the colonies to protest the Stamp Act. Representatives from nine colonies met in New York in 1765 to form the so-called Stamp Act Congress. They resolved that only their own elected representative had the legal authority to approve taxes. In 1768, James Otis and Samuel Adams jointly wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter. John Adams (ID) (Massachusetts) Leading delegate in the radical faction - those demanding the greatest concession from Britain - of the First Continental Congress. John Jay (ID) (New York) Leading delegate in the cibservative faction - tthose who favoured a mild statement of protest - of the First Continental Congress. Paul Revere (POL) (Concord - Paul Revere & William Dawes) A patriot who helped warn colonists about British movements in the town of Concord. William Dawes (POL) (Concord - Paul Revere & William Dawes) A patriot who helped warn colonists about British movements in the town of Concord.

Era 4 Thomas Jefferson

Revolution of 1800 (POL) (Jefferson Wins POTUS) The passing of power in 1801 from one political party to another was accomplished without violence. This was a rare event for the times and a major indication that the U.S. constitutional system would endure the various strains that were placed on it. The Federalists quietly accepted their defeat in the election of 1800 and peacefully relinquished control of the federal government to Jefferson's party. The change from Federalist to Democratic-Republican control is known as the Revolution of 1800. Louisiana Purchase (ID, POL) Large tract of unexplored western land through which the Mississippi and Missouri rivers flowed. Most valuable was the port of New Orleans. During Jefferson's presidency, the western frontier extended beyond Ohio and Kentucky into the Indiana Territory. Settlers were alarmed in 1802 when Spanish officials closed the New Orleans port to Americans, who depended on it and the Mississippi for economic existence on transporting goods. They had revoked the right of deposit granted by the Pickney Treaty of 1795, which had allowed American farmers tax-free use of the port. People clamoured for government action. Jefferson not only worried about the economic impact, but also the possibility of the U.S. getting entangled in foreign affairs. Jefferson sent ministers to France with instructions to offer up to $10 million for both New Orleans and a strip of land extending from that port eastward to Florida. If they failed, the ministers were instructed to begin discussions with Britain for a U.S.-British alliance. Napoleon's minister, seeking funds for war, offered to sell not only New Orleans but also the entire Louisiana Territory for $15 million. The surprised American ministers quickly went beyond their instructions and accepted. strict interpretation (POL) Confliction with the Louisiana Purchase; Jefferson was committed to a strict interpretation of the Constitution and rejected Hamilton's argument that certain powers were implied. Nowhere in the constitution did it explicitly say a president can purchase foreign lands. Jefferson though decided to set aside his idealism for the good of the country. It was quickly ratified in the senate. Aaron Burr (POL) Former vice president under Jefferson, plotted against Thomas Jefferson in his second term. Was publicaly exiled after killing political foe Alexander Hamilton in a duel. "Quids" Faction of Deomcratic-Republicans who criticized the War of 1812 and Thomas Jefferson's presidency because it did not follow the traditional Democratic-Republican idea of limited federal government. Napoleon Bonaparte (WOR) The French military and political leader Napoleon Bonaparte secretly forced Spain to give the Louisiana Territory back to France. His poer ended in defeat in 1814 at Waterloo. Toussaint L'Ouverture (WOR) Leader of the Haitian Revolution. He freed the slaves and gained effective independence for Haiti despite military interventions by the British and French. Significantly weakened the French military and depleted their resources, spurring reason for Napoleon to sell the Louisiana Territory. Barbary pirates (WOR) To protect U.S. merchant ships from being seized by Barbary pirates, President Washington and Adams had reluctantly agreed to pay tribute to the Barbary government. The ruler of Tripoli demanded a higher sum in tribute from Jefferson. Refusing to pay, Jefferson sent a small fleet of the U.S. Navy to the Mediterranean. Sporadic fighting with Tripoli lasted for four years. The American navy did not achieve a decisive victory, but it did gain some respect and also offered a measure of protection to U.S. vessels trading in Mediterranean waters. neutrality (WOR) Popular U.S. policy started by Washington, carried out by Adams and Jefferson. Was furthered by the Monroe Doctrine. Lewis and Clark Expedition (ENV) Before the Louisiana Purchase, Jefferson had persuaded Congress to fund a scientific exploration of the trans-Mississippi West to be led by Captain Meriwether Lewis and Lieutenant William Clark. The purchase greatly increased the importance of the expedition. Lewis and Clark set out from St. Louis in 1804, crossed the Rockies, reached the Oregon coast on the Pacific Ocean, then turned back and completed the return journey in 1806. The benefits were many: greater geographic and scientific knowledge of the region, stronger U.S. claims to the Oregon Territory, better relations with American Indians, and more accurate maps and land routes for fur trappers and future settlers.

Era 4 Industrialization

Tariff of 1816 (WXT) Before the War of 1812, Congress levied low tariffs. During the war manufacturers started factories to supply goods that once Britain supplied. After the war, these companies needed protection in order to not be outperformed by Britain. Congress raised tariffs for the express purpose of protecting U.S. manufactures from competition. protective tariff (WXT) Tariff of 1816 was the first protective tariff in U.S. history, a tax intended to increase prices of imports and protect a country's industries from foreign competition Henry Clay; American System (WXT) Henry Clay's (House of Representatives) three-part comprehensive plan for economic advancement, the American System: (1) protective tariffs, (2) a national bank, and (3) internal movements. Two parts of Clay's system were in place in 1816 (Madison's last year). Congress in that year adopted a protective tariff and also chartered the Second Bank of the United States (Hamilton's charter for the first expired in 1811). Second Bank of the United States (WXT) A national bank overseen by the federal government. Congress had established the bank in 1816, giving it a 20 year charter. The purpose of the bank was to regulate state banks, which had grown rapidly since the First Bank of the US went out of existence in 1811. Went out of existence during Jackson's presidency. Panic of 1819 (WXT) The "Era of Good Feelings" was fractured in 1819 by the first major financial panic since the Constitution had been ratified. Largely the fault of the Second Bank of the United States, which had tightened credit in a belated effort to control inflation. State banks closed, and unemployment, bankruptcies, and imprisonment for debt increased sharply. The Bank of the United States foreclosed on large amounts of western farmland. Westerners began calling for land reform and expressing strong opposition to both the national bank and debtor's prison. Lancaster Turnpike (WXT) Pennsylvania; built in the 1790s, connected Philadelphia with the rich farmlands around Lancaster. Its success stimulated the construction of other privately built and relatively short toll roads that, by the mid-1820s, connected most of the country's major cities. National (Cumberland) Road (WXT) Construction of highways that crossed state lines were unusual (as federal infrastructure funds were blocked). A notable exception - the National (Cumberland) Road, a paved highway and major route west extending more than a thousand miles from Maryland to Illinois. Erie Canal (WXT) The completion of the Erie Canal in New York State in 1825 was an major event in linking the economy of western farms and eastern cities. Robert Fulton; steamboats; railroads (WXT) The age of mechanised, steam-powered travel began in 1807 with the successful voyage up the Hudson Rivers of the Clermont, a steamboat developed by Robert Fulton. Eli Whitney; interchangeable parts (WXT) Eli Whitney was only the most famous of hundreds of Americans whose long hours of tinkering in their workshop resulted in improved technology. Besides inventing the cotton gin in 1793, Whitney devised a system for making rifles out of interchangeable parts during the War of 1812. They became the basis for mass production methods in the new northern factories. corporations (WXT) New York passed a law that made it easier for a business to incorporate and raise capital by selling shares of stock. Other states soon followed suit. Owners of a corporation risked only the amount of money that they had invested in a venture. Changes in state corporation laws facilitated the raising of large sums of capital for building factories, canals, and railroads. Samuel Slater; facotry system (WXT) When Samuel Slater emigrated from Britain, he took with him the British secrets for building cotton-spinning machines, and he put this knowledge to work by helping establish the first U.S. factory in 1791. This expanded with the embargo and War of 1812, resulting in New England being the country's leading manufacturer. Lowell System; textile mills (WXT) Textile mills in Lowell, Massachusetts, recruited young farm women and housed them in company dormitories to supply labour. In the 1830s other factories imitated the Lowell System. Many factories also made extensive use of child labour. industrialisation (WXT) An effect of the market revolution. The development of industries in a country or region on a wide scale. specialisation (WXT) An effect of the market revolution. The production of a limited range of goods by individuals, firms, regions or countries. unions (WXT) Trade (or craft) unions were organised in major cities as early as the 1790s and increased in number as the factory system took hold. Long hours, low pay, and poor working conditions led to widespread discontent among factory workers. A prime goal of the unions was to reduce the workday to ten hours. The obstacles to union success, however, were many: (1) immigrant replacement workers, (2) state laws outlawing unions, and (3) frequent economic depressions with high unemployment. cotton gin (WXT) Throughout the 19th century, the principal cash crop in the south was cotton. Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton gin in 1793 transformed the agriculture of an entire region. They invested their capital in the purchase of slaves and new land in Alabama and Mississippi and shipped most of their cotton crop overseas for sale to British textile factories. market revolution (WXT) Drastic changes in transportation (canals, RRs), communication (telegraph), and the production of goods (more in factories as opposed to houses). Specialisation on the farm, the growth of cities, industrialisation, and the development of modern capitalism meant the end of self-sufficient households and a growing interdependence among people. These changes combined to bring about a revolution in the marketplace. Northeast (ID) Originally, the Industrial Revolution centred in the textile industry, buy the 1830s, northern factories were producing a wide range of goods - everything from farm implements to clocks and shoes. Old Northwest (ID) The Old North West consisted of six states west of the Alleghenies hat were admitted to the Union before 1860: Ohio (1803), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818), Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1848), and Minnesota (1858) (Northwest Ordinance - 1787). Industrial Revolution (WXT) Originally, the Industrial Revolution centred in the textile industry, buy the 1830s, northern factories were producing a wide range of goods - everything from farm implements to clocks and shoes. Nevertheless, the new opportunities offer by the Industrial Revolution continued to attract both native-born Americans from farms and immigrants from Europe. Commonwealth v. Hunt (WXT) Unions achieved one notable victory in 1842 when th Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled in Commonwealth v. Hunt that "peaceful unions" had the right to negotiate labour contracts with employers. ten-hour workday (WXT) During the 1840s and 1850s, most state legislatures in the North passed laws establishing a ten-hour workday for industry workers. Cyrus McCormick (WXT) Irish-American inventor that developed the mechanical reaper. The reaper replaced scythes as the preferred method of cutting crops for harvest, and it was much more efficient and much quicker. The invention helped the agricultural growth of America. John Deere (WXT) American blacksmith that was responsible for inventing the steel plow. This new plow was much stronger than the old iron version; therefore, it made plowing farmland in the west easier, making expansion faster.

Era 4 Mexico

Texas (WOR) (1823) Independent Mexico hoped to attract settlers, including Anglo settlers. Moses Austin (Missouri banker) obtained a large land grant in Texas but died before he could recruit settlers. His son, Stephen Austin, succeeded in bringing 300 families into Texas. (1830) Americans outnumbered Mexicans in Texas by three to one. Friction began when Mexicans outlawed slavery and required all immigrants to convert to Roman Catholicism. Americans disobeyed these laws, causing Mexico to close the state to future immigrants, but Southerners poured in by the thousands. Stephen Austin (WOR) Son of Mosesn Austin, succeeded in bringing 300 families into Texas. Antonio López de Santa Anna (WOR) He made himself dictator and established the nation's federal system of government. When he attempted to enforce Mexican law in Texas, a group of American settlers led by Sam Houston revolted and declared Texas to be an independent republic. Sam Houston (WOR) Led a group of American settlers that revolted against dictator Antonio López de Santa Anna and declared Texas to be an independent republic. Alamo (WOR) A Mexican army attacked the Alamo in San Antonio, killing every one of its American defenders. However, Santa Anna faced a surprise capture and was forced to sign a treaty granting independence for Texas. Rio Grande; Nueces River (WOR) In the 1840s the United States believed the southern Texas border was the Rio Grande River. Mexico believed the border was further north on the Nueces River. Mexican War (1846-1847) (WOR) A war between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848. President James Polk attempted to purchase California and the New Mexico territories and resolve the disputed Mexico-Texas border. Fighting broke out before the negotiations were complete and the war lasted about two years, ending when the United States troops invaded Mexico City. General Zachary Taylor (WOR) Commander of the Army of Occupation on the Texas border. On President Polk's orders, he took the Army into the disputed territory between the Nueces and Rio Grnade Rivers and built a fort on the north bank of the Rio Grande River. When the Mexican Army tried to capture the fort, Taylor's forces engaged in is a series of engagements that led to the Mexican War. His victories in the war and defeat of Santa Ana made him a national hero. Stephen Kearney (WOR) This U.S. general led a small army of less than 1,500 that succeeded in taking Santa Fe, the New Mexico territory, and southern California during the Mexican War. Winfield Scott (WOR) U.S general whose conquest of Mexico City brought U.S. victory in the Mexican War John C. Frémont (WOR) Backed by only several dozen soldiers, a few navy officers, and American civilians, he quickly overthrew Mexican rule in northern California and proclaimed California to be an independent republic California; Bear Flag Republic (WOR) (1846) Short-lived California republic, established by local American settlers who revolted against Mexico. Once news of the war with Mexico reached the Americans, they abandoned the Republic in favor of joining the United States. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) (WOR) 1. Mexico recognised the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas. 2. The United States took possession of the former Mexican provinces of California and New Mexico. For these territories, the United States paid $15 million and assumed responsibility for any claims of American citizens against Mexico. Mexican Cession (WOR) Awarded as part of the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo after the Mexican American War. U.S. paid $15 million for 525,000 square miles. Walker Expedition (WOR) William Walker, a southern adventurer, tried to take Baja California from Mexico in 1853; took Nicaragua to develop a proslavery empire but collapsed when he was killed by Honduran authorities Gadsden Purchase (1853) (1853) Mexico agreed to sell thousands of acres of semidesert land to the United States for $10 million. Known as the Gadsden Purchase, the land forms the southern sections of present-day New Mexico and Arizona.

Era 6 Unions and workers

causes of labour discontent (WXT) Both immigrants from abroad and migrants from rural America had to learn to work under the tyranny of the clock. In many industries, working conditions were dangerous. Many workers were exposed to chemicals and pollutants that only later were discovered to cause chronic illness and early death. Industrial workers rebelled against intolerable working conditions by missing or quitting. "iron law of wages" (WXT) Low wages were justified by David Ricardo, who famously argued that raising wages would only increase the working population, and the availability of more workers would in turn cause wages to fall, thus creating a cycle of misery and starvation. anti-union tactics (WXT) Employers used the following tactics to defeat unions: the lockouts (closing the factory), blacklists (lists circulated among employers), yellow dog contracts (contracts that forbade unions), private guards to quell strikes, and court injunctions against strikes. railroad strike of 1877 (WXT) One of the worst outbreaks of labor violence erupted in 1877, during economic depression, when railroad companies cut wages in order to reduce costs. It shut down 2/3 of country's rail trackage. Strike quickly becoming national in scale. For the first time since 1830s federal troops used to end labor violence. More then 100 people killed. Knights of Labour (WXT) A second national labor union, the Knights of Labor, began in 1869 as a secret society in order to avoid detection by employers. Because the Knights were loosely organized, however, he could not control local units that decided to strike. The Knights of Labor grew rapidly in the early 1880s and attained a peak membership of 730,000 workers in 1886. It declined just as rapidly, however, after the violence of the Haymarket riot in Chicago in 1886 turned public opinion against the union. Haymarket bombing (WXT) May 4, 1886, conflict in which both workers and policemen were killed or wounded during a labor demonstration in Chicago. The violence began when someone threw a bomb into the ranks of police at the gathering. The incident created a backlash against labor activism. American Federation of Labour (WXT) Unlike the idealistic, reform-minded Knights of Labor, the American Federation of Labor (AF of L) concentrated on attaining practical economic goals. Founded in 1886 as an association of 25 craft unions, the AF of L did not advocate a reform program to remake American society. Samuel Gompers (WXT) United States labor leader (born in England) who was president of the American Federation of Labor from 1886 to 1924. Pullman Strike (WXT) In Chicago, Pullman cut wages but refused to lower rents in the "company town", Eugene Debs had American Railway Union refuse to use Pullman cars, Debs thrown in jail after being sued, strike achieved nothing. Eugene Debs (WXT) Leader of the American Railway Union, he voted to aid workers in the Pullman strike. He was jailed for six months for disobeying a court order after the strike was over. railroad workers: Chinese, Irish, veterans (WXT, PEO) In the construction of the first transcontinental railroad, the Union Pacific, starting in Omaha, employed thousands of war veterans and Irish immigrants. The Central Pacific, starting from Sacramento, included 6,000 Chinese immigrants among their workers. old rich vs. new rich (WXT, PEO) The trusts came under widespread scrutiny and attack in the 1880s, urban elites (old rich) resented the increasing influence of the new rich. white-collar workers (WXT, PEO) The growth of large corporation required thousands of white-collar workers (jobs not involving manual labor) to fill the highly organized administrative structures. expanding middle class (WXT, PEO) Industrialization helped expand the middle class by creating jobs for accountants, clerical workers, and salespeople. The increase in the number of good-paying jobs after the Civil War significantly increased the size of the middle class. factory wage earners (WXT, PEO) By 1900, two-thirds of all working Americans worked for wages, usually at jobs that required them to work ten hours a day, six days a week. women and children factory workers (WXT, PEO) By 1900, 20 percent of adult woman working for wages in the labor force. Most were young and single women, only 5 percent of married women worked outside the home. women clerical workers (WXT, PEO) As the demand for clerical workers increased, women moved into formerly male occupations as secretaries, bookkeepers, typists, and telephone operators. Protestant work ethic (CUL) Sociological term used to define the Calvinist belief in hard work to illustrate selection in elite group, featured the belief that everyone had a duty to become rich, and that the wealthy had a God-given responsibility to carry out projects of civic philanthropy for the benefit of society.

Era 6 South

"New South" (WXT) After the Civil War, southerners promoted a new vision for a self-sufficient southern economy built on modern capitalist values, industrial growth, and improved transportation. Henry Grady played an important role. Henry Grady (WXT) Journalist from Georgia who coined the phrase "New South". Promoted his ideas through the Atlanta Constitution, as editor. He planned Atlanta's International Cotton Exposition. Birmingham (steel) (WXT) (New South) This Southern city developed into one the nation's leading steel producers. Memphis (lumber) (WXT) (New South) This Southern city prospered as the center of the South's growing lumber industry. Richmond (tobacco) (WXT) (New South) This Southern city became the capital of the nation's tobacco industry. integrated rail network (WXT) After the Civil War, the Southern railroad companies rapidly converted to standard-guage rails, which integrated them into the national rail system. agriculture's dominance (WXT) Post-war economy remained mainly tied to growing cotton and heavily was dominated by this sharecropping; tenant farmers (WXT) After the Civil War, most Southerners of both races remained in traditional roles and barely got by from year to year as sharecroppers and farmers.

Era 6-7 voter reform

Australian ballot (POL) A government-printed ballot of uniform dimensions to be cast in secret that many states adopted around 1890 to reduce voting fraud associated with party-printed ballots cast in public Robert La Follette; direct primaries (POL) 1855-1925. Progressive Wisconsin Senator and Governor. Staunch supporter of the Progressive movement, and vocal opponent of railroad trusts, bossism, WWI, and League of Nations. Introduced a new system for bypassing politicians and placing the nominating process directly in the hands of the voters. Seventeenth Amendment (POL) 1913 constitutional amendment allowing American voters to directly elect US senators. initiative, referendum, and recall (POL) Initiative: people have the right to propose a new law. Referendum: a law passed by the legislature can be reference to the people for approval/veto. Recall: the people can petition and vote to have an elected official removed from office. These all made elected officials more responsible and sensitive to the needs of the people, and part of the movement to make government more efficient and scientific. municipal reform (POL) City bosses and their corrupt alliance with local businesses such as trolley lines and utility companies were targeted for reform by Progressives.

Era 6 Technology

Bessemer process (WXT) A way to manufacture steel quickly and cheaply by blasting hot air through melted iron to quickly remove impurities. transatlantic cable (WXT) Invented by Cyrus W. Field in 1866, suddenly made it possible to send messages across the seas in minutes. By 1900, the cables linked all continents of the world in an electronic network of nearly instantaneous, global communication. Alexander Graham Bell telephone (WXT) (1876) Inventor most famous for the telephone, he also was an innovator in optical telecommunications, hydrofoils, and aeronautics. Thomas Edison (WXT) American inventor best known for inventing the electric light bulb, acoustic recording on wax cylinders, and motion pictures. Founded the state-of-the-ark Menlo Park research laboratory. Menlo Park research laboratory (WXT) (1876). This was the world's first modern research laboratory. It introduced the concept of mechanics and engineers working on a project as a team rather than as lone inventors. Out of the lab came more than a thousand patented inventions, including the phonograph, the improvement of the incandescent lamp in 1879 (the first electric lightbulb), the dynamo for generating electric power, the mimeograph machine, and the motion picture camera. electric power; lighting (WXT) In 1885, George Westinghouse produced a transformer for producing high-voltage alternating current, which made possible the lighting of cities, electric streetcars, subways, electrically powered machinery, and appliances. George Westinghouse (WXT) An American entrepreneur and engineer who invented the railway air brake and was a pioneer of the electrical industry. Eastman's Kodak camera (WXT) George Eastman put the first simple camera into the hands of a world of consumers in 1888 packaged foods (WXT) Brand name foods created by Kellogg and Post became common items in American homes. refrigeration; canning (WXT) These developments in the food industry changed American eating habits. Gustavus Swift (WXT) Developer of an efficient system of mechanical refrigeration, an innovation that earned him a fortune and provided a major stimulus to the growth of the cattle industry.

Era 6 Natives

Great Plains tribes (PEO, POL) Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Crow, Comanche, had become skillful horsemen and developed a way of life centered on the hunting of buffalo, lived in groups of 300-500. Southwest tribes (PEO, POL) These tribes in the Southwest, such as Navajo and Apache adopted a settled life, raising crops and livestock, and producing arts and crafts. federal treaty policies (PEO, POL) The Indian Appropriation Act of 1871 ended recognition of tribes as independent nations by the federal government and nullified previous treaties made with the tribes. causes of "Indian wars" (PEO, POL) The settlement of thousands of miners, ranchers, and homesteaders on American Indian lands led to violence in 1866. After several Indian massacres, the government made another round of treaties that attempted to isolate the Plains Indians on smaller reservations with promise of government support. Gold miners refused to stay off lands if gold was found on it, so a new round of conflicts began in the 1870s. Little Big Horn (PEO, POL) Battle between Custer's Seventh Cavalry and the Sioux, Custer's Seventh was decimated, fuelled fervor for the "Indian wars." assimilationists (PEO, POL) Wanted to eradicate tribal life and assimilate Native Americans into white culture through education, land policy, and federal law. Helen Hunt Jackson (PEO, POL) United States writer of romantic novels about the unjust treatment of Native Americans. Dawes Act of 1887 (PEO, POL) Designed to break up tribal organisations, which many felt kept American Indians from becoming "civilised" and law-abiding citizens. The Daws Act divided the tribal lands into plots of up to 160 acres, depending on family size. U.S. citizenship was granted to those who stayed on the land for 25 years and "adopted the habits of civilised life." It proved a failure. Ghost Dance movement (PEO, POL) The last effort of Native Americans to resist US domination and drive whites from their ancestral lands, came through as a religious movement. It failed, with more than the gunning down of 200 American Indian men. Indian Reorganisation Act of 1934 (PEO, POL) Restored tribal ownership of lands, recognized tribal constitutions and government, and provided loans for economic development..

Era 4 War of 1812

Hartford Convention (1814) (POL) Just before the War of 1812 ended. The New England states threatened to secede from the Union if the Constitution was not amended. To consider these matters, a special convention was held at Hartford, Connecticut. Delegates from the New England states rejected the radical calls for secession. But to limit the growing power of the Democratic-Republicans in the South and West, they adopted a number of proposals. One of them called for a two-thirds vote of both houses for any future declaration of war. War of 1812 (WOR) A war (1812-1814) between the United States and England which was trying to interfere with American trade with France. British delays in meeting U.S. demands combined with pressure from the war hawks finally persuaded Madison to seek a declaration of war against Britain. "Old Ironsides" (WOR) In late 1812, the U.S. warship Constitution (nicknamed "Old Ironsides") raised American morale by defeating and sinking a British ship off the coast of Nova Scotia. Battle of Lake Erie (WOR) (1813) Battle where a Naval force led by Oliver Hazard Perry defeated the British and secured Lake Erie. Was one of the most important in the war. Oliver Hazard Perry (WOR) Led a Naval force in the Battle of Lake Eerie. Declared victory with declared victory with, "We have met the enemy and they are ours." Battle of the Thames River (WOR) Battle following the Battle of Lake Eerie, lef by General William Henry Harrison in which Tecumseh was killed. Thomas Macdonough (WOR) Commanded ships in the Battle of Lake Champlain, defeated a British fleet Battle of Lake Champlain (WOR) A battle where the British fleet was defeated and was forced to retreat and to abandon their plans to invade New York and New England after being stoped by Thomas Macdonough. The British began to decide that the war was to costly. Andrew Jackson General in the War of led troops in two signigifacnt battles, the Battle of Horeshoe Bend and the Battle of New Orleans. Became President after the election of 1828, challenging the presidency of John Quincy Adams. He became the symbol for the common-man. He chewed tobacco, fought several duels, and displayed a violent temper. In a phrase, he could be described as an extraordinary ordinary man. This self-made man and living legend drew support from every social group and every section of the country. Battle of Horseshoe Bend (WOR) General Andrew Jackson ended the power of an important British ally, the Creek nation. The victory eliminated the Indians and opened new lands to white settlers. Creek nation (WOR) Important ally to the British; was defeated in the Battle of Horshoe Bend. Battle of New Orleans (WOR) . A British effort to control the Mississippi River was halted at New Orleans by Jackson leading a force of frontier soldiers, free African Americans, and Creoles. The victory was impressive - but also meaningless. The Battle of New Orleans was fought on January 8, 1815, two weeks after a treaty ending the war had been signed in Ghent, Belgium. Treaty of Ghent (WOR) American peace commissioners travelled to Ghent, Belgium, to discuss terms of, peace with British diplomats. On Christmas Eve 1814, an agreement was reached. The terms halted fighting, returned all conquered territory to the pre-war claimant, and recognised the pre-war boundary between Canada and the United States. The Treaty of Ghent said nothing at all about the grievances that led to war. Britain made no concessions concerning impressment, blockades, or other maritime differences. Thus, the war ended in stalemate with no gain for either side. Francis Scott Key & "The Star-Spangled Banner" (CUL) The British also attempted to take Baltimore, but Fort McHenry held out after a night's bombardment - an event immortalised by Francis Scott Key in the words of "The Star-Spangled Banner."

Era 7 Taft

Mann-Elkins Act (1910) (POL) Signed by Taft, it bolstered the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission and supported labor reforms. It gave the ICC the power to prosecute its own inquiries into violations of its regulations. Sixteenth Amendment, federal income tax (POL) Ratified in 1913, this constitutional amendment, explicitly permitted Congress to levy a federal income tax. Payne-Aldrich Tariff (1909) (POL) With the fear of foreign competition gone, it lowered rates to 38%. Democrats felt it did not go far enough and passed the Underwood Tariff in 1913 to further lower taxes. firing of Pinchot (POL) The Progressives respected the chief of the Forest Service, Gifford Pinchot, as a dedicated conservationist. On the other hand, they distrusted Taft's secretary of the interior, Richard Ballinger, especially after he opened public lands in Alaska for private development. In 1910, when Pinchot criticized Ballinger, Taft stood by his cabinet member and fired Pinchot for insubordination. Conservatives applauded; Progressives protested.

Era 4 diplomacy

Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817) (WOR) Strictly limited naval armament in the Great Lakes. In time extended to place limits on border fortifications as well. Treaty of 1818 (WOR) Improved relations between the United States and Britain continued in a treaty that provided for (1) shared fishing rights off the coast of Newfoundland; (2) joint occupation of the Oregon Territory for ten years; and (3) the setting of the northern limits of the Louisiana Territory at the 49th parallel, thus establishing the western U.S. - Canada boundary line. Florida Purchase Treaty (1819) (WOR) Spain turned over all of its possessions in Florida and its own claims in the Oregon territory to the U.S. In exchange, the United Sates agreed to assume $5 million in claims against Spain and give up any U.S. territorial claims to the Spanish province of Texas. The agreement is also called the Adams-Onís Treaty. Monroe Doctrine (1823) (WOR) (December 2, 1823) President Monroe inserted into his annual message to Congress a declaration of U.S. policy toward Europe and Latin America. The Monroe Doctrine, as it came to be called, asserted that the Americans continents are free and independent, not to be subject to further European colonisation. He declared further that the United States opposed attempts by a European power to interfere in the affairs of any republic in the Western Hemisphere.

Era 3 7 year's war

Seven Year's War (French & Indian War) (POL, ENV) Unlike the previous wars, this war started in the American colonies and made its way back to Europe. From the British point of view, the French provoked the war by building chain forts in the Ohio River Valley. Big idea: Colonists were proud and confident in their abilities, and they were not impressed with British troops or their leadership, whose methods of warfare seemed badly suited to the densely wooded terrain of eastern America. Albany Plan of Union (1754) (POL, ENV) The British government called for representatives from seven colonies to meet in congress at Albany, New York, in 1754. The delegates adopted a plan - the Albany Plan of Union - developed by Benjamin Franklin that provided an intercolonial government and a system of common defence. Each colony was too jealous of its own taxation powers to accept the plan, however, and it never took effect. Edward Braddock (POL, ENV) A British commander during the French and Indian War. He attempted to capture Fort Duquesne in 1755. He was defeated by the French and the Indians. At this battle, Braddock was mortally wounded. Helped enforce the colonist's idea that the British were not strong enough in colonial warfare. George Washington (POL, ENV) From the British point of view, the French provoked the Seven Year's War by building chain forts in the Ohio River Valley. In response, the Virginia governor sent a small militia under the command of a young George Washington. Peace of Paris (1763) (POL, ENV) The British prime minister, William Pitt, concentrated the government's military strategy on conquering Canada, ultimately negotiating the Peace of Paris (1763), receiving both French Canada, and Spanish Florida. The Spanish took the France's claim to the Louisiana territory.

Era 3 Colonial Response

Stamp Act Congress (ID, POL) Representatives from nine colonies met in New York in 1765 to form the so-called Stamp Act Congress. They resolved that only their own elected representative had the legal authority to approve taxes. Sons and Daughters of Liberty (ID, POL) A secret society organised for the purpose of intimidating tax agents. Members of this society sometimes destroyed revenue stamps and tarred and feathered revenue officials. Massachusetts Circular Letter (ID, POL) In 1768, James Otis and Samuel Adams jointly wrote the Massachusetts Circular Letter and sent copies to every colonial legislature. It urged the various colonies to petition Parliament to repeal the Townshend Acts. Committees of Correspondence (ID, POL) A principal device for spreading the view that British officials were undermining colonial liberties was by means of the Committee of Correspondence initiated by Samuel Adams in 1772. absolute monarch (WOR) A concept argued by Thomas Paine, who said that it was contrary to common sense for a large contingent to be ruled by a small and distant island and for people to pledge allegiance to a king whose government was corrupt and who's laws were unreasonable. Thomas Paine; Common Sense (CUL) In January 1776, a pamphlet was published, written by Thomas Pain, that argued strongly for what until then had been considered a radical idea. Entitled 'Common Sense,' it for the colonies to become independent states and to break all political ties with the British Monarchy

Era 7 20's life

business prosperity (WXT) From 1919 to 1929, manufacturing output rose a spectacular 64 percent due to increased productivity, energy technologies, and governmental policy which favored the growth of big business. standard of living (WXT) Quality of life based on ownership of necessities and luxuries that make life easier. scientific management (WXT) For most Americans improved significantly. Indoor plumbing and central heating became commonplace. By 1930, two-thirds of all homes had electricity. Real income for both the middle class and the working class increased substantially.

Era 6 Economy

causes of industrial growth (WXT) After the Civil War, a "second Industrial Revolution" because of an increase in steel production, petroleum, electrical power, and industrial machinery. advertising (WXT) A written or spoken media message designed to interest consumers in purchasing a product or service. consumer economy (WXT) An economy that depends on a large amount of spending by consumers

Era 1 Technology

compass (WOR) (15th & 16th Century Renaissance) Europeans began to use the sailing compass (adopted from Arab merchants who learned about it from the Chinese). printing press (WOR) (15th & 16th Century Renaissance) The invention of the printing press in the 1450s aided the spread of knowledge across Europe.

Era 4 Culture

cultural nationalism (ID) Patriotic themes were everywhere in American society, from art to school. Heroes of the revolution were enshrined in paintings by Gilbert Stuart, Charles Wilson Peale, and John Trumbull. The expanding public schools embraced Noah Webster's blue-blacked speller, which promoted patriotism long before his famous dictionary was published. The basic ideas and ideals of nationalism and patriotism would dominate most of the 19th century. economic nationalism (ID) Political movement to support the growth of the nation's economy (parallel cultural nationalism). Aspects: (1) Subsidising internal improvements (roads and canals). (2) The second was protecting the budding U.S. industries from European competition.

Era 4 Native Americans

war hawks (ID, POL) A group of young Democratic-Republicans in Congress, many of them from frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio). Argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honour, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier Henry Clay (ID, POL) Leader of the the war hawks in Congress from the state Kentucky, argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honour, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier John C. Calhoun (ID, POL) Leader of the the war hawks in Congress from the state of South Carolina, argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honour, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier

Era 1 Native Americans

corn (WXT, ENV) Europeans learned about many new plants and foods, including corn. horses (WXT, ENV) The Americas were introduced to horses, , but not until the 17th century did Native Americans acquire horses by trading or stealing them from the Spanish. land bridge (WXT) Native Americans believed to have migrated over a now-sunken land bridge connecting the Asian continent to the Northern American continent known as the Bering Land Bridge. Adena-Hopewell (PEO) (Northeast Settlements) Prospered with a rich food supply supported by hunting, fishing, and agriculture. Permanent settlements developed in the Mississippi and Ohio River valleys and elsewhere. The Adena-Hopewell culture, centred in what is now Ohio, is famous for creating large earthen mounds. Hokokam, Anasazi, and Pueblos (PEO) (Southwest Settlments) Evolved multifaceted societies supported by farming with irrigation systems. Large numbers lived in caves, under cliffs, and in multi-storeyed buildings. Woodland mound builders (PEO) (Atlantic Seaboard Settlments) Many of the were descendants of the Woodland mound builders and built timber and bark lodgings along rivers. Rivers and Atlantic Ocean provided rich source of food. Lakota Sioux (PEO) (Great Plains) With horses, tribes like the Lakota Sioux moved away from farming to hunting and easily following the buffalo across the plains. Mayas (ID, POL) Cities in the rain forest of the Yucatán Peninsula. Incas (ID, POL) Based in Peru, developed a vast empire in South America. Aztecs (ID, POL) Central Mexico, Aztec capital Tenochtitlán Algonquian (PEO, POL) Among the largest Native language families were Algonquian in the Northeast. Siouan (PEO, POL) Among the largest Native language families were Siouan on The Great Plains, Iroquois Confederation (PEO, POL) Among the most famous groups of Native Americans in the Northeast Settlments. A political union of five independent tribes who lived in the Mohawk Valley of New York. Multiple families related through the mother (matriarchal) lived in longhouses, up to 200 feet long. longhouses (PEO, POL) (Northeast & Northwest Settlements) People lived in permanent longhouses or plank houses

Era 6 Reformers

Henry George (CUL) A California printer, journalist, and influential activist whose ideas about taxes and reform, expressed in Progress and Poverty (1879), were widely propagated. Edward Bellamy (CUL) In 1888, he wrote Looking Backward, 2000-1887, a description of a utopian society in the year 2000. Jane Addams (CUL) The founder of Hull House, which provided English lessons for immigrants, daycares, and child care classes. Social Gospel (CUL) Movement led by Washington Gladden; taught religion and human dignity would help the middle class over come problems of industrialization. Walter Rauschenbusch (CUL) New York clergyman who preached the social gospel, worked to alleviate poverty, and worked to make peace between employers and labor unions. Cardinal Gibbons (CUL) Urban Catholic leader; devoted to American unity; popular with Roman Catholics and Protestants; used his liberal sympathy to help the American labor movement. Dwight Moody (CUL) Founded Moody Bible Institute in Chicago in 1889 to help urban evangelists to adapt traditional Christianity to city life. Salvation Army (CUL) This welfare organization came to the US from England in 1880 and sought to provide food, shelter, and employment to the urban poor while preaching temperance and morality. family size, divorce (CUL) Family size continued to drop as more people moved from the farms to the cities. Children were needed to do work on farms, but in the city they did not provide that advantage. Divorce rates increased as the legal grounds for divorce became more lenient. Susan B. Anthony, NAWSA (CUL) In 1890, one of the founders of the National American Womens Suffrage Association (NAWSA), which worked to secure voting rights for women. Francis Willard, WCTU (CUL) Leader of the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) which advocated total abstinence from alcohol. Antisaloon League (CUL) In 1893, this organisation became a powerful political force and by 1916 had persuaded twenty one states to close down all saloons and bars. Carrie Nation (CUL) Founded WCTU to outlaw selling/drinking alcohol. She was married to an abusive man that she killed with an axe and she didn't get punished for it. She formed a group that walked into bars with axes. kindergarten (CUL) In the late 1800s, the practice of sending children to kindergarten became popular. public high school (CUL) In the late 1800s, there was growing support for tax-supported public high schools. college elective system (CUL) Charles W. Eliot , the president of Harvard introduced these types of classes which were more specializes to accommodate the teaching of modern languages and sciences. Johns Hopkins University (CUL) A private university which emphasized pure research. It's entrance requirements were unusually strict -- applicants needed to have already earned a college degree elsewhere in order to enroll. new social sciences (CUL) New fields such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and political science emerged. Richard T. Ely (CUL) He attacked laissez-faire economic thought as dogmatic and outdated and used economics to study labor unions and trusts. Oliver Wendell Holmes (CUL) Along with John Marshall, he is often considered considered one of the greatest justices in Supreme Court history. His opinions and famous dissents in favor of individual liberties are still frequently quoted today. He argued that current necessity rather than precedent should determine the rules by which people are governed; that experience, not logic, should be the basis of law. Clarence Darrow (CUL) A famed criminal defense lawyer for Scopes, who supported evolution. He caused William Jennings Bryan to appear foolish when Darrow questioned Bryan about the Bible.

Era 3 Articles of Confederation

Articles of Confederation (POL) (1776) John Dickinson drafted the first constitution for the United States as a nation. Congress modified Dickinson's plan to protect the powers of the individual states. The Articles of Confederation, as the document was called, was adopted by Congress in 1777 and submitted to the states for ratification. Land Ordinance of 1785 (PEO, POL) (Articles of Confederation) Established a policy for surveying and selling western lands. The policy provided for setting aside one section of land in each township for public education. Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (PEO, POL) The congress passed an ordinance (law) that set the rules for creating new states. It granted limited self-government to the developing territory and prohibited slavery in the region. unicameral legislature (POL) The Articles of Confederation established a central government that consisted of just one body, a congress. In this unicameral (one-house) legislature, each state was given one vote, with at least 9 votes out of 13 required to pass important laws. Shay's Rebellion (CUL) (1786) Captain Daniel Shays (former veteran) led his fellow farmers in an uprising against high state taxes, imprisonment for debt, and lack of paper money. They stopped the collection of taxes, and tried to seize weapons from the Springfield armoury, where the state militia ultimately broke Shay' Rebellion (Massachusetts).

Era 7 State progressive reforms

Australian ballot (POL) A government-printed ballot of uniform dimensions to be cast in secret that many states adopted around 1890 to reduce voting fraud associated with party-printed ballots cast in public Robert La Follette; direct primaries (POL) 1855-1925. Progressive Wisconsin Senator and Governor. Staunch supporter of the Progressive movement, and vocal opponent of railroad trusts, bossism, WWI, and League of Nations. Introduced a new system for bypassing politicians and placing the nominating process directly in the hands of the voters. Seventeenth Amendment (POL) 1913 constitutional amendment allowing American voters to directly elect US senators. initiative, referendum, and recall (POL) Initiative: people have the right to propose a new law. Referendum: a law passed by the legislature can be reference to the people for approval/veto. Recall: the people can petition and vote to have an elected official removed from office. These all made elected officials more responsible and sensitive to the needs of the people, and part of the movement to make government more efficient and scientific. municipal reform (POL) City bosses and their corrupt alliance with local businesses such as trolley lines and utility companies were targeted for reform by Progressives.

Era 7 women

Carrie Chapman Catt (ID, POL) (1859-1947) A suffragette who was president of the National Women's Suffrage Association, and founder of the International Woman Suffrage Alliance. Instrumental in obtaining passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920. National American Woman Suffrage Association (ID, POL) A group formed by leading suffragist in the late 1800s to organize the women's suffrage movement. Led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Alice Paul (ID, POL) Head of the National Woman's party that campaigned for an equal rights amendment to the Constitution. She opposed legislation protecting women workers because such laws implied women's inferiority. Most condemned her way of thinking. National Woman's party (ID, POL) A group of militant suffragists who took to the streets with mass pickets, parades, and hunger strikes to convince the govt to give them the right to vote. Led by Alice Paul. Nineteenth Amendment (ID, POL) The constitutional amendment adopted in 1920 that guarantees women the right to vote. League of Women Voters (ID, POL) League formed in 1920 advocating for women's rights, among them the right for women to serve on juries and equal pay laws. Margaret Sanger (ID, POL) American leader of the movement to legalize birth control during the early 1900's. As a nurse in the poor sections of New York City, she had seen the suffering caused by unwanted pregnancy. Founded the first birth control clinic in the U.S. and the American Birth Control League, which later became Planned Parenthood.

Era 4 John Quincy Adams

John Quincy Adams (POL) The Era of Good Feeling ended in political bad feelings. The old congressional caucus system for choosing presidential candidate had broken down. As a result, four candidates of the Democratic-Republican party of Jefferson campaigned for the presidency: John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew Jackson. Henry Clay used his influence in the House to provide John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts with enough votes to win the election. When President Adams appointed Clay as his secretary of state, Jackson and his followers charged that the decision of the voters had been foiled by secret political maneuverers. Henry Clay; "Corrupt Bargain" (POL) Henry Clay used his influence in the House to provide John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts with enough votes to win the election. When President Adams appointed Clay as his secretary of state, Jackson and his followers charged that the decision of the voters had been foiled by secret political maneuverers. Angry Jackson supporters accused Adams and Clay of making a "corrupt bargain." Tariff of 1828; "tariff of abominations" (POL) In 1828, Congress patched together a new tariff law, which generally satisfied northern manufactures but alienated southern planters. Southerners denounced it as a "tariff of abominations." Revolution of 1828 (POL) Adams sought reelection in 1828. But the Jacksonians were now ready to use the discontent of southerners and westerners and the new campaign tactic of party organisation to sweep "Hold Hickory" (Jackson) into office. Jackson won handily, carry every state west of the Appalachian.

Era 4 Women

feminists (CUL) A supporter of women's claims to the same rights and treatment as men. women's rights movement (CUL) American life was still mostly rural in the mid-19th century. But in growing cities, the family was being redefined, which the introduction pf birth control and the rise of women's movements combating things such as prostitution and equal rights. cult of domesticity (CUL) In traditional farm families, men were the moral leaders. However, they were absent most of the time. As a result, the women in the households who remained at home took charge of the household and children. The idealised view of women as moral leaders in the home is called the cult of domesticity. Sarah Grimké; Letter on the Condition of Women And the Equality of the Sexes (CUL) A woman who published a pamphlet arguing for equal rights of women called "Letters on the Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women". She also argued for equal education opportunities. Angelina Grimké (CUL) Published An Appeal to Christian Woman of the South in 1836, in which she called upon woman to overthrow the horrible system of oppression and cruelty, Lucretia Mott (CUL) A Quaker who attended an anti-slavery convention in 1840 and her party of women was not recognized. She and Stanton called the first women's right convention in New York in 1848 Elizabeth Cady Stanton (CUL) A member of the women's right's movement in 1840. She was a mother of seven, and she shocked other feminists by advocating suffrage for women at the first Women's Right's Convention in Seneca, New York 1848. Stanton read a "Declaration of Sentiments" which declared "all men and women are created equal." Seneca Falls Convention (1848) (CUL) The leading feminists met at Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848. At the end of it, they issued a document closely modelled after the Declaration of Independence. Their "Declaration of Sentiments" declared that "all men and women are created equally" and listed women's grievances against laws and customs that discriminated against them. Susan B. Anthony (CUL) An American social reformer and feminist who played a pivotal role in the women's suffrage movement.

Era 6 Artists

realism, naturalism (CUL) Mark Twain became the first realist author and his books often showed the greed, violence, and racism in American society. Authors known for their naturalism focused in how emotions and experience shaped human experience. Mark Twain (CUL) United States writer and humorist best known for his novels about Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn. Stephen Crane (CUL) Wrote Red Badge of Courage; American novelist, short story writer, poet, journalist, raised in NY and NJ; style and technique: naturalism, realism, impressionism; themes: ideals v. realities, spiritual crisis, fears. Jack London (CUL) A young California writer and adventurer who portrayed the conflict between nature and civilization in his novels. Theodore Dreiser (CUL) American naturalist who wrote The Financier and The Titan. Like Riis, he helped reveal the poor conditions people in the slums faced and influenced reforms. Winslow Homer (CUL) Broke the Old World traditions in art, and was vigorously American in his paintings of New England maritime life and other native subjects. Thomas Eakins (CUL) Specialized in painting the everyday lifes of working-class men and women and used the new technology of serial-actions photographs to study human anatomy and paint it more realistically. Impressionism (CUL) An artistic movement that sought to capture a momentary feel, or impression, of the piece they were drawing. James Whistler (CUL) A member of the realist movement, although his works were often moody and eccentric. Best known for his Arrangement in Black and Grey, No.1, also known asWhistler's Mother. Mary Cassatt (CUL) American painter whose sensitive portrayals made her one of the prominent new impressionists.. Ashcan School (CUL) Also known as The Eight, a group of American Naturalist painters formed in 1907, most of whom had formerly been newspaper illustrators, they believed in portraying scenes from everyday life in starkly realistic detail. Their 1908 display was the first art show in the U.S. Armory Show (CUL) A New York painting exhibit in 1913 that featured abstract paintings. abstract art (CUL) A style of art that does not show a realistic subject, usually transforming the subject into lines, colors or shapes. Henry Hobson Richardson (CUL) His architectural designs of the 1870s, based on the Romanesque style, gave a gravity and stateliness to functional commercial buildings. Romanesque style (CUL) This architecture style featured massive stone walls and rounded arches. Louis Sullivan "form follows function" (CUL) Achieved a much-admired aesthetic unity, in which the form of a building followed from its function ("form follows function") - hallmark of the Chicago School of Architecture. Frank Lloyd Wright (CUL) Considered America's greatest architect. Pioneered the concept that a building should blend into and harmonize with its surroundings rather than following classical designs. organic architecture (CUL) An architectural style in which the building was in harmony with its natural surroundings. Fredrick Law Olmsted (CUL) Specialised in the planning of city parks and scenic boulevards, including Central Park and the grounds of the U.S. Capitol in Washington. As the originator of landscape art, he not only designed parks, parkways, campuses, and suburbs but also established the basis for later urban landscaping. Henry Hobson Richardson (CUL) His architectural designs of the 1870s, based on the Romanesque style, gave a gravity and stateliness to functional commercial buildings. Romanesque style (CUL) This architecture style featured massive stone walls and rounded arches. Louis Sullivan "form follows function" (CUL) Achieved a much-admired aesthetic unity, in which the form of a building followed from its function ("form follows function") - hallmark of the Chicago School of Architecture. Frank Lloyd Wright (CUL) Considered America's greatest architect. Pioneered the concept that a building should blend into and harmonize with its surroundings rather than following classical designs. organic architecture (CUL) An architectural style in which the building was in harmony with its natural surroundings. Fredrick Law Olmsted (CUL) Specialised in the planning of city parks and scenic boulevards, including Central Park and the grounds of the U.S. Capitol in Washington. As the originator of landscape art, he not only designed parks, parkways, campuses, and suburbs but also established the basis for later urban landscaping.

Era 6-7 Helped reveal progressism

urban middle class (CUL) Most Progressives were urban middle-class men and women. They included: doctors, lawyers, ministers, storekeepers, office workers, and middle managers. white, old stock Protestants (CUL) Native-born, their churches preached against vice and taught social responsibility. professional associations (CUL) Groups of individuals who share a common profession and are often organized for common political purposes related to that profession. Pragmatism (CUL) A philosophy which focuses only on the outcomes and effects of processes and situations. William James (CUL) 1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth. John Dewey (CUL) He was a philosopher who believed in "learning by doing" which formed the foundation of progressive education. He believed that the teachers' goal should be "education for life and that the workbench is just as important as the blackboard." professional associations (CUL) Groups of individuals who share a common profession and are often organized for common political purposes related to that profession. Pragmatism (CUL) A philosophy which focuses only on the outcomes and effects of processes and situations. William James (CUL) 1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth. John Dewey (CUL) He was a philosopher who believed in "learning by doing" which formed the foundation of progressive education. He believed that the teachers' goal should be "education for life and that the workbench is just as important as the blackboard." Triangle Shirtwaist fire (POL) March 1911 fire in New York factory that trapped young women workers inside locked exit doors; nearly 50 ended up jumping to their death; while 100 died inside the factory; led to the establishment of many factory reforms, including increasing safety precautions for workers. anthracite coal miners' strike (1902) (POL, ENV) Pennsylvania coal miners went on strike for an increase in pay and a shorter working day. When the mine owners refused to negotiate, President Theodore Roosevelt threatened to seize control of the mines. A compromise was finally agreed upon.

Era 4 Leading to war of 1812

war hawks (ID, POL) A group of young Democratic-Republicans in Congress, many of them from frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio). Argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honour, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier Henry Clay (ID, POL) Leader of the the war hawks in Congress from the state Kentucky, argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honour, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier John C. Calhoun (ID, POL) Leader of the the war hawks in Congress from the state of South Carolina, argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honour, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier impressment (WOR) Challened U.S. policy of neutrality. British practice of taking American sailors and forcing them into military service Chesapeake-Leopard affair (WOR) In 1807, only a few miles off the coast of Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the U.S. warship Chesapeake. Three Americans were killed and four were taken captive and impressed into the British navy. Anti-British feeling ran high, and many Americans demanded war. Jefferson, however, retorted to diplomacy and economic pressure as his response to the crisis. Embargo Act (1807) (WOR) The measure prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any foreign port. Since the United States was Britain's largest trading partner, Jefferson hoped that the British would stop violating the rights of neutral nations rather than U.S. trade. However, it backfired and brought greater economic hardship to the U.S. than to Britain. Jefferson called for its repeal in 1809 during the final days of his presidency. Even after its repeal, however, U.S. ships could legally trade with all nations except Britain and France. James Madison (WOR) Jefferson's Secretary of State, James Madison, was nominated for president by a caucus of congressional Democratic-Republicans. Madison's presidency was dominated by the same European problems that had plagued Jefferson's second term. Like Jefferson, he attempted a combination of diplomacy and economic pressure to deal with the Napoleonic wars. Unlike Jefferson, he finally consented to take the United States to war. Nonintercourse Act (1809) (WOR) After a repeal of Jefferson's embargo act, Madison hoped to end economic hardship while maintaining his country's rights as a neutral nation. The Nonintercourse Act of 1809 provided that Americans could now trade with all nations except Britain and France. Macon's Bill No. 2 (1810) (WOR) Nathaniel Macon, a member of Congress, introduced a bill that restored U.S. trade with Britain and France. Macon's Bill No. 2 provided, however, that if either Britain or France formally agreed to respect U.S. neutral rights at sea, then the United States would prohibit trade with that nation's foe.

Era 6 West

100th meridian (ENV) Imaginary line from the Dakotas to Texas dividing the East and the West. buffalo herds (ENV) Provided food, clothing, shelter, and tools for many Native Americans in the West. Mostly wiped out by Americans by 1900. Great Plains (ENV) A mostly flat and grassy region of western North America. Home of the buffalo; ecological damage led to the wipe out of the buffalo herds. mineral resources (ENV) Led to a rush in the west which nearly exterminated the buffalo and also seriously damaged the environment. Mining frontier, boomtowns (WXT) In 1848, the discovery of gold in California caused the first flood of newcomers to the territory. Gold and silver were later discovered in many other areas of the west. These discoveries caused towns to grow up very quickly, then often lose population and collapse after the mining was no longer profitable. commercial cities (WXT) A few towns that served the mines, such as San Francisco, Sacramento, and Denver, grew into prosperous cities. longhorns, vaqueros (WXT) The name for the cattle which were brought to Texas from Mexico. The name for the Mexican cowboys who raised and rounded up the cattle in Texas. cattle drives (WXT) This refers to the forced migration of massive numbers of cattle to the railroads where they could be shipped to the East. barbed wire (WXT) An invention by Joseph Glidden in 1874, helped farmers to fence in their land on the lumber-scarce plains. Joseph Glidden (WXT) Inventor of barbed wire in 1874, which became essential as cattle ranching became consolidated Homestead Act (WXT) (1862) It gave 160 acres of public land to any settler who would farm the land for five years. The settler would only have to pay a registration fee of $25. dry farming (WXT) A way of farming dry land in which seeds are planted deep in ground where there is some moisture. census of 1890 (CUL) Declared that except for a few pockets, the entire frontier had been settled. Fredrick Jackson Turner "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" (CUL) In repsonse to the frontier closing, he wrote about the prompting of independence and individualism. And that the frontier was a powerful social leveller, breaking down class distinctions and thus fostering social and political democracy. The challenges caused Americans to be inventive and practical-mined - but also wasteful in their attitude towards natural resources. He also worried about the end of American opportunism, and conflictions like in Europe do to no more explorable land.

Era 6 philosophy

Adam Smith (CUL) Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. Seen today as the father of Capitalism. Wrote On the Wealth of Nations (1776) One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment. laissez-faire capitalism (CUL) An economic system in which the means of production and distribution are privately owned and operated for profit with minimal or no government interference. concentration of wealth (CUL) By the 1890s, the richest 10 percent of the U.S. population controlled 90 percent of the nation's wealth. Social Darwinism (CUL) The application of ideas about evolution and "survival of the fittest" to human societies - particularly as a justification for their imperialist expansion. William Graham Sumner (CUL) He was an advocate of Social Darwinism claiming that the rich were a result of natural selection and benefits society. He, like many others promoted the belief of Social Darwinism which justified the rich being rich, and poor being poor. Gospel of Wealth (CUL) This was a book written by Carnegie that described the responsibility of the rich to be philanthropists. This softened the harshness of Social Darwinism as well as promoted the idea of philanthropy. Horatio Alger stories (CUL) A collection of dime novels that featured rags to riches stories featuring how down and out boys can become rich and successful through hard work. "self-made man" (CUL) A 19th century ideal that celebrated men who rose to wealth or social prominence from humble origins through self-discipline, hard work, and temperate habits. Fredrick W. Taylor (CUL) "Efficiency expert"; mechanical engineer who wrote "principles of scientific management"; standardized tools and equipment. scientific management (CUL) A management theory using efficiency experts to examine each work operations and find ways to minimize the time needed to complete it.

Era 6 Immigration

Chinese Exclusion Act of 1883 (WXT) Prohibited all Chinese except students, teachers, merchants, tourists, and government officials from entering the United States. Migration for jobs (PEO) Mexican Americans moved to find work, such as the sugar beet fields and mines of Colorado, and the building of western railroads. causes of immigration (PEO, POL) Forces in the United States driving this process were (1) political and religious freedom, (2) economic opportunities in the western U.S. and cities, (3) large steamships offered relatively inexpensive transportation. old immigrants (PEO, POL) Immigrants who had come to the US before the 1880s from Britain, Germany, Ireland, and Scandenavia, or Northern Europe. new immigrants (PEO, POL) Immigrants who came to the United States during and after the 1880s; most were from southern and eastern Europe. Statue of Liberty (PEO, POL) A large monumental statue symbolizing liberty on Liberty Island in New York Bay, started in the 1870s by the French sculptor Frédéric-Aguste Bartholdi. Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (PEO, POL) Law that suspended Chinese immigration into America. The ban was supposed to last 10 years, but it was expanded several times and was essentially in effect until WWII. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant law that restricted immigration into the United States of an ethnic working group. Extreme example of nativism of period. Immigration Act of 1882 (PEO, POL) (1882) Placed restrictions on the immigration of undesirable persons, such as paupers, criminals, convicts, and mentally incompetent. Contract Labour Act of 1885 (PEO, POL) Restricted the immigration of temporary workers, to protect American workers. American Protective Association (PEO, POL) An organisation created by nativists in 1887 that campaigned for laws to restrict immigration. Ellis Island 1892 (PEO, POL) An immigration center opened in 1892 in New York Harbor; new arrivals had to pass more rigorous medical examinations and pay a tax before entering the United States. melting pot vs. cultural diversity (PEO, POL) The historian's term, melting pot, refers to immigrants leaving their old-world characteristics and adopting the United States characteristics. Other historians argue that first-generation immigrants maintained their cultural identity and only the second and third generations were assimilated in the U.S. society. causes of migration (PEO, POL) Bantu speakers move to find farmland, flee growing Sahara. They moved to find new farmland. 1500 years, they reached the tip of Africa.

Era 7 20's women

role of women (CUL) In the 1920s, the traditional separation of labor between men and women continued. Most middle-class women expected to spend their lives as homemakers and mothers. Sigmund Freud (CUL) Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis. morals and fashions (CUL) In the 1920s, movies, novels, automobiles, and new dances encouraged greater promiscuity. Young women shocked their elders by wearing dresses hemmed at the knee (flapper look), cutting their hair short, smoking cigarettes, and driving cars. Margaret Sanger (CUL) American leader of the movement to legalize birth control during the early 1900's. As a nurse in the poor sections of New York City, she had seen the suffering caused by unwanted pregnancy. Founded the first birth control clinic in the U.S. and the American Birth Control League, which later became Planned Parenthood.

Era 7 immediate aftermath of WW1

recession, loss of jobs (WXT, POL, PEO) In 1921, the U.S. plunged into recession and 10 percent of the workforce was unemployed. falling farm prices (WXT, POL, PEO) After World War I, European farm product came back on the market, farm prices fell, which hurt farmers in the United States. Red Scare (WXT, POL, PEO) In 1919, the country suffered from a volatile combination of unhappiness with the peace process, fears of communism fuelled by the Communist takeover in Russia and worries about labour unrest at home. The anti-German hysteria of the war years turned quickly into anti-Communist hysteria known as the Red Scare. anti-radical hysteria (WXT, POL, PEO) After World War I, xenophobia, (intense or irrational dislike of foreign people) increased. This lead to restrictions of immigration in the 1920s. Palmer raids (WXT, POL, PEO) A series of unexplained bombings caused Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to establish a special office under J. Edgar Hoover to gather information on radicals. Palmer also ordered mass arrests of anarchists, socialists, and labour agitators. From November 1919 through January 1920, over 6,000 people were arrested, based on limited criminal evidence. Most of the suspects were foreign born, and 500 of them, including the outspoken radical Emma Goldman, were deported. strikes of 1919 (WXT, POL, PEO) Major strike in Seattle where 60,000 unionists held a peaceful strike for higher pay. Boston police went on strike to protest firing of police officers who tried to unionize and Governor Calvin Coolidge sent in National Guard. U.S. Steel Corporation had a strike, after considerable violence, the strike was broken by state and federal troops. Boston police strike (WXT, POL, PEO) 3/4 of Boston's fifteen thousand policemen went on strike and for a few days the streets belonged to rioters; Governor Calvin Coolidge called out the Mass. National Guard which restored order and broke the strike. race riots (WXT, POL, PEO) Migration of African Americans to nothern cities increased racial tensions, which led to violence in many cities. Conditions were no better in the South than in the North.

Era 1 Spanish and Portuguese

Encomienda System (WXT) The king of Spain gave grants of land and natives to individual Spaniards. Natives had to farm or work in the mines. Asiento System (WXT) Required the Spanish to pay a tax to their king on each slave they imported to the Americas. Ferdinand and Isabella (WOR) (8th Century) Spanish Christians reconquered most of the land from the Islamic Moors. Two of the largest kingdoms united when Isabella and Ferdinand married, uniting Spain. The same year they launched Columbus to sail his voyage. Henry the Navigator (WOR) Portuguese sailor who took the shorter route to get to African trade, going south and east opening a long sea route around South Africa's Cape of Good Hope. Christopher Columbus (WOR) Financially backed by Ferdinand and Isabella (Spanish Monarchs), Italian-born, chartered three ships, and was bestowed as governor, admiral, and viceroy of all the lands he would claim for Spain. Treaty of Tordesillas (WOR) 1494, Spain and Portugal moved the pope's line of demarcation a few degrees to the west and signed the Treaty of Tordesillas (established Portugal's claim to Brazil, Spain's claim to the Americas). slave trade (WOR) Portuguese began trading slaves from West Africa, started using slaves to produce sugar from sugar plantations, a system that, because it was so profitable, European colonists used in the Americas. nation-state (WOR) Small kingdoms were uniting into larger ones. Enormous multi-ethnic empires (like the Holy Roman Empire) were breaking up. Replacing these empires and small kingdoms were nation-states, countries in which the majority of people shared both a common culture and a common loyalty toward central government. Monarchs depended on trade to bring in revenue and the church to justify their right to rule (Divine Right). Bartolomé de Las Casas (CUL) Spanish priest who dissented against European ideals. Though he had owned land and slaves in the West Indies and had fought in wars against the natives, he eventually became an advocate for better treatment for natives. He convinced the king to establish the New Laws of 1542. Valladolid Debate (CUL) B. de Las Casas argued that the natives were complexly human and morally equal to Europeans, so enslaving them was not justified. On the other side, another priest, Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, argued that natives were less than human. Hence, they benefited from serving the Spaniards in the encomienda system. Neither side clearly won. Las Casas was unable to gain equal treatment, but he did establish the basic argument on behalf of justice for natives. Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (CUL) Argued the opposing side of the Valloid Debate, claiming natives were less than human. (Also see B. de Las Casas)

Era 2 Enlightenment

Enlightenment (POL) A major influence on the Enlightenment and on American thinking was John Lock, a 17th-century English philosopher and political theorist. Locke's ideas about "natural laws," sovereignty, and protest greatly inspired and impacted the American Revolution. Deism (CUL) Many Enlightenment thinkers in Europe and Americas were Deists, who believed that God had established natural laws in creating the universe, but that the role of divine intervention in human affairs was minimal. Tney believed in rationalism and trusted human reason to solve the many problems of life and society, and emphasised reason, science, and respect for humanity. Rationalism (CUL) A belief or theory that opinions and actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious belief or emotional response. John Locke (CUL) A 17th century philosopher and political theorist. A major influence over the enlightenment and the American way of thinking. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (CUL) "Social Contract" he explained an ideal society where each community member would vote on issues and majority would become one law. Had a major influence over the enlightenment and the American way o thinking.

Era 4 Era of Good Feelings

Era of Good Feelings (ID) The election of James Monroe as president in 1816 began the "Era of Good Feelings." One party, the Federalists, died and Monroe's party, the Democratic-Republicans adopted some of their policies and dominated politics. This was not, however, real unity and harmony. sectionalism (ID) Throughout the "Era of Good Feelings" people had heated debates Sectionalists tensions over slavery became more apparent. Antagonistic factions within the Democratic-Republican party would soon split it in two. Would ultimately lead to the Civil War. James Monroe (ID) He served as Madison's secretary of state and as Jefferson's minister to Great Britain. He also was from Virginia, leading the first four out of five U.S. presidents to be from Virginia. Defeated Federalist Rufus King in 1816 election (183 electoral votes to 34). By 1820, Monroe received all but one electoral. Without opposition, Monroe represented the growing nationalism of the American people. Stephen Decatur (WOR) When problems with the Barbary pirates again developed, a fleet under Stephen Decatur was sent in 1815 to force the rulers of North Africa to allow American shipping the free use of the Mediterranean.

Era 3 1st continental congress

First Continental Congress (1774) (ID) The punitive Intolerable Acts drove all colonies except Georgia to send delegates to a convention in Philadelphia. Many Americans did not have desires for Independence, but simply wanted to protest parliamentary infringements of their rights and restore the relationship with the crown that had existed before the Seven Years' War. Joseph Galloway (ID) Joseph Galloway proposed a plan, similar to the Albany Plan of 1754, that would have reordered relations and form a union of colonies within the British empire. It failed to pass by a single vote. Suffolk Resolves (ID) Endorsed by the 1st Cont. Congresss, called for the immediate repeal of the Intolerable Acts and for the colonies to resist them by making military preparations and boycotting British goods. (economic sanctions) economic sanctions (ID) 1st Cont. Cogress created the Continental Association - a network of committees to enforce the economic sanctions of the Suffolk Resolves. Declaration of Rights and Grievances (ID) Passed by 1st Cont. Congress, urged the kings to redress colonial grievances and restore colonial rights. In a conciliatory gesture, it recognised Parliament's authority to regulate commerce.

Era 4 South

Free African Americans (ID) By 1860, as many as 250,000 African Americans in the South were not slaves. They were free citizens. Most lived in cities where they could own proper. Laws stated they were not equal, and the constant threat of capture required them to show legal papers proving their free status. Most stayed in the South, some to be near to still-bound family members others believing there were no greater opportunities in the North and that the South was their home. planters (ID) White society; aristocratic planters lived comfortably at the top of society while poor farmers struggled at the bottom. Code of Chivalry (ID/PEO/WXT) The agricultural South was largely a feudal society. Southern gentlemen ascribed to a code of chivalrous conduct, which included a strong sense of personal honour, the defence of womanhood, and paternalistic attitudes toward all who were deemed inferior, especially slaves. poor whites (ID) Three-fourths of the South's white population owned no slaves (*need 2/3 to go to war, secede, etc. 2/3 = 66%, ¼ = 25%, ergo, war shouldn't have happened). Many lived in the hills as subsistence farmers. Nicknamed "hillbillies." They defended the slave system, thinking that someday they too could own slaves and that at least they were superior on the social scale to someone. hillbillies (ID) Derisive name for poor whites made by the. They defended the slave system, thinking that someday they too could own slaves and that at least they were superior on the social scale to someone. Deep South (ID, PEO) In parts of the Deep South, slaves made up as much as 75 percent of the total population. Fearing slave revolts, southern legislatures added increased restrictions on movement and education to their slave code. King Cotton (PEO/WXT) Was the foundation of the South's economy, even though by 1850s small factories in the region were producing approximately 15 percent of the nation's manufactured goods. Tobacco, rice, and sugarcane were important cash crops, but these were far exceeded by the South's chief economic activity: the production and sale of cotton.

Era 6 Blacks

George Washington Carver (WXT) African American farmer and food scientist. His research improved farming in the South by developing new products using peanuts. Tuskegee Institute (WXT) Booker T. Washington built this school to educate black students on learning how to support themselves and prosper. white supremacists (PEO, POL) This group favored separating (segregating) public facilities, as a means of treating African American as social inferiors. Civil Rights Cases of 1883 (PEO, POL) The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that Congress could not legislate against racial discrimination practiced by private citizens. Plessy v. Ferguson (PEO, POL) (1866) The Supreme Court upheld a Louisiana law requiring "separate but equal accommodations" for white and black passengers on railroads. Ruled that the law did not violate the 14th Amendment's guarantee of "equal protection of the laws." These decisions supported a wave of segregation laws. Jim Crow laws (PEO, POL) Laws designed to enforce segregation of blacks from whites. literacy tests, poll taxes, grandfather clauses (PEO, POL) After Reconstruction, various political and legal devices were created to prevent southern blacks from voting. white primaries, white juries (PEO, POL) After Reconstruction, discrimination took many forms. Political party primaries were created for whites only, and African Americans were barred from serving on juries. lynch mobs (PEO, POL) In the 1890s, more than 1,400 African American men were lynched (hung by a mob without trial) by Southerns. economic discrimination (PEO, POL) After Reconstruction, economic discrimination was widespread in the South. Most African Americans were kept out of skilled trades and factory jobs. African Americans remained in farming and low-paying domestic work. African American migration (PEO, POL) In 1894, the International Migration Society was formed to help blacks emigrate to Africa. Other blacks moved to Kansas and Oklahoma. Ida B. Wells (PEO, POL) African American journalist. Published statistics about lynching, urged African Americans to protest by refusing to ride streetcards or shop in white owned stores. Booker T. Washington (PEO, POL) Prominent black American, born into slavery, who believed that racism would end once blacks acquired useful labor skills and proved their economic value to society, was head of the Tuskegee Institute in 1881. His book "Up from Slavery." economic cooperation (PEO, POL) Booker T. Washington's National Negro Business League emphasized racial harmony and economic cooperation. W.E.B. Du Bois (CUL) A Harvard trained professional who called for equal rights immediately for African Americans. He founded the NAACP that aimed to help African Americans improve.

Era 7 20's economy

Henry Ford; assembly line (WXT) Had perfected a system for manufacturing automobiles by means of an assembly line. Instead of losing time moving around a factory as in the past, Ford's workers remained at one place all day and performed the same simple operation over and over again at rapid speed. In the 1920s, most major industries adopted the assembly line and realized major gains in worker productivity. open shop (WXT) A company with a labor agreement under which union membership cannot be required as a condition of employment. welfare capitalism (WXT) Declining union memberships, an approach to labor relations in which companies meet some of their workers' needs without prompting by unions, thus preventing strikes and keeping productivity high.

Era 5-6 Grant

Jay Gould (WXT, POL) United States financier who gained control of the Erie Canal and who caused a financial panic in 1869 when he attempted to corner the gold market (1836-1892) William (Boss) Tweed (WXT, POL) The boss of the local Democratic party, masterminded dozens of schemes for heling himself and his cronies to large chunks of graft. Virtually stole about $200 million from New York's taxpayers before The New York Times and the cartoonist Thomas Nast exposed "Boss" Tweed and brought about his arrest and imprisonment in 1871. Crédit Mobilier (WXT, POL) A joint-stock company organized in 1863 and reorganized in 1867 to build the Union Pacific Railroad. It was involved in a scandal in 1872 in which high government officials were accused of accepting bribes. spoilsmen (POL) In the 1870s, political manipulators such as Senator Roscoe Conkling and James Blaine, used patronage - giving jobs and government favors to their supporters. Thomas Nast (POL) Cartoonist who exposed "Boss" Tweed and brought about his arrest and imprisonment in 1871. patronage (POL) Granting favors or giving contracts or making appointments to office in return for political support, practiced by spoilsmen in the 1870s. Horace Greeley (POL) The scandals of the Grant administration drove reform-minded Republicans to break with the party in 1872 and select him, and editor of the New York Tribune, as their presidential candidate. The Liberal Republicans advocated civil service reform, an end to railroad subsidies, withdrawal of troops from the South, reduced tariffs, and free trade. The Democrats joined them and also nominated him. The regular Republicans again reduced to "waving the bloody shirt" (framing Democrats and Confederates) and Grant was re-elected in a landslide. Panic of 1873 (POL) (Beginning of Grant's second term) Thousands of Northern labourers both jobless and homeless. Overspeculation led to widespread business failures and depression. Liberal Republicans (POL) Advocated civil service reform, an end to railroad subsidies, withdrawal of troops from the South, reduced tariffs, and free trade. greenbacks (POL) (Panic of 1873) Debtors, suffering from the tight money policies, demanded the creation of greenback paper money that was not supported by gold. redeemers (POL) Largely former slave owners who were the bitterest opponents of the Republican program in the South. Staged a major counterrevolution to "redeem" the south by taking back southern state governments. Their foundation rested on the idea of racism and white supremacy. Redeemer governments waged and agressive assault on African Americans.

Era 6 Captains of Industry/Robber Barrons

Jay Gould, watering stock (WXT) Entered railroad business for quick profits. He would sell off assets inflate the value of a corporation's assets and profits before selling its stock to the public. Andrew Carnegie (WXT) A Scottish-born American industrialist and philanthropist who founded the Carnegie Steel Company in 1892. By 1901, his company dominated the American steel industry. vertical integration (WXT) Practice where a single entity controls the entire process of a product, from the raw materials to distribution. U.S. Steel (WXT) The largest steel company of the US, created by J.P. Morgan by merging Andrew Carnegie's Carnegie Steel and several other steel companies together; at the time, the largest corporation in existence. John D. Rockefeller (WXT) Rockefeller founded a company that would come to control most of the nation's oil refineries by eliminating its competition. He took charge by applying the latest technologies and efficient practices. At the same time, as his company grew, he was able to extort rebates from railroad companies and temporarily cut prices for Standard Oil kerosene to force rival companies to sell out. horizontal integration (WXT) Absorption into a single firm of several firms involved in the same level of production and sharing resources at that level Standard Oil Trust (WXT) Rockefeller's company, in 1881, owned 90 percent of the oil refinery business, with a board of trustees at the head interlocking directorates (WXT) The practice of having executives or directors from one company serve on the Board of Directors of another company. J. P. Morgan introduced this practice to eliminate banking competition in the 1890s. J. P. Morgan (WXT) A banker who took control and consolidated bankrupt railroads in the Panic of 1893. In 1900, he led a group in the purchase of Carnegie Steel, which became U.S. Steel. large department stores (WXT) R.H. Macy and Marshall Field made these stores the place to shop in urban centers. R. H. Macy (WXT) Founded one of the first department stores, Macy's. mail-order companies (WXT) Two companies, Sears Roebuck, and Montgomery Ward, used the improved rail system to ship to rural customers to sell many different products. The products were ordered by mail from a thick paper catalog. Sears, Roebuck (WXT) Retailer who dominated the mailorder industry and by 1907 had become one of the largest business enterprises in the nation; the Sears catalog helped create a truly national market.

Era 7 WW1 laws

Jeannette Rankin (WOR) First woman elected to the United States House of Representatives and the first female member of Congress. A Republican and a lifelong pacifist, she was the only member of Congress to vote against United States entry into both World War II and World War I. Additionally, she led resistance to the Vietnam War. Schenck v. United States (POL) A 1919 decision upholding the conviction of a socialist who had urged young men to resist the draft during World War I. Justice Holmes declared that government can limit speech if the speech provokes a "clear and present danger" of substantive evils. Edward House (WOR) In 1915, he was President Wilson chief foreign policy adviser. He traveled to London, Paris, and Berlin to negotiate a peace settlement, but was unsuccessful. Zimmermann telegram (WOR) On March 1, U.S. newspapers carried the shocking news of a secret offer made by Germany to Mexico. Intercepted by British intelligence, a telegram to Mexico from the German foreign minister, Arthur Zimmermann, proposed that Mexico ally itself with Germany in return for Germany's pledge to help Mexico recover lost territories: Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. The Zimmermann Telegram aroused the nationalist anger of the American people and convinced Wilson that Germany fully expected a war with the United States. Russian Revolution (WOR) : Applying the principle of moral diplomacy, Wilson wanted the war to be fought for a worthy purpose: the triumph of democracy. It bothered him that one of the Allies was Russia, a nation governed by an autocratic czar. This barrier to U.S. participation was suddenly removed on March 15, when Russian revolutionaries overthrew the czar's government and proclaimed a republic. (Only later in November would the revolutionary government be taken over by Communists.) declaration of war (WOR) President Wilson makes an arousing speech for war in a joint-congress session on April 2, 1917. On April 6, an overwhelming majority in Congress voted for a declaration of war, although a few pacifists, including Robert La Follette and Jeanette Rankin, defiantly voted no.) Espionage Act (1917) (POL) Provided for imprisonment of up to 20 years for persons who either tried to incite rebellion in the armed forces or obstruct the operation of the draft, upheld by Schneck v. United States. Sedition Act (1918) (POL) Added to Espionage Act to cover "disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language" about the American form of government, the Constitution, the flag, or the armed forces.

Era 3 John Adams

John Adams (POTUS 2) (POL) (2nd U.S. President) The vice president, John Adams, was the Federalists' candidate, while former secretary of state Thomas Jefferson was the choice of the Democratic-Republicans. Adams won by three electoral votes. Alien and Sedition Acts (ID, CUL) Federalists passed the Alien Act, which authorised the president to deport aliens considered dangerous and to detain enemy aliens in times of war. They also passed the Sedition Act, which made it illegal for newspaper editors to criticise either the president or Congress and imposed fines or imprisonment for editors who violated the law. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (ID, CUL) The Kentucky legislature adopted a resolution written by Thomas Jefferson, and the Virginia legislature adopted a resolution introduced by James Madison. Both resolutions declared that the states had entered into a "compact" in forming the national government, and, therefore, if any sect of the federal government broke the compact, a state could nullify the federal law. Although only Kentucky and Virginia adopted nullifying resolutions in 1799, they set forth an argument and rationale that would be widely used in the nullification controversy of the 1830s. French Revolution (WOR) (Neutrality) Americans were conflicted on the French Revolution because while they did support the French peoples' aspirations for a Republic, colonists were horrified of stories of mob hysteria and mass executions. Also, the U.S. still had a military alliance with France, but not with the revolutionary republic. Jefferson and his supporters sympathised and argued that because Britain was seizing American merchant ships in French ports, the United States should join France in a defensive war against Britain. XYZ Affair (WOR) Americans were angered by reports that U.S. merchant ships were being seized by French warships and privateers. Seeking a peaceful, Adams sent a delegation to Paris to negotiate with the French government. Certain French ministers, known only as X, Y, and Z because their names were never revealed, requested bribes as the basis for entering into negotiations. The American delegates indignantly refused. Newspaper reports of the demands made by X, Y, and Z infuriated many Americans, who now clamoured for war against France. President Adams, on the other hand, resisted the popular sentiment for war.

Era 4 Courts

John Marshall (POL) Marshall had been appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court during the final months of John Adams' presidency. He held his post for 34 years, in which time he exerted a strong influence on the Court. Marshall's decisions generally strengthened the central government, often at the expense of states' rights. His decisions consistently favoured the central government and the rights of property against the advocates of states' rights. Several of Marshall's decisions (as he influenced even the Republican judges) became landmark rulings that defined the relationship between the central government and the states; Marbury v Madison (1803) was the first, establishing the principle of judicial review. judicial review (POL) By ruling a law of Congress to be unconstitutional, Marshall established the doctrine of judicial review. From this point on, the Supreme court would exercise the power to decide whether an act of Congress or of the president was allowed by the Constitution. The court could now overrule actions of the other two branches of the federal government. Marbury v. Madison (POL) Established judical review. Jefferson tried to block the Federalist judges. He ordered Secretary of State James Madison not to deliver the commissions to those Federalists judges. William Marbury, a "midnight appointment" of Adams, sued for his commission. The case of Marbury v. Madison went to the Supreme Court in 1803. Marshall ruled that Marbury had a right to his commission according to the Judiciary Act of 1789. However, Marshall said the Judiciary Act of 1789 had given the Court greater power than the Constitution allowed; therefore, the law was unconstitutional, and Marbury would not receive his commission. Fletcher v. Peck (POL) (involving Georgian land fraud) Marshall concluded that a state could not pass legislation invalidating a contract. This was the first time that the Supreme Court declared a state law to be unconstitutional and invalid. McCulloch v. Maryland (POL) (Maryland attempted to tax the Second Bank of the U.S. located there). Marshal ruled that a state could not tax a federal institution because "the power to tax is the power to destroy," and federal laws are supreme over state laws. In addition, Marshall settled the long-running debate over constitutionality of the national bank. Marshall ruled that (loose interpretation) the Constitution gave the federal government the implied power to create one. Dartmouth College v. Woodward (POL) (Involved a law of New Hampshire that changed Dartmouth College from a privately charted college to a public institution) The Marshall court struck down a state law as unconstitutional, arguing that a contract for a private corporation could not be altered by a state. Gibbons v. Ogden (POL) (New York grant of monopoly to a steamboat company conflicting with a charter authorised by Congress) Marshall established the federal government's broad control of interstate commerce. implied powers (POL) Powers not specifically mentioned in the constitution. John Marshall ruled in McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) that the Consitution permitted a loose interpretation.

Era 2 Massachusetts bay area

John Winthrop (PEO) In 1630, about a thousand Puritans led by John Winthrop sailed for the Massachusetts shore and founded Boston and several other towns. Great Migration (PEO) (John Withrop, Massachusetts Bay) A civil war in England in the 1630s drove some 15,000 more settlers to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Thomas Hooker (PEO) The Reverend Thomas Hooker led a large group of Boston Puritans into the fertile Connecticut River Valley (west of Rhode Island) and founded the colony of Hartford in 1636. John Davenport (PEO) South of Hartford, a second settlement in the Connecticut Valley was started by John Davenport in 1637 and given the name New Haven.

Era 4 Immigration

Nativists (ID) The nativists (those reacting most strongly against the foreigners) were Protestants who distrusted the Roman Catholicism practiced by the Irish and many of the Germans. In the 1840s, this led to sporadic rioting in the big cities and the organisation of a secret antiforeign society, the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. Fading as slavery divided North and South, nativism would periodically return when enough native-born citizens felt threatened by a sudden increase in immigration. American party ("Know Nothing Party") (ID) Nativist political party that emerged from the SUpreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner, also known as the Know-Nothing Party Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner (ID) Nativists; in the 1840s, this led to sporadic rioting in the big cities and the organisation of a secret antiforeign society, the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled Banner. This society turned to politics in the early 1850s, nominating candidates for offices as the American party, or Know-Nothing party. Irish; potato famine (PEO) Caused Irish crop funds to not be there, brought two million immigrants from Ireland Roman Catholic (PEO) The Irish faced strong persecution because of their Roman Catholic religion. Their progress was difficult but steady Tammany Hall (PEO) Due to religious persecution, the Irish were initially excluded from joining New York City's Democratic organisation, Tammany Hall. But by the 1880s they controlled this party organisation. Germans (PEO) Economic hardships and failed democratic revolutions in 1848 caused more than 1 million Germans to seek refuge in the United States in the late 1840s and the 1850s. They established homesteads throughout the Old Northwest and generally prospered. At first their political influence was limited. As they became more active in public life, many strongly supported public education and staunchly opposed slavery. Immigration (PEO) The surge in immigration between 1830 and 1860 was chiefly the result of: (1) the development of inexpensive and relatively rapid ocean transportation; (2) famines and revolutions in Europe that drove people from their homelands, and (3) the growing reputation of the United States as a country offering economic opportunities and political freedom. They strengthened the economy by providing both a steady stream of inexpensive labour and an increased demand for mass-produced consumer goods.

Era 4 Religion

Second Great Awakening (CUL) A series of religious revivals starting in 1801, based on Methodism and Baptism. Stressed a religious philosophy of salvation through good deeds and tolerance for all Protestant sects. The revivals attracted women, Blacks, and Native Americans. Timothy Dwight (CUL) He was an educated Reverend (president of Yale College) who helped initiate the Second Great Awakening. His campus revivals inspired many young men to become evangelical preachers. revivalism; revival (camp) (CUL) (1823) Presbyterian minister Charles G. Finney started a series of revivals in upstate New York. Instead of delivering sermons based on rational argument, Finney appealed to people's emotions and fear of damnation. He preached that every individua could be saved through faith and hard work. meetings (CUL) : In the South and advancing western fronts, Baptist and Methodist circuit preachers, such as Peter Cartwright, would travel from one location to another and attract thousands to hear their dramatic preaching at outdoor revivals, or camp meetings. millennialism (CUL) Much of the religious enthusiasm of the time was based on the widespread belief that the world was about to end with the second coming of Jesus. One preacher, William Miller, gained tens of thousands of followers by predicting a specific date (October 21, 1844) for the second coming. Nothing happened on the appointed day, but the Millerites continued as a new Christian denomination, the Seventh-Day Adventists. Church of Latter-Day Saints; Mormons; Joseph Smith (CUL) The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, or Mormons, was founded by Joseph Smith in 1830. Based his religious thinking on a book of Scripture - the Book of Mormon - which traced a connection between the American Indians and the lost tribes of Israel. After a period of migration, the Mormon founder was murdered by a local mob in Illinois. Brigham Young; New Zion (CUL) To escape persecution, the Mormons under the leadership of Brigham Young migrated to the far western frontier, where they established the New Zion (as they call their religious community) on the banks of the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Their practice of polygamy aroused the hostility of the U.S. government.

Era 4 Communals

Shakers (ID) One of the earliest religious communal movements, had about 6,000 members in various communities (1840s). Held property in common and kept women and men strictly separate (forbidding marriage and sexual relations). For lack of new recruits, the Shaker communities virtually died out by the mid-1900s. Amana Colonies (ID) Settlers of the colonies in Iowa were Germans Pietists (Pietism). Like shakers, emphasises simple, communal living. However, they allowed for marriage, and their communities continue to prosper, although they no longer practice their communal way of living. Robert Owen (ID) Welsh industrialist and reformer; conducted a secular experiment (community) in New Harmony, Indiana. New Harmony (ID) Owen hoped his utopian socialist community would provide an answer to the problems of inequity and alienation caused by the Industrial Revolution. It failed, however, as a result of both financial problems and disagreements among members of the community. Joseph Henry Noyes (ID) Religiously converted John Henry Noyes started a cooperative community in Oneida, New York. Oneida community (ID) Members shared property and, later, marriage partners. Critics attacked the Oneida system of planned reproduction and communal child-rearing as a sinful experiment in "free love." Despite the controversy, the community managed to prosper economically by producing and selling silverware of excellent quality. Charles Fourier; phalanxes (ID) The theories of French socialist Charles Fourier attracted the interest of many Americans. Fourier advocated that people share work and housing in communities known as Fourier Phalanxes. This movement died out quickly as Americans proved too individualist to live communally.

Era 4 slavery

Tallmadge Amendment (POL) Rep. James Tallmadge) Called for (1) prohibiting the further introduction of slaves into Missouri and (2) requiring the children of Missouri slaves to be emancipated at the age of 25. If adopted, the amendment would have led to the gradual elimination of slavery in Missouri. The amendment was defeated in the Senate as enraged southerners saw it as the first step of northern abolition. Missouri Compromise (1820) (POL) (Rep. Henry Clay - Approved 1820) 1.Admit Missouri as a slave-holding state. 2. Admit Maine as a free state. 3. Prohibit slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of latitude 36° 30'. "peculiar institution" (PEO/WXT) Wealth in the South was measured in terms of land and slaves. Slaves were treated as a form of property - bought and sold. Some whites were sensitive about how they treated the other humans, referring to slavery as "that peculiar institution." In colonial times, people justified slavery as an economic necessity, but in the 19th century, apologists for slavery mustered historical and religious arguments to support their claim that it was good for both slave and master. Denmark Vesey (PEO/WXT) A mulatto who inspired a group of slaves to seize Charleston, South Carolina in 1822, but one of them betrayed him and he and his thirty-seven followers were hanged before the revolt started. Nat Turner (PEO/WXT) Leader of a slave rebellion in 1831 in Virginia. Revolt led to the deaths of 20 whites and 40 blacks and led to the "gag rule' outlawing any discussion of slavery in the House of Representatives slave codes (PEO/WXT) Laws that controlled the lives of enslaved African Americans and denied them basic rights.

Era 7 Wilson

Underwood Tariff (1913) (POL) This tariff provided for a substantial reduction of rates and enacted an unprecedented, graduated federal income tax. By 1917, revenue from the income tax surpassed receipts from the tariff, a gap that has since been vastly widened. Federal Reserve Act (1914) (POL) This act created a central banking system, consisting of twelve regional banks governed by the Federal Reserve Board. It was an attempt to provide the United States with a sound yet flexible currency. The Board it created still plays a vital role in the American economy today. Federal Reserve Board (POL) A variation of an independent regulatory agency with a chairman and board that controls the supply of money that flows through the U.S. economy. Clayton Antitrust Act (1914) (POL) New antitrust legislation constructed to remedy deficiencies of the Sherman Antitrust Act, namely, it's effectiveness against labor unions. Federal Trade Commission (POL) A government agency established in 1914 to prevent unfair business practices and help maintain a competitive economy. Federal Farm Loan Act (1916) (POL) Congressional measure making credit available to farmers at low rates of interest. racial segregation laws (ID, PEO) President Wilson with a strong southern heritage and many of the racist attitudes of the times, acquiesced to the demands of Southern Democrats and permitted the segregation of federal workers and buildings.

Era 7 20's presidents

Warren Harding (POL) A Republican who was unclear about where he stood on every issue. The only memorable phrase in Harding's campaign was his assertion that the American people wanted a "return to normalcy." Harding apparently was right, because he was elected by a landslide. It was a sign that the idealism and activism that had characterized the pre-war years of the Progressive era were over. Charles Evans Hughes (POL) A reformist Republican governor of New York, who had gained fame as an investigator of malpractices by gas and insurance companies and by the coal trust. He later ran against Wilson in the 1916 election. Andrew Mellon (POL) Secretary of Treasury under President Harding, Coolidge and Hoover, who instituted a Republican policy of reduced government spending, lower taxes to the wealthy and higher tariffs. Harry Daugherty (POL) Attorney General under President Harding who accepted bribes for agreeing not to prosecute certain criminal suspects. Albert Fall (POL) He was Secretery of the Interior during Harding's administration, and was a scheming anticonservationist. He was convicted of leasing naval oil reserves and collecting bribes, which was called the Tea Pot Dome scandal. Teapot Dome (POL) A government scandal involving a former United States Navy oil reserve in Wyoming that was secretly leased to a private oil company in 1921. Fordney-McCumber Tariff Act (POL) This tariff passed in 1922, raised tariffs on foreign manufactured goods by 25 percent. It helped domestic manufacturers, but limited foreign trade, and was one cause of the Great Depression of 1929. Bureau of the Budget (POL) Created in 1921, its primary task is to prepare the Annual Budget for presentation every January. It also controls the administration of the budget, improving it and encouraging government efficiency. Calvin Coolidge (POL) Became president when Harding died of pneumonia. He was known for practicing a rigid economy in money and words, and acquired the name "Silent Cal" for being so soft-spoken. He was a true republican and industrialist. Believed in the government supporting big business. Herbert Hoover (POL) Republican candidate who assumed the presidency in March 1929 promising the American people prosperity and attempted to first deal with the Depression by trying to restore public faith in the community. Alfred E. Smith (POL) He was the Democratic presidential candidate in the 1928 election. He was the first Catholic to be elected as a candidate.

Era 6 Cities

causes of immigration (PEO, POL) Forces in the United States driving this process were (1) political and religious freedom, (2) economic opportunities in the western U.S. and cities, (3) large steamships offered relatively inexpensive transportation. old immigrants (PEO, POL) Immigrants who had come to the US before the 1880s from Britain, Germany, Ireland, and Scandenavia, or Northern Europe. new immigrants (PEO, POL) Immigrants who came to the United States during and after the 1880s; most were from southern and eastern Europe. Statue of Liberty (PEO, POL) A large monumental statue symbolizing liberty on Liberty Island in New York Bay, started in the 1870s by the French sculptor Frédéric-Aguste Bartholdi. Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 (PEO, POL) Law that suspended Chinese immigration into America. The ban was supposed to last 10 years, but it was expanded several times and was essentially in effect until WWII. The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first significant law that restricted immigration into the United States of an ethnic working group. Extreme example of nativism of period. Immigration Act of 1882 (PEO, POL) (1882) Placed restrictions on the immigration of undesirable persons, such as paupers, criminals, convicts, and mentally incompetent. Contract Labour Act of 1885 (PEO, POL) Restricted the immigration of temporary workers, to protect American workers. American Protective Association (PEO, POL) An organisation created by nativists in 1887 that campaigned for laws to restrict immigration. Ellis Island 1892 (PEO, POL) An immigration center opened in 1892 in New York Harbor; new arrivals had to pass more rigorous medical examinations and pay a tax before entering the United States. melting pot vs. cultural diversity (PEO, POL) The historian's term, melting pot, refers to immigrants leaving their old-world characteristics and adopting the United States characteristics. Other historians argue that first-generation immigrants maintained their cultural identity and only the second and third generations were assimilated in the U.S. society. causes of migration (PEO, POL) Bantu speakers move to find farmland, flee growing Sahara. They moved to find new farmland. 1500 years, they reached the tip of Africa. settlement houses (CUL) Community centers located in the slums and near tenements that gave aid to the poor, especially immigrants.

Era 6 conservationism

deforestation (ENV) The removal of trees faster than forests can replace themselves, sparked the Conservation Movement. Yellowstone, Yosemite (ENV) In 1872, this area of Wyoming was declared the first national park. In 1864 this area in California was declared a state park, later it became a national park. Department of Interior (ENV) Manages and protects the nations public lands and natural resources, in the 1880s advocated creation of forest reserves and a federal forest service to protect federal lands from exploitation. conservationists and preservationists (ENV) Conservationists believed in scientific management and regulated use of natural resources, preservationists went a step further, and aimed to preserve natural areas from human interference. Forest Reserve Act of 1891 (ENV) First national forest conservation policy, authorized the president to set aside areas of land for national forests. Forest Management Act of 1897 (ENV) Withdrew federal timberlands from development and regulated their use. John Muir, Sierra Club (ENV) In 1892, he founded this organisation, with the goal of preserving some natural areas from human intervention.

Era 7 20's diplomacy

disarmament (WOR) The Republican presidents of the 1920s tried to promote peace and also scale back expenditures on defence by arranging treaties of disarmament. The most successful disarmament conference - and the greatest achievement of Harding's presidency - was held in Washington, D.C., in 1921. Washington Conference (1921) (WOR) Secretary of State Charles Evans Hughes initiated talks on naval disarmament, hoping to stabilize the size of the U.S. Navy relative to that of other powers and to resolve conflicts in the Pacific. Representatives to the Washington Conference came from Belgium, China, France, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, and Portugal. Five-Power Naval treaty (WOR) (1922) Treaty resulting from the Washington Armaments Conference that limited to a specific ratio the carrier and battleship tonnage of each nation. It created a moratorium for 10 years, during which no battleships would be built. The countries agreed to refrain from further fortification of their Pacific Possessions. The five countries were: US, Britain, Japan, France, and Italy Nine-Power China Treaty (WOR) A 1922 treaty affirming the sovereignty and territorial integrity of China as previously stated in the Open Door Policy. Kellogg-Briand Treaty (1928) (WOR) (1929) Created by Frank B. Kellogg and Aristide Briand, this pact promised to never make war again and settle all disputes peacefully. Sixty-two nations signed this pact. The treaty was hard to enforce and had no provisions for the use of economic or military force against a nation that may break the treaty. Latin America policy (WOR) In 1927, the United States signed an agreement with Mexico protecting U.S. interests in Mexico. war debts (WOR) During the war, the United States loaned huge amounts of funds to help with the war but the debts took too long to be paid back. Germany had a hard time paying back their debts. reparations (WOR) As part of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was ordered to pay fines to the Allies to repay the costs of the war. Opposed by the U.S., it quickly lead to a severe depression in Germany. Dawes Plan (1924) (WOR) This loan program was crafted to give money to Germany so that they could pay war reparations and lessen the financial crisis in Europe; the program ended with the 1929 stock market crash.

Era 6 Voters

divided electorate (POL) In the late 1800s, Republicans kept memories of the Civil War alive to remind war veterans of the pain caused by the Southern Democrats. Democrats could count on winning every former Confederate state. Identity politics (POL) A tendency for people of a particular religion, race, social background, etc., to form exclusive political alliances, moving away from traditional broad-based party politics. "Rum, Romanism, and Rebellion" (POL) In a notably dirty campaign, the Democrats were labelled the party of this. Catholic voters were offended by the phrase, and their voted in key states such as New York may have been enough to ensure Cleveland's victory as the first Democrat to be elected president since Buchanan in 1856. close elections (POL) National elections between 1856 and 1912, were very evenly matched. The objective was to get out the vote and not alienate voters on the issues. divided government (POL) Governance divided between the parties, as when one holds the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress. weak presidents (POL) The Gilded Age presidents were not memorable and only served one term. The administrations of Hayes, Garfield, and Arthur reflected the political stalemate and patronage problems of the Gilded Age. patronage politics (POL) The use of government resources to reward individuals for their electoral support. corrupt politicians (POL) Party patronage, the process of providing jobs to faithful party members was more important than policy issues during the Gilded Age. Union veterans, "bloody shirt" (POL) Republicans wore the blood shirts to remind the people that the civil war was caused by Southern Democrats and how Lincoln was killed by a Southern Democrat. Whig past, pro-business (POL) Republicans followed the tradition of Hamilton and the Whigs, supporting a pro-business economic program of high protective tariffs. Hamiltonian tradition (POL) Republicans of the Gilded Age followed this tradition, which included a stron central government. Social reformers, temperance (POL) The core of Republican support came from middle-class Anglo-Saxon Protestants who supported temperance or prohibition, along with business men.

Era 6 Government

federal land grants and loans (WXT) The federal government provided land and loans to the railroad companies in order to encourage expansion of the railroads. fraud and corruption, Crédit Mobilier (WXT) 1872; tarred Grant's presidency; Union Pacific Railroad insiders formed this construction company and then hired themselves at inflated prices to build the railroad line, earning dividends as high as 348 percent; distributed shares of its valuable stock to congressmen to prevent whistle-blowing; a newspaper exposed and congressional investigation of the scandal led to the formal censure of two congressmen and the revelation that the vice president had accepted payments from this company. Interstate Commerce Act of 1886 (WXT) Established the ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission) - monitors the business operation of carriers transporting goods and people between states - created to regulate railroad prices. anti-trust movement (WXT) Middle class people feared a growth of new wealth due to the trusts. In the 1880s trust came under widespread scrutiny and attack. In 1890, the Sherman Antitrust Act was passed, but it was too vaguely worded to stop the development of trusts. Not until the Progressive era, would the trusts be controlled. Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 (WXT) First federal action against monopolies, it was signed into law by Harrison and was extensively used by Theodore Roosevelt for trust-busting. However, it was initially misused against labor unions. federal courts, U.S. v. E. C. Knight (WXT) Supreme Court ruled that the Sherman Antitrust Act could be applied only to commerce, not to manufacturing. As a result, the U.S. Department of Justice secured few convictions until the law was strengthened during the Progressive era. Granger laws (POL) Grangers state legislatures in 1874 passed law fixing maximum rates for freight shipments. The railroads responded by appealing to the Supreme Court to declare these laws unconstitutional. Munn v. Illinois (POL) (1877) United States Supreme Court Case that ended up allowing states to regulate business within their borders, including railroads. Wabash v. Illinois (POL) (1866) Supreme court ruling that states could not regulate interstate commerce Interstate Commerce Commission (POL) Former independent agency of the U.S. government, established in 1887; it was charged with regulating the economics and services of specified carriers engaged in transportation between states. Surface transportation under the it's jurisdiction included railroads, trucking companies, bus lines, freight forwarders, water carriers, oil pipelines, transportation brokers, and express agencies. After his election in 1904, Theodore Roosevelt demonstrated support of progressive reforms by strengthening this.

Era 4 later industrialization

industrial technology (WXT) After 1840, industrialisation spread rapidly to other states of the Northeast. The new factories produced shoes, sewing machines, ready-to-wear clothing, firearms, precision tools, and iron products for railroads and other new technologies. Elias Howe (WXT) He invented the sewing machine which took much of the production of clothing out of homes into factories. Samuel F. B. Morse (WXT) He invented the electric telegraph that went hand in hand with the growth of railroads in enormously speeding up communication and transportation across the country. railroads (WXT) Emerged as America's largest industry. As such, they required immense amounts of capital and labour and gave rise to complex business organisation. Cheap and rapid transportation particularly promoted western agriculture. They not only united the common commercial interests of the Northeast and Midwest, but would also give the North strategic advantages in the Civil War. Panic of 1857 (WXT) The mid-century economic boom ended in 1857 with a financial panic. Prices, especially for Midwestern farmers, dropped sharply, and unemployment in Northern cities increased. Since cotton prices remained high, the South was less affected. As a result, some Southerners believed that their plantation economy was superior and that continued union with the Northern economy was not needed.

Era 6 Culture

mass circulation newspapers (CUL) Large circulation newspapers had been around since 1830, but the first to exceed one million subscribers was Joseph Pulitzer's New York World. Joseph Pulitzer (CUL) United States newspaper publisher (born in Hungary) who established the Pulitzer prizes (1847-1911). William Randolph Hearst (CUL) A leading newspaperman of his times, he ran The New York Journal and helped create and propagate "yellow (sensationalist) journalism." Ladies' Home Journal (CUL) Advertising revenues and new printing technologies made it possible for it and similar magazines to sell for as little as 10 cents a copy. circus trains (CUL) The national rail network made possible traveling circuses. Barnum & Bailey "Greatest Show on Earth" (CUL) A traveling circus that was very popular. "Buffalo Bill" Wild West Show (CUL) William F. Cody brought this show to urban populations. spectator sports, boxing, baseball (CUL) In the late 19th century professional sports started. amateur sports, bicycling, tennis (CUL) These were late 19th century sports of the middle and upper classes. social class and discrimination (CUL) In the late 19th century, sports such as golf and tennis became popular with wealth members of athletic clubs. The very rich pursued polo and yachting. country clubs, golf, polo, yachts (CUL) These were late 19th century sports of the wealthy, often discriminated against Jews, Catholics, and Blacks. corner saloon, pool halls (CUL) In the late 19th century, young single men often centered their lives around these establishments.

Era 7 20's religion

modernism (CUL) A range of influences, including the changing role of women, the Social Gospel movement, and scientific knowledge, caused large numbers of Protestants to define their faith in new ways. Modernists took a historical and critical view of certain passages in the Bible and believed they could accept Darwin's theory of evolution without abandoning their religious faith. fundamentalism (CUL) Protestant preachers in rural areas condemned the modernists and taught that every word in the Bible must be accepted as literally true. A key point in fundamentalist doctrine was that creationism (the idea that God had created the universe in seven days, as stated in the Book of Genesis) explained the origin of all life. Fundamentalists blamed the liberal views of modernists for causing a decline in morals. revivalists: Billy Sunday, Aimee Semple McPherson (CUL) Leading radio evangelists such as Billy Sunday and Aimee Semple McPherson preached a fundamentalist message. Scopes trial (CUL) Tennessee, like several other southern states, outlawed the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution in public schools. To challenge the constitutionality of these laws, the American Civil Liberties Union persuaded a Tennessee biology teacher, John Scopes, to teach the theory of evolution to his high school class. For doing so, Scopes was arrested and tried in 1925. As expected, Scopes was convicted, but the conviction was later overturned on a technicality. Laws banning the teaching of evolution remained on the books for years, although they were rarely enforced. The northern press asserted that Darrow and the modernists had thoroughly discredited fundamentalism. However, to this day, questions about the relationship between religion and the public schools remain controversial and unresolved Clarence Darrow (CUL) A famed criminal defense lawyer for Scopes, who supported evolution. He caused William Jennings Bryan to appear foolish when Darrow questioned Bryan about the Bible.

Era 7 Prohibition

modernism (CUL) A range of influences, including the changing role of women, the Social Gospel movement, and scientific knowledge, caused large numbers of Protestants to define their faith in new ways. Modernists took a historical and critical view of certain passages in the Bible and believed they could accept Darwin's theory of evolution without abandoning their religious faith. fundamentalism (CUL) Protestant preachers in rural areas condemned the modernists and taught that every word in the Bible must be accepted as literally true. A key point in fundamentalist doctrine was that creationism (the idea that God had created the universe in seven days, as stated in the Book of Genesis) explained the origin of all life. Fundamentalists blamed the liberal views of modernists for causing a decline in morals. revivalists: Billy Sunday, Aimee Semple McPherson (CUL) Leading radio evangelists such as Billy Sunday and Aimee Semple McPherson preached a fundamentalist message. Scopes trial (CUL) Tennessee, like several other southern states, outlawed the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution in public schools. To challenge the constitutionality of these laws, the American Civil Liberties Union persuaded a Tennessee biology teacher, John Scopes, to teach the theory of evolution to his high school class. For doing so, Scopes was arrested and tried in 1925. As expected, Scopes was convicted, but the conviction was later overturned on a technicality. Laws banning the teaching of evolution remained on the books for years, although they were rarely enforced. The northern press asserted that Darrow and the modernists had thoroughly discredited fundamentalism. However, to this day, questions about the relationship between religion and the public schools remain controversial and unresolved Clarence Darrow (CUL) A famed criminal defense lawyer for Scopes, who supported evolution. He caused William Jennings Bryan to appear foolish when Darrow questioned Bryan about the Bible.

Era 4 Frontier

mountain men (ID) The first whites in the Rocky Mountain area had followed Lewis and Clark and explored American Indian trails as they trapped for furs. These mountain men served as the guides and pathfinders for settlers crossing the mountains into California and Oregon in the 1840s. the West (ID) The West represented the possibility of a fresh start for those willing to venture there. It beckoned as a place promising greater freedom for all ethnic groups: American Indians, African Americans, European Americans, and eventually Asian Americans as well. the Frontier (ID) The same forces that had brought original to the Americas motivated their descendants and new immigrants to move westward. American Indian removal (ID, PEO) By 1850, the vast majority of American Indians were living west of the Mississippi River. The others faced removal and were either killed by disease, died in battles, emigrated reluctantly, or been forced their land by treaty or military action. Great Plains (ID, PEO) Provided a temporary haven for Native Americans who were forced out of lands. Environmental damage (ENV) Settlers had little understanding of the fragile nature of land and wildlife. They would clear entire forests and after only two generations exhaust the soil with poor farming methods. extinction (ENV) Trappers and hunters brought the beaver and the buffalo to the brink of extinction.

Era 6 Railroads

nation's first big business (WXT) Railroads. Increased from 35,000 miles in 1865 to 193,000 miles in 1900. Encouraged mass production, mass consumption, and economic specialisation. Resources used in railroad-building promoted the growth of other industries, especially coal and steel. Affected daily life. Cornelius Vanderbilt (WXT) A railroad owner who built a railway connecting Chicago and New York (Eastern Trunk Lines) He popularized the use of steel rails in his railroad, which made railroads safer and more economical. Eastern trunk lines (WXT) A trunk line was the major route between large cities; smaller branch lines connected the truck line with outlying towns. Cornelius Vanderbilt used his millions earned from a steamboat business to merge local railroads into the New York Central railroad, which ran from New York City to Chicago. Other trunk lines connected eastern seaports with Chicago and other midwestern cities and set standards of excellence and efficiency for the rest of the industry. transcontinental railroads (WXT) Completed in 1869 at Promontory, Utah, it linked the eastern railroad system with California's railroad system, revolutionizing transportation in the west Union and Central Pacific (WXT) These railroad companies were chartered to work together to create the first transcontinental railroad. One was to begin in Omaha, Nebraska, and end in California. Irish men were the main labor force. The other began in California and Chinese men laid the tracks. American Railroad Association (WXT) In 1883, this organization divided the country into four different time zones, which would become the standard time for all Americans. railroads and time zones (WXT) The United States was divided into four time zones by the railroad industry. speculation and overbuilding (WXT) In the 1870s and 1880s railroad owners overbuilt. This often happens during speculative bubbles, created by exciting new technology. rebates and pools (WXT) In a scramble to survive, railroads offered rebates (discounts) to favored shippers, while charging exorbitant freight rates to smaller customers. They also created secret agreements with competing railroads to fix rates and share traffic. bankruptcy of railroads (WXT) A financial panic in 1893 forced a quarter of all railroads into bankruptcy. J.P. Morgan and other bankers moved in to take control of bankrupt railroads and consolidate them.

Era 7 20's blacks

northern migration (CUL, ID) By 1930, almost 20 percent of African Americans out of the Southern United States to the North. Harlem Renaissance (CUL, ID) By 1930, almost 20 percent of African Americans lived in the North, as (northern) migration from the South continued. In the North, African Americans still faced discrimination in housing and jobs, but they found at least some improvement in their earnings and material standard of living. The largest African American community developed in the Harlem section of New York City. With a population of almost 200,000 by 1930, Harlem became famous in the 1920s for its concentration of talented actors, artists, musicians, and writers. Because of their artistic achievements this period is known as the Harlem Renaissance. Countee Cullen (CUL, ID) Wrote "Any Human to Another," "Color," and "The Ballad of the Brown Girl;" American Romantic poet; leading African-American poets of his time; associated with generation of poets of the Harlem Renaissance. Langston Hughes (CUL, ID) African American poet who described the rich culture of african American life using rhythms influenced by jazz music. He wrote of African American hope and defiance, as well as the culture of Harlem and also had a major impact on the Harlem Renaissance. James Weldon Johnson (CUL, ID) NAACP leader and Harlem Renaissance writer; he wrote poetry and, with his brother, the song "Lift Every Voice and Sing." Claude McKay (CUL, ID) A poet who was a major figure in the Harlem Renaissance movement and wrote the poem "If We Must Die" after the Chicago riot of 1919. Duke Ellington (CUL, ID) Born in Chicago middle class. moved to Harlem in 1923 and began playing at the cotton club. Composer, pianist and band leader. Most influential figures in jazz. Louis Armstrong (CUL, ID) Leading African American jazz musician during the Harlem Renaissance; he was a talented trumpeter whose style influenced many later musicians. Bessie Smith (CUL, ID) African American blues singer who played and important role in the Harlem Reniassance. Paul Robeson (CUL, ID) African American actor and singer who promoted African American rights and left-wing causes Back to Africa movement (CUL, ID) Encouraged those of African decent to return to Africa to their ancestors so that they could have their own empire because they were treated poorly in America. Marcus Garvey (CUL, ID) African American leader durin the 1920s who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and advocated mass migration of African Americans back to Africa. Was deported to Jamaica in 1927. black pride (CUL, ID) Many African American leaders agreed with Marcus Garvey's ideas on racial pride and self-respect. This influenced another generation in the 1960s.

Era 7 nativism

quota laws of 1921 and 1924 (CUL, POL, NAT) The first quota act of 1921 limited immigration to 3 percent of the number of foreign-born persons from a given nation counted in the 1910 Census (a maximum of 357,000). To reduce the number of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe, Congress passed a second quota act in 1924 that set quotas of 2 percent based on the Census of 1890 (before the arrival of most of the "new" immigrants). Although there were quotas for all European and Asian nationalities, the law chiefly restricted those groups considered "undesirable" by the nativists. Sacco and Vanzetti Case (CUL, POL, NAT) Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti were Italian immigrants charged with murdering a guard and robbing a shoe factory in Braintree; Mass. The trial lasted from 1920-1927. Convicted on circumstantial evidence; many believed they had been framed for the crime because of their anarchist and pro-union activities. Ku Klux Klan (CUL, POL, NAT) The most extreme expression of nativism in the 1920s was the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan. Unlike the original Klan of the 1860s and 1870s, the new Klan founded in 1915 was as strong in the Midwest as in the South. The new Klan used modem advertising techniques to grow to 5 million members by 1925. It drew most of its support from lower-middle-class white Protestants in small cities and towns. Northern branches of the KKK directed their hostility not only against blacks but also against Catholics, Jews, foreigners, and suspected Communists. Birth of a Nation (CUL, POL, NAT) A dramatic silent film from 1915 about the South during and after the Civil War. It was directed by D. W. Griffith. The film, the first so-called spectacular, is considered highly controversial for its portrayal of African-Americans. It attracted new Klan members due to its portrayal the KKK during Reconstruction as the heroes, and from the white backlash to the race riots of 1919.

Era 7 Blacks

racial segregation laws (ID, PEO) President Wilson with a strong southern heritage and many of the racist attitudes of the times, acquiesced to the demands of Southern Democrats and permitted the segregation of federal workers and buildings. increased lynching (ID, PEO) Thousands of blacks were lynched by racist mobs in the progressive era - few progressives did anything about lynching and segregation, most shared in the general prejudice of their times. Booker T. Washington (ID, PEO) African American progressive who supported segregation and demanded that African American better themselves individually to achieve equality. W.E.B. Du Bois (ID, PEO) Fought for African American rights. Helped to found Niagra Movement in 1905 to fight for and establish equal rights. This movement later led to the establishment of the NAACP. National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (ID, PEO) Founded on Lincoln's birthday by W.E.B. Du Bois. Their mission was no less than to abolish all forms of segregation and to increase educational opportunities for African American children. By 1920, the NAACP was the nation's largest civil rights organization, with over 100,000 members. National Urban League (ID, PEO) Formerly known as the National League on Urban Conditions among Negroes, is a nonpartisan Civil Rights organization based in New York City that advocates on behalf of African Americans and against racial discrimination in the United States. It also helped African Americans moving from the South to find jobs and homes.