1c) Ethical Theories - Kantian Ethics

The Metaphysics of Morals - Freedom as a postulate

'to have any goal of action whatsoever is an act of freedom on the part of the acting subject, not an effect of nature' 'In morals, the proper and inestimable worth of an absolutely good will consists precisely in the freedom of the principle of action from all influences'

Maxims

3 tests to show if act = CI - found in 'The Groundwork for Metaphysics of Morals' -The universal law principle -The principle of humanity as an ends not a means -The principle of the universal kingdom of ends

3 postulates of practical reason in order

4 morality 2 make sense we must assume these 3 unprovable things

Analytic Statements

a proposition whose predicate is contained in subject concepts a priori e.g. all bachelors are un married = true by definition

Goodness =

acting solely in accordance w one's duty -> only motive = awareness right thing 2 do e.g. shopkeeper charge all same not 2 keep business but bc right things to do (From the Groundworks of Metaphysics of Morals)

Synthetic a priori

all killing is wrong

Rational, noumenal self therefore =

all moral laws = universal, decided by R which = universal therefore universal laws Moral law = unconditionally + universally good

Synthetic a posteriori statement

all spinsters are unhappy

3 postulates, Immortality

allows ultimate good, endless self-improvement + :) Morality requires summum bonum - feel duty 2 seek the highest good SB = unachievable in this life -> (extreme duties) -> not always get :) therefore, achieve SB in next life (immortal) - morality must be rewarded to make sense Virtue should be rewarded, do duty not to get into SB Necessary 4 universe to be the rational entity k thinks

Kant establishes some specific duties

Right to priv property + ownership (not own people but can have contracts w them) - marriage/ paid labour Suicide - ends future freedom + suicide Duty not 2 destroy/ limit other people (can give life in battle 4 future :) + future) Innate right to freedom Pursue gr8 good , not 4 ones own :) Not make false promises, truthfullness = foundation of soc Avoid drunkeness/ gluttony (inhibits ability 2 act freely)

Kant background

Russia 1824-1804 Pietist upbringing : emph on importance of piety in Xianity, strong moral conscience + control of passions - imp of golden rule Leading deontological theories Universal moral rules, absolutist These = a priori truths - independent of existence

Kant provides clear examples about what duty requires Suicide

SUICIDE 'From self love I make it my principle to shorten my life when continuing it would lead to more evil than pleasure' But - this = contradictory 4 Kant suicide = always wrong

Other influences David Hume + Voltaire

Scepticism about inherited trad + authorities in p, religion + uni

Examples of using humanity as an ends not a means

See essential condition of morality, how can something be good if bad 4 others e.g. rebounds e.g. My Sister's Keeper - using a saviour sibling 2 save sisters life

Key influences Newton

Show how R transform astronomy + physics Kant see moral laws = know by nature w/ a priori reasoning about maxims would be universable in manner + compatible w laws of nature Kant's mother - taught him about nature - k admire morals w/in + stars outside

Thomas Aquinas - problems with the universal principle

Some things can't be universalised in this way: TA ST Reason - 'that debts ought to be paid' - 'but it could happen in some individual instance that it would be harmful and therefore irrational to repay a debt' e.g. repaying debt 4 war vs country Counter - intuitive 2 never break a promise/ tell a lie

Rational bc

Statement abt human k, 3 categories: Analytic statements Synthetic a priori Synthetic a posteriori

The Summum Bonumm Highest good

Supreme where ppl do good + all = :) Made up of 2 things - contentment, moral good = come together made highest good Do duty - must be rewarded, SB = where :) + virtue (good actions result of doings one duty come together) - not reason why we behave morally Moral system in which create moral community where all moral ends are reconciled All follow CI -> improve soc Moral battle, conflict resolved -> kingdom of ends formed - summun bonum (critique of PR)

Kant discussion points

What about totalitarian regimes? (postulates 3dom) World = not universally good , yet soc not collapsed Kant has CI, argues only when not governed by hetronomy are we autonomous - how does r make us free? (Habermas' View)

Universal Law Principle - show what Kant think about morality 1. Morality can be determined seen in self-contradictions in logic + R

1. MORALITY CAN BE DETERMINED SEEN SELF-CONTRADICTIONS IN LOGIC + R -contradictions in LofN e.g. suicide + borrowing £ - contradictory to universalise e.g. Maxim 2 inc wealth by every safe means -> e.g. take + keep deposits which have no evidence 2 have been made: 'such a principle [...] would annihilate itself since it would bring about that there would be no deposits at all' (Critique of Pure R)

Judith Jarvis Thompson

belives that is a women is raped/ contraception fails - then a woman should not be forced to support the life of another only duty = to support your own life

3 Postulates - God quote

''a cause of all nature, distinct from nature which contains the ground of the exact coincidence of happiness with morality'

Purity of the good will

'A good will is not good because of what it effects or accomplishes ... It is good through its willing alone - that is, good in itself' Outcome of actions = beyond control, can control motivation/ intentions - DUTY

kingdom of ends quote

'A rational being must always regard himself as making laws in a kingdom of ends'

The principle of humanity as and ends not as a means respect rights 'formula of the end in itself' Quote groundworks of the Metaphysics of Morals

'Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person, or in that of another, always as an ends, and never as a mere means'

The Principle of humanity as an ends not as a means Karol Wojtyla 'Love and Responsibility'

'Anyone who treats a person as a means to an end does violence to the very essence of the other'

Pope John Paul II

'Anyone who treats a person as a means to and end does violence to the very essence of the other

The universal law and freedom

'Every action is right if its maxim allows each person's freedom of choice to co-exist with the freedom of everyone in accordance with a universal law' enables us to clearly see what duty requires

Where does Kant write his works on morality?

'Groundworks of the Metaphysics of Morals' 'Critique of Practical Reason' 'The Metaphysics of morals'

formula of humanity quote

'Never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.'

Benjamin Constant

'No one has the right to a truth that harms others'

Kant on the goodwill quote

'Nothing can possibly be concieved, or even out of it, which can be without good qualitication except the goodwill' (Groundworks of Morals)

The Principle of the universal kingdom of ends Quote

'So act as if you were through your maxims a law - making member of a kingdom of ends'

Key influences Jean Jaques Rosseau

'The Social Contract' p freedom only poss 4 those governed by collective general will (not state/Ch) JJR gives IK respect 4 comman man Kant's emph on republicanism + rep as liberator who supports individual from freedom taker from JJR

Kant on truthfullness Needs trust, lies undermine relationships

'Truthfullness is a duty that must be regarded as the basis of all duties [...] a sacred and unconditionally commanding law of reason that admits no expendiency'

Peter Vardy on Categorical Imperatives

'categorical imperatives are arrived at through practical reason and they are understood as a basis for action' BUT - JSM seen in k in universalising actions - 'making a consequentialist argument after all' -> universalise CI to achieve universal welfare BUT - Micheal Sandel - Mill = wrong, CI used to scrutinise motives + distinguish those who acted out of self-interest in making expections 2 rules

Kant on dignity

'everything has a price or a dignity. If it has a price, something else can be put in its place as an equivalent, if it is exalted above all price and so admits of no equivalent, then it has dignity' should prostitution be illegal?

Consider someone with no moral inclination

'he nevertheless tears himself from his deadly insensibility and performs the action without any inclination at all but solely from duty then for the 1st time, his action has genuine moral worth' moral as acts from duty, but overlooks what it means to be human?

3 postulates of practical reason 1) Freedom

'highest degree of life', 'inner worth of the world' Have own mental experiences therefore can set own goals Freedom = practical necessity - practical r. must regard itself as free - set + follows its own goals Autonomy = central condition of rational thought Groundwork - Kant -> moral errors come from heteronymous approach - moral laws by ch/ state should only follow moral laws known by R - must be free 2 be moral agents - make own rules + decisions

Categorical + Hypothetical Quote 'Groundworks of the Metaphysics of Morals'

'if the [commanded] action would be good simply as a means to something else, then the imperative would be hypothetical but if action is represented as good in itself in accordance with reason, then the imperative is categorical'

Types of worlds

'phenomenal' word = physical instictiveness, non-R self 'noumenal' world = higher, R self objective + R

Critique of Pure Reason 3 postulates

'practical reasoning is based on a duty to make the summun bonum the object of my will so as to promote it with all my strength. In doing so, I must presuppose its possibility and also its conditions which are God, freedom and immortality.'

David Hume quote

'reason is and ought only to be the slaves of the passions, and can never pretend to any other office than to serve and obey'

Peter Singer quote

'that person is not longer moved by any inclinations but acts for the sake of duty alone'

The universal law principle

'the formula of the law of nature' 'Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law' - only lie, if :) all 2 life

Kant 'A Critique of Pure Reason'

'though all our knowledge begins with experience, it does not follow that it all arises out of reason'

Kant common misconceptions

1. KANT HAS NO ROOM FOR EMOTION actually does, it emotion in line w duty = bonus he is not saying we need to remove emotion to act morally must act 4 duty sake, not emotion to have moral worth If act 4 sake of duty, happen to have desires-> moral worth 2. ACTING 4 DUTY'S SAKE V ACTING IN LINE W DUTY acting in line w duty - no moral worth - e.g. giving to poor because feel bad

Kant's Taxonomy of duties

1. Duties to oneself: physical vs greed, suicide, lust, drunk acting in a way which undervalues oneself - morals vs servility, lying, greed 4 wealth 2. Duties to others: Love via charity/ generosity/ gratitude + sympathy -> respect 2 individuals

Problems with the Universal Principle

1. I marry Susan, but I don't want everyone to marry Susan 2. I marry therefore everyone should marry - but George Joseph Smith, murdered 3 wives ? 3. Does being willing to generalise something make it moral? e.g. put a left shoe 1st - willing to universalise - is this a moral duty - surely habit/taste

JS Mill

Kant does not consider consequences of the action It is virtually impossible in a real life situation to analyse a moral problem without taking some consideration of potential consequences

WD Ross

Kant is not so rigid in his morality and that one duty can be overidden by a more compelling duty

Hegel

Kant place too low value on community in moral life

Relativist/ Absolutist

Absolutist

The Principle of the universal kingdom of ends

Act how soc ought 2 be (rather than how it is) Imagine you = on law making council in a perfect world -> kingdom of ends where everything is as it ought to be Community, all have same thoughts abt what = good - logical + R - k knows = impossible but attempt to make this Every rational being acts as if through universalised maxims he were always a legislating member in the kingdom of ends Even though world = 'law of the jungle' - can't make moral laws that presume will treat others badly -> not base laws on universal degragation/ disregard

Deontologist

Always do our duty, categorial imperatives help us know what our duty is! Groundworks for the Metaphysics of Morals - people who deserve most praise act bc are required to do so - e.g. soldier risk life 4 country

Deontological Theory

As knowledge/ prediction of future = uncertain -> reject teleology In order 4 an act to be done 4 duty's sake (not consequences) -> must base judgement on what is duty in situ

Flaws of the arguments (3postulates)

Assumes can jump from is to ought wishful thinking that wrongs not will be proved right - not self-evidently true

Kant provides clear examples about what duty requires Talent

But lazy, lives life of pleasure -> not universalized - want all capacities 2 be maximised

Kant on human reason

Conforms 2 moral law - free (self-willed) + autonomous (self-governing) + should not be ruled by external (kings -> hetreonomy)

Louis Pojman

Critical of Kant's idea of making moral laws without exceptions (eg WC bombing coventry)

Kant and Constant on the universal laws maxim

Kant - 'it would be a crime to tell a lie to a murdered to who asked whether our friend who is being pursued by the murdered had taken refuge in our house' BC - 'no one has the right to a truth that harms others' Kant - 'For a lie always harms another; if not another human it nevertheless does harm to humanity in general'

Kantian Ethics introduction

DEONTOLOGICAL THEORY- duty good = acting in accordance w one's goodwill/duty Opposite of teleolgical theories (SE) Emph on R + autonomy + freedom absolutist ethical theory - fixed moral principles are not relative 2 situ Immanuel Kant

Kant other examples about duty

Deception Theft Charity Cruelty to animals

Kant: Categorical Imperative

Do B - 'you should do the most loving thing' Command not depend on what you want to achieve - end in itself CI = universal + absolute ('imperative of morality')

Postulate of freedom

For duty to be meaningful, must be free to act on duty CI presupposes idea of freedom -> must be able 2 follow moral principles - cannot follow pointless to say ought to follow - w/o 3dom can't act morally/ 4 sake of duty Ought presupposes can - not feel duty if cannot fufil it -e.g. not feel responsible for Syrian Refugee Crisis Accept freedom for morality to make sense - can't say ought to do something if can't freedom allows us to be held accountable for our actions CANNOT PROVE - but practical necessity 4 morality, lives meaningless w/o BUT - if free why conform to laws? Kant - autonomous (self-gov) + rational - humans fail to do so, would contradict R

3 postulates of practical reason

Freedom Immortal God

Kant - Categorical Impreative

Good Will = 'good in itself' - doesn't give us an ethical theory: over-arching principle of morality - w/o exceptions

David Hume

Hume = empiricist believe in passions + emotion in moral descision; an antithesis to Kant Hume argues that because humans are naturally emotional beings, their humanity should be used to solve moral descisions

Kant - Hypothetical Impreative

If you want A then do B e.g. SE -'If you want do the loving thing you should do x' Not universal, only IF 'you want to do the most loving thing' Also treats actions as means to and end - want achieve consequence Can be rejected by rejecting 'if' Not universal/ absolute

Hume (A Treatise of Human Nature)

In the 'Treatise of Human Nature', Hume offers a powerful argument that seems to question the very coherence of Kant's idea that actions of genuine moral worth must rest on the motive of duty.

Based on reason

Innate + Universal according 2 Kant - give us intrinsic dignity One correct answer = rational one, all R answers = same

The concept of good

Intention = acting out a sense of duty - something you ought to do Duty - intention matters -> having right intention makes gw good Duty = not serving own interests/ calculating consequence of action/ bringing abt pleasure Not look at consequences, intrinsically good in itself

W.D Ross criticises Kant

K neglects intuituion + prima facie duties - overcome issue of conflicting duty w prima facie duty (one duty can be overidden by another)- Ross outlines duties: 1. Fidelity + promise keeping 2. Reparations 4 harm done 3. Gratitude (repay debt) - past duty 4. Justice 5. Beneficence 6. Self - improvement 7. Non - malificience Know via intelligent BUT - WDR lived academic life - what abt hostess duties? Conflicting duties? no guidance/ priorities - know 'intuitely' via R

The Categorical Imperative

Moral knowledge = categorical truth - truth telling = right, always tell the truth Moral duties = followed 4 sake of duty alone, not for additional gain Moral laws = CI in it commanding nature Tells us what to do irrespective of objective, preferences, desires, opinions Moral rules + acts restore in act above not in circumstances whether bring :) or not The CI commends people to exercise out will in a certain way irrespective of the end - good in itself

All moral statements =

Need no experience to know killing = wrong Have an idea shouting = wrong due to aggression All moral statements = synthetic a priori - irrespective of existence - verified/ falsified w R - humans R gives k of right/ wrong

Other influences Newton + John Locke

Newton - universal laws - Kant, universal moral laws Emph importance of rational + sci explanations + natural phenomena

Can reason prove God

No -> can only take 'weak glances' into 'realm of supersensible' Need God to be concealed to keep freedom: 'God and eternity with their awful majesty would stand unceasingly before our eyes' Doesn't k reason to God's existence though?

explain wd ross prima facie duties

Other things matter too, 'prima facie' duties, duties to repay acts of generosity or to help those who are dependent on us. We cannot tell in advance what the relevant prima facie duty will be, only the situation we are in will reveal it and some element of judgement will be necessary before we decide. PF are not ranked in order of importance, but are a shapeless list of things which, in some way, make a difference. A conflict between two PF does not negate one or both of them but is rather a conflict between two things which do matter. It is resolved by not discarding one or the other, but by making a decision about what matters more in a particular situation. The only way we can come to any moral knowledge, according to Ross, is through moral experience, since we only learn form experience when certain moral duty smatter and when they are less important. Ross therefore agreed that kantian duties should not be taken as absolute duties, but as PF.

Other Influences Francis Hutcheson + Thomas Reid

Proposed moderate 'common sense' approach 2 developing soc values

3 postulates God

Rationally -> perfect virtue, perfect :) perfect :) + perfect good = sb 'a higher moral, more holy and omnipotenet being, who can alone unite those two elements of good' Achieved in next life - immortalty - SB next life - someone to provide it highest good = moral law from moral lawmaker k theory not dependent on God obvi God - ensures justice in universe see God in rational creatures + eternal law - need God to ensure :) distributed evenly in KofEnds Kant - influence lutheran trad w value of dignity

Rawls quote

Rawls believed that Kantian ethics should not be seen as a 'morality of austere command, but an ethic of mutual respect and self-esteem'

Other influences Jean Jaques Rosseau + Thomas Paine

Revolutionary ideas vs status quo emph R + autonomy rather than hetreonomy (law of other) - monarchy, Ch, aristocracy

Good will =

carrying out an act w/ a good motive ( a motive of duty) Moral law = unconditionally + universally good 'summum bonum' = 'highest good' = good will -> acts rationally w/o emotion EXCLUDES 'talents of the mind' -> intelligence + 'qualities of temperament' - courage 'gifts of fortune' - wealth/ power

Moral knowledge =

categorical binds us unconditionally, not just 2 specific end

Kant provides clear examples about what duty requires Selfishness

could be universalized, but will prevent this - know will ultimately backfire

Peter Singer

criticises Kant's theory, removes sympathy + emotion from ethics Singer argues idea of duty leads to closed system of ethics in which people do not enquire into the reasons of their actions Singer - duty lead to "moral fanticism" - duty percieved above all other considerations of humanity

Kant on human nature

desires link them 2 beasts, R + morals 2 angels (nature = conflict) 'Man must be disciplined for he is by nature raw and wild'

Emphasis on universability in ethics

draws on Newton + JJR - want universalise like Newton's universal law Kingdom of ends = extension of social contract

Benjamin Constant on the universal law maxim

duty 2 always tell the truth would make ant soc impossible - need white lies/ lies 4 good motives

Extreme duty =

duty @ cost to oneself women who = raped has baby -> universal duty 2 livers not let trauma affect descision -> focus on duty Not allow emotions cloud descisions - replace w rational duty Other e.g.: euthanasia, suicide, axe murdered asking where friend is

Universal law principle - Show what Kant think about morality Morality can be determined by contradictions of the will

e.g. talent + selfishness - can be universalised but contradict the will

Kant provides clear examples about what duty requires Borrowing money

if always borrow money without repaying - no universal law - no one would loan

Bertrand Gert 'Common Morality: Deciding what to do)

morality summed up by a list of moral rules -> if always R, always accept Do not kill - Do not deprive us of freedom -Do not decieve -Do Duty

State =

necessary to make sure specific duties/ rights are protected + suitable Kant develops further maxims to determine what = right

JP Satre

questions how helpful the CI is when faced with a conflict of duties

Criticism of the principle of humanity as an ends not a means

reality = more complex eg WC let Coventry be bombed in 1941- killing 568 so Gm not know about enigma codes Sometimes have 2 save ppl @ expense of others Hard 2 know duty in these cases w/o consequences

W.D. Ross Criticises Kant quote

reduces moral life 2: 'contest between one element [duty] which has worth and a mankind of other which have none [emotion], the truth is it is a struggle between a multiplicity of desires having various degrees of worth' (Foundations of Ethics)

Synthetic Statements

the predicate NOT contained in subject concept, but related a priori/ a posteriori All students go to school

Bowie

we should not abuse people for the pleasure of others, but it is not clear hw we should respond to a situation where there was conflict between helping on person of another

The Enlightenment

wrote @ end of Eu enlightenment/ age of R Radical ideas abt rights of an individual + democracy - F + Am resolutions Rise in focus on the individual The Enlightenment = reaction 2 modern sci + Newton - realise that human r had pwr 2 work out how should act