1. Foundations of Rhetorical Analysis

imagery

Is clear, vivid description that appeals to the sense of sight, smell, touch, sound, taste, hot/cold, motion, or balance.

ellipsis

Punctuation mark consisting of three periods indicating a word or words have been omitted.

imperative sentence

Such a sentence issues a command. "Kick the ball." Do not confuse with a hortative sentence, which may be imperative but must be encouraging.

nuance

A subtle difference or variation in tone, connotation, or meaning.

analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. It can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. It can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

encomium

A speech or piece of writing that praises someone or something highly.

euphemism

A a polite expression used in place of words or phrases that otherwise might be considered harsh or unpleasant to hear. Ethnic cleansing (instead of genocide) Passed away (instead of died) Gravitationally challenged (instead of fat) Put to sleep (instead of euthanize)

anecdote

A brief, engaging account of some happening, often historical, biographical, or personal. As a technique in writing, it is especially, effective in creating interesting essay introductions, and also an illuminating abstract concepts in the body of the essay.

rhetoric

A broad term for all of the strategies, modes, and devices a writer can employ to allow the reader to easily accept and understand his or her point of view, with careful attention to his message's context, including timing, location, speaker, audience, and purpose.

aphorism

A concise phrase conveying some principle or concept of thought, typically by an ancient classical author.

inference

A conclusion reached on the basis of (text) evidence and reasoning.

allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, fable, myth, place, work of art. It can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical, popular, etc.

< SOAPSTtoneE Plus

A handy mnemonic to help you analyze any rhetorical situation. Memorize it now. It will be invaluable to you when formulating your thesis for the AP exam's rhetorical analysis essay. S peaker O ccasion A udience P urpose S ubject T one E xigence PLUS Strategies Appeals Stylistic Devices Rhetorical Devices

satire

A humorous literary work that criticizes human misconduct and ridicules vices, stupidities, and follies. Do not confuse with parody.

balanced sentence

A sentence in which two parallel elements are set off against each other like equal weights on a scale. Both parts contain significant grammatical parallelism: "If a free society cannot help the many who are poor, it cannot save the few who are rich."

interrogative sentence

A sentence that asks a question: "To whom did you kick the ball?"

hortative sentence

A sentence urging one to some course of conduct or action by exhorting and encouraging. Colloquially, a "pep talk." The subject of hortative sentences is always YOU, since in these type of sentences the person is always encouraging YOU to do something. Do not confuse with an imperative sentence which may not necessarily contain encouragement but rather a command. Before Trina is about to dive into the pool, her coach may say, "All of your training and hard work will pay off; you will be great. Now you go girl!"

complex sentence

A sentence which contains only one independent clause and at least one dependent clause: "Although I like ice cream, I like candy too.

epigraph

A short quotation or saying at the beginning of a book or chapter, intended to suggest its topic or theme.

innuendo

A sideways remark or hint, typically sexually suggestive or disparaging.

ambiguity

A statement that is unclear because it can be understood in more than one way.

Aristotelian triangle

Also known as the rhetorical triangle, it is a diagram illustrating the contextual interrelationship among the speaker, audience, and subject and their effect on a text. A rhetorical situation is the context of a rhetorical act, made up (at a minimum) of a rhetor (a speaker or writer), an inciting issue (or exigence), a medium (such as a speech or a written text), and an audience. Do not confuse with Freytag's pyramid, a plotline format for literature.

adage, maxim, proverb

Although there are subtle distinctions among them, each is generally a well-known, and typically overused saying expressing a general truth or wisdom about human behavior.

DIDLS

An acronym to help you determine tone. Memorize it now. D iction I magery D etails L anguage (stylistic devices) S yntax (sentence types) The above elements all contribute to the understanding of tone. To misinterpret tone is to misinterpret meaning.

salient

An adjective meaning most notable or important.

semantic

An adjective pertaining to the connotative or denotative meaning of words.

trite

An adjective used to describe an unoriginal or simplistic remark, opinion, or idea. Students often make poor impressions on their teachers by beginning essays with banal phrases such as, "Since the beginning of time, mankind has...." instead of striving to write an original hook. shallow thinking

pathos

An appeal to emotion. Typically, arguments relying on it heavily may use loaded words to appeal to basic human needs, making you feel included, optimistic, guilty, lonely, worried, insecure, etc. Most advertising is a form of this appeal.

logos

An appeal to reason. It occurs when a writer tries to convince you of the logic of his argument using facts and examples, and a generally rational tone to their language. The problem with it is that it can appear reasonable until the reader dissects the argument and then finds fallacies that defeat the argument's viability. (Of course, that presupposes that the readers is able to identify the fallacies.)

< undertone

An attitude that may lie under the ostensible tone of the piece. Under a cheery surface, for example, a work may have threatening ones. William Blake's "The Chimney Sweeper" from the Songs of Innocence has a grim one.

invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

parody

An exaggerated imitation of a serious work for humorous purposes. It borrows images, words or phrases from an original, and pokes fun at it. This is also a form of allusion, since it is referencing a previous text, event, etc. Saturday Night Live also pokes fun at famous persons and events. Do not confuse with satire.

idiom

An expression whose meaning is not discernible from the usual or literal meanings of its parts. Some are cliches. A non-native English speaker would likely have difficulty understanding such expressions such. kick the bucket hit the nail on the head on the ball, etc.

connotation

An idea or feeling that a word invokes, in addition to its literal or primary meaning, "shades of meaning."

rhetor

Any speaker or writer who crafts a message for an audience.

simple sentence

Contains a single independent clause. Remember, an independent clause has its own subject and verb and can stand alone. An independent clause standing alone is the same as this term: "I eat candy." > It may contain additional phrases, such as a prepositional phrase: "In the morning, I eat candy." > It may contain a compound subject: "Jen and I eat candy." > It may contain a compound predicate: "I eat candy and cake." > It may contain any combination of all three (a compound subject, and compound predicate, and a phrase): "In the morning, Jen and I eat candy and cake."

scheme

Figure of speech concerning syntax, letters, and sounds, rather than the meaning of words.

polemic

Greek for "hostile." An aggressive argument that tries to establish the superiority of one opinion over all others. These generally do not concede that opposing opinions have any merit.

ethos

Is an appeal to credibility. The writer is seeking to convince you that he or she has the background, history, skills, and/or expertise to speak on the issue.

> rhetorical strategies

How writers achieve their purpose. For example, a writer might appeal to authority (strategy) to persuade (purpose) or compare (strategy) to evaluate (purpose). Others include appealing to pity, striking a harsh tone, contrasting two unlike ideas, satirizing, evading, separating, blaming, implying, teasing, agreeing, refuting, conceding, etc. Do not confuse with rhetorical devices. Strategy vs device example: WAR strategy: break their will tactic: use weapons SPORTS Want to win strategy: intimidate tactic: don't shave

wit

In modern usage, clever language that surprises and delights. Such a statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. It usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, it originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally (in the early seventeenth century), it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

periodic sentence

In this sentence, the main clause is postponed until the end, and as such is harder to write and harder to understand, but if not overused, emphatic. It can be persuasive by putting reasons for something at the beginning before the final point is made. It can also create suspense or interest for the reader: "With a beautiful set and a pyrotechnic display, the band was sure to please."

> comparison and contrast format

Is the greater rhetorical strategy typically used within the expository and argumentative modes. This strategy discusses similarities and differences. Such essays may be organized in several ways including Subject by subject, where subject A is discussed in its entirety and is followed by a full discussion of subject B. Topic by topic, where one topic within subject A is discussed and is followed by a discussion of a corresponding topic within topic B. Point by point, where a major point related to A is examined and is immediately followed with a corresponding point in subject B. Combination, where, in a longer essay, the writer may employ two or more ways. Memorize all seven formats.

transition

Is the linking of ideas in sentences, paragraphs, and larger segments of an essay in order to achieve coherence. Such words and phrases link different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, they effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly and on the contrary. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.

style

Is the specific or characteristic manner of expression, execution, construction, or design of a writer. As a manner or mode of expression of language, it is the unique way each writer handles ideas. The AP exam demands you know how to write about it.

< tone

Is the writer's attitude toward his or her subject or material. It may be objective, subjective, comic, ironic, nostalgic, critical, reflective, etc.

< purpose

Is what the writer or speaker wants to accomplish. Common purposes include to persuade, dissuade, explain, evaluate, synthesize, resolve, praise, criticize, expose, inform, entertain, complain, etc. One of Lou Gehrig's chief _________ in delivering his Farewell Address is to thank his fans and his teammates, but he also wants to demonstrate that he remains positive.

conjunctive adverb

It can join two independent clauses. In such a case, it behaves like a coordinating conjunction, connecting two complete ideas. Notice, however, that you need a semicolon, not a comma, to connect the two clauses: independent clause+ [semi-colon] + [conjunctive adverb] + independent clause "I like ice cream; however, I like candy too." You may begin a sentence with one: "Furthermore, I like candy." They include accordingly also besides consequently conversely finally furthermore hence however indeed instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next nonetheless otherwise similarly still subsequently then therefore thus

thesis

It has a less-conventional, philosophical meaning you need to know, which is any idea that may be opposed by its antithesis, generally for the purpose of reconciling the merits of both into a newly synthesized idea. Thesis: Freshmen are strange, clueless beings who should be shunned for cluttering the halls with their gangling bodies. Antithesis: Freshmen are to be hugged in the halls and sent on their way because they are so naive and cute. Synthesis: Freshmen should politely be instructed on the norms of hallway travel.

cliche

It is a once-fresh but now trite, worn-out phrase or expression, such as lost track of time, a waste of time, opposites attract, it is what it is, etc. The French used the word to describe the sound that a matrix, or a mold with letters on it, made when it was being dropped into molten metal to make a printing plate. Oddly enough, the printing plate itself was called a cliché or a stereotype and it was one of the first movable types in the world. overused statement

subordinate clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, this clause CANNOT stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, it depends on a main clause, sometimes called an independent clause, to complete its meaning. Easily recognized keywords and phrases usually begin these clauses for example: although, because, unless, if even though, since, as soon as, while who, when , where, how, that, etc.

discourse

Loosely, it means "conversation." For the writer, this "conversation" is either written or spoken and takes place between the text and the reader (or listener). To communicate with the reader, the writer uses a particular method (or combination of methods) and style to make his or her ideas clear. Academic research, for example, is one long discourse among researchers since recorded time. The word "research" means "to search again." In this way, humanity progresses by building upon, challenging, or accepting past ideas. When you annotated a text, you are having a discourse with the author.

prose

One of the broadest divisions of genre, it refers to fiction and non-fiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines line length.

subjective

Opposite of objective. Reveals an author's personal attitudes and emotions.

superordinate

Opposite of subordinate. A category consisting of subordinate elements. Domicile is the superordinate category for house, condominium, and apartment. super example: dogs-- mamals sub example dogs--palmeranians

abstract

Refers to language that describes concepts rather than concrete images. Example: The bachelor The Rose (abstract concept is affection)

amplification

Repeating an expression while adding more detail to it in order to emphasize something that would otherwise be passed over. "He's passed on! This parrot is no more! He has ceased to be! He's expired and gone to meet his maker! He's a stiff! Bereft of life, he rests in peace! If you hadn't nailed him to the perch he'd be pushing up the daisies! His metabolic processes are now history! He's off the twig! He's kicked the bucket, he's shuffled off his mortal coil, run down the curtain and joined the bleedin' choir invisible! THIS IS AN EX-PARROT!!" (John Cleese in "The Dead Parrot Sketch," Monty Python's Flying Circus)

< rhetorical analysis

Rhetoric is the art of using words effectively in speaking or writing. The AP exam will requires you write a rhetorical analysis in which it's up to you to analyze HOW the writer uses language to deliver his or her point of view and accomplish his or purpose. Here you will not evaluate the merits of the point of view or position. (The AP test's argument essay is reserved for that purpose, and you will have opportunities to agree or disagree then.) So in a rhetorical analysis, it's not about whether you agree or disagree-- it's how effectively he or she made her point. Rhetorical analysis involves interpreting the effect on the message of its context, including timing, location, speaker, audience, and purpose. Key questions to consider are these: "Why did the author choose to use this strategy over any other? What is the intended effect on us as readers? How does this strategy help the author achieve his or her purpose? How effectively has the author done so?

colloquial language

Slang or common language that is informal or regional.

jargon

Special words associated with a specific area or knowledge or a particular profession. Writers who employ it either assume that readers know the specialized terms or take care to define terms for the audience's benefit.

declarative sentence

States an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question. "The ball is round."

trope

Stylistic device or "move" (figure of speech) which turns the meaning of words.

incongruity

Take the following joke: Two fish in a tank. One turns to the other and says: "Do you know how to drive this thing?" The set-up line leads us to think about two fish in a fish tank. But the punch line surprises us: Why should the fish be able to drive a fish tank? Then, a split second later, we suddenly remember that the word 'tank' has two meanings, and that the fish are actually in an army tank. Fish in an army tank is an example of this term. By resolving the tension caused by the punch line, the accompanying feeling of sudden surprise makes us laugh.

< rhetorical appeals

Techniques used to persuade an audience by emphasizing what they find most important or compelling. The three major ones are to ethos (character), logos (reason), and pathos (emotion).

context

The circumstances, atmosphere, attitudes, and events surrounding a text. The ________ for Lou Gehrig's speech is the recent announcement of his illness and his subsequent retirement, but also the poignant contrast between his potent career and his debilitating disease.

< audience

The listener, viewer, or reader of a text. Most texts are likely to have multiple.

denotation

The literal, dictionary definition of a word.

genre

The major category into which a work fits. On the AP language exam, the majority of the passages are from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. On the exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention.

counterargument

The opposing argument to the one a writer is putting forward. Rather than ignoring it, a strong writer will usually address it through the process of concession and refutation. Some of Lou Gehrig's listeners might have argued that his bad break was a cause for discouragement or despair.

< speaker

The person or group who creates a text. This might be a politician who delivers a speech, a commentator who writes an article, an artist who draws a political cartoon, or even a company that commissions an advertisement. In his Farewell Address, the _________ is not just Lou Gehrig, but baseball-hero-ALS-victim Lou Gehrig, a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he's had.

juxtaposition

The placement of two things being close together (side by side) with contrasting effect.

heteroglossia

The presence of two or more voices or expressed viewpoints in a narrative text. The power narration is in the coexistence of, and conflict among, different types of speech: the speech of characters, the speech of narrators, and even the speech of the author.

concession

The rhetorical strategy of acknowledging that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. In a strong argument, it is usually accompanied by a refutation challenging the validity of the opposing argument. Whereas a concession says, "Yes," a refutation says, "No." Lou Gehrig __________ what some of his listeners may think — that his bad break is a cause for discouragement or despair.

refutation

The rhetorical strategy of denying the validity of an opposing argument. In order to sound reasonable, refutations often follow a concession that acknowledges that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable. Whereas a concession says, "Yes," a refutation says, "No." Lou Gehrig _______ that his bad break is a cause for discouragement by saying he has "an awful lot to live for!"

elocution

The skill of clear and expressive speech, especially of distinct pronunciation and articulation.

propaganda

The spread of ideas and information to further a cause. In its negative sense, it is the use of rumors, lies, disinformation, and scare tactics in order to damage or promote a cause.

< exigence

The term comes from the Latin word for "urgency" and is a situation that sparked or incited the speech or writing in the first place. For example, when a presidential candidate gives her concession speech, the inciting situation is her losing the election. what sparked the speech into being

< occasion

The time and place a speech is given or a piece is written. In the case of Gehrig's speech, the _________ is Lou Gehrig Appreciation Day. More specifically, his moment comes at home plate between games of a doubleheader.

< subject

The topic of a text. What the text is about. Lou Gehrig's __________ in his speech is his illness, but it is also a catalog of all the lucky breaks that preceded his diagnosis.

< rhetorical devices

The tropes and schemes speakers and writers use to serve their strategy. For example, using an analogy to compare or using an invective to abuse. Other rhetorical devices include hyperbole, understatement, irony, strong verbs, parallelism, paradox, etc. Think of rhetorical devices as stylistic tools or the tactical "moves" the writer makes.

archaic diction

The use of words common to an earlier time period; antiquated language. For example, "Come hither" is another way of saying the command: come here. The AP Language test will include some passages containing pre-20th century prose containing such wording.

antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for test takers to identify its relationship to a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences.

loose (cumulative) sentence

This sentence resembles the way we speak because the main point comes early on. In this sentence, the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by independent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, and conversational. Generally loose sentences create loose style: "The San Bernardino Valley lies only an hour east of Los Angeles by the San Bernardino Freeway but is in certain ways an alien place: not the coastal California of the subtropical twilights and the soft westerlies off the Pacific but a harsher California, haunted by the Mojave just beyond the mountains, devastated by the hot dry Santa Ana wind that comes down through the passes at 100 miles an hour and whines through the eucalyptus windbreaks and works on the nerves."

rhetorical modes (modes of discourse)

This broad term describes the variety, the conventions, and purposes of the major kinds of prose. The four most common modes are exposition, argumentation, description, narration. Their purposes are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by taking a position and defending it or critiquing it by presenting sound reasoning, discussion that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture and virtually experience what is being described. Sometimes an author engages all senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. Narrative examples include anecdote, autobiography, biography, novel, oral history, etc. These four modes are sometimes referred to as mode of discourse. (A fifth mode, fiction writing, is sometimes included, but you should not expect to encounter fiction on the AP Language and Composition exam.)

kairos

This is an ancient Greek word meaning the decisive or opportune moment (the 'supreme moment'). The ancient Greeks had two words for time: Greek: χρόνος (chronos) and this one. In rhetoric, it refers to a time when conditions are right to deliver a speech, publish a novel, etc. difference between kairos and exigence: kairos= timing, perfect moment to do something exigence: what prompted the speech

> causal analysis format

This is the greater rhetorical strategy concerning cause and effect. It identifies why something happens and describes the consequences of a string of events. It establishes a relationship: B is the result of A. It can emphasize the causes, the effects, or both. It can detail a single cause with many effects, or several causes with a single effect, or any combination. Depending on his or her purpose, the writer can choose to present the most important idea in the beginning, middle, or the end. In some cases, the successful writer of a cause and effect essay anticipates and addresses reader objections and/or questions. It may be used within the expository narrative, or argumentative modes. Memorize all seven formats.

> definition format

This is the greater rhetorical strategy of identifying the class to which a specific term belongs and those characteristics which make it different from all the other items in that class. It is typically found in the expository mode. Memorize all seven formats.

> process analysis format

This is the greater rhetorical strategy whereby a writer analyzes a process. It fall primarily within the expository or descriptive modes and the narrative mode if it is a story designed to outline a procedure or how something works (e.g., expository narration). It explains how to do something or how something happens. It can have one of two purposes: It can either give instructions or inform the reader about how something is done. It must be in chronological order. Memorize all seven formats.

> argumentation format

This is the greater rhetorical strategy which convinces others through reasoning. Is the writer trying to explain aspects of a particular subject, and are you trying to advocate a specific opinion on this subject or issue in your essay? This is a type of writing in which the author argues a position on a particular issue. It takes a position on an issue and defends it. Its structure will likely be classical or Rogerian (we will learn about the latter later in the course). The classical appeals (ethos, logos, pathos) themselves are sub-strategies of argumentation. Memorize all seven formats.

> division and classification format

This is the greater rhetorical strategy which separates items into major categories and details the characteristics of each group and why each member of that group is placed within the category. It may separate a whole into parts or sort related items into categories. It typically relies on the descriptive, expository and argumentative modes. Memorize all seven formats.

> exemplification format

This is the rhetorical strategy of using a specific event, person, or detail of an idea cited and or developed to support or illustrate a thesis or topic. Always be mindful of facts, statistics, cases in point, personal experiences, interview quotations. Memorize all seven formats.

voice

This is the way you express your ideas to the reader. It reflects your chosen persona and attitude both towards the subject and your audience.

compound-complex sentence

This sentence contains at least two independent clauses and one dependent clause: "Although they are not healthful, I like ice cream, and I like candy too."

compound sentence

This sentence contains at least two independent clauses but no dependent clauses: "I like ice cream, and I like candy too."

editorialize

To inappropriately inject personal opinions in an objective account.

caricature

To make or give a comically or grotesquely exaggerated representation of someone or something. "ex: dear journal, today was another day in ap lang and lugged his whale-like figure onto the podium"

coordinating conjunction

Use to connect independent clauses. The mnemonic FANBOYS will help you remember them: F or A nd N or B ut O r Y et S o Use a comma before one when it connects two independent clauses. "I like ice cream [comma] and I like candy."

objective

When writers write this way, they try not to report their personal feelings about the subject; they attempt to be detached, impersonal and unbiased.

diction

Word choice. Good writers choose vocabulary carefully and precisely to communicate a message and to address an intended audience effectively. Different types of words have significant effects on meaning. An essay written in academic diction would be much less colorful, but perhaps more precise than street slang. On the AP test, you must be able to describe an author's diction. You MUST NOT write, "The author uses diction...". This is essentially saying, "The author uses words to write." (Duh.) Instead, describe the type of diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain, contemporary or archaic, etc.)

persona

is Greek for "mask." It is the face or character that a speaker shows to his or her audience. Lou Gehrig is a famous baseball hero, but in his speech he presents himself as a common man who is modest and thankful for the opportunities he's had.