2.1 types of data, methods and research design

CONTENT ANALYSIS

Content analysis has both quantitative and qualitative forms. What both types have in common is the study of texts (data sources such as television, written documents and so on). Quantitative analysis of media texts, for example, uses statistical techniques to categorise and count the frequency of people's behaviour using a content analysis table or gri

strengths of personal documents

Documents give the researcher access to data that would cost a lot of money, time and effort to collect personally. They can provide secondary data in situations where it is not possible to collect primary data (about things that happened in the past, for example). Historical documents can also be used for comparative purposes; contrasting how people once lived with how we live now is useful for tracking and understanding social change. Historical analysis also reveals the differences in people's behaviour - things we now take for granted may have been seen differently in the past, and the other way around. -Documents can provide qualitative data of great depth and detail. For example, diaries such as those of Samuel Pepys, who recorded life in England during the 1660s, or Anne Frank, who recorded her life in hiding from the Nazis in Amsterdam during the Second World War, provide extensive and valuable details about people and their daily lives. In addition, it is sometimes possible to compare accounts across time to test the validity of current accounts of social behaviour. -Comparisons of past and present accounts of family and working lives can help us understand the similarities and changes in individual and institutional behaviour. Pearson (1983), for example, used media accounts going back over 100 years to demonstrate that violent 'hooligan' or 'yobbish' behaviour is not a recent phenomenon in the UK. -Documents can also be analysed by comparing what they actually say (their literal meaning) and their hidden meanings - what they tell us about the hopes, fears and beliefs of whoever produced them. Newspaper articles, for example, may tell us more about their writers and how they see social problems than they do about the topic of the article.

Examples of personal documents

Douglas- examined suicide notes and diaries to try and understand meanings and motivations of suicide victims. -Thomas and Znaniecki- analysed letters from polish migrants in the USA to their relatives back home

Example of official statistics

Emil Durkheim, for example, in his study of suicide ("Suicide: A Study In Sociology", 1897) used official statistics drawn from coroners' reports from different societies to establish that suicide rates varied within and between societies. he researched official statistics on suicide in several European countries and found that the suicide rate was influenced by social facts such as the divorce rate, the religion of a country, and the pace of economic and social changed. Durkheim used his data to derive his now famous theory that suicide rates increase when there is too little or too much social regulation or integration. Social Regulation is the extent to which there are clear norms and values in a society, while social integration is the extent to which people belong to society

ethical issues of lab exp

Ethical Problems - As with lab experiments - it is often possible to not inform people that an experiment is taking place in order for them to act naturally, so the issues of deception and lack of informed consent apply here too, as does the issue of harm. Ethical - Some specific experiments have resulted in harm to respondents - in the Milgram experiment for example.

EXPERIMENTS

Experiments involve testing the relationship between different variables - things that can change under controlled conditions. The researcher changes (manipulates) independent variables to see whether they produce a change in dependent variables that are not changed by the researcher; any changes must be caused by a change in the independent variable. Experiments, therefore, are based on changing an independent variable and measuring any later change in a dependent variable. This relationship can be one of two types: 1 Correlations occur when two or more things happen at roughly the same time. These only suggest a relationship, however, because it is possible for them to occur by chance. 2 Causation involves the idea that when one action occurs, another always follows. Causal relationships are powerful because they allow a researcher to predict the future behaviour of something. It is not always easy to distinguish between correlation and causation in the real world of sociological research, because things often happen at the same time by chance or coincidence. However, there are two ways to separate correlation from causality: 1 Test and retest a relationship. The more times a test is replicated with the same result, the greater the chances that the relationship is causal. 2 Use different groups with exactly the same characteristics: an experimental group whose behaviour is manipulated a control group whose behaviour is not manipulated.

limitations of covert participant observation

Goffman's study of a US mental institution identified three major problems for the covert participant observer: 1 Getting in: while gaining covert entry to any group can be a problem, some groups are more difficult to enter than others: •Entry to some groups is by invitation only. Unless researchers are invited, they cannot join. •Some groups have entry requirements. To covertly study accountants or doctors, the researcher would need to hold the qualifications these professions require. •The characteristics of the observer must match those of the observed. A man, for example, could not covertly participate in a group of female nuns. (There are, however, ways around this problem. Goffman, while neither a doctor nor mentally ill, was able to covertly observe by taking a manual job within the institution.) 2 Staying in: once inside, the researcher may not have access to all areas. For example, an observer pretending to be a school student could not freely enter places, such as staff rooms, reserved for teachers. Someone being where they are not supposed to be would raise suspicions, and the researcher runs the risk of being discovered by 'gatekeepers' - those whose job it is to limit access. The researcher has to quickly learn the culture and dynamics of a group if they are to participate fully. This can require a range of skills, including the ability to mix easily with strangers, create and maintain a believable and convincing 'back story' (past) and to think quickly on their feet when questioned or challenged. If a researcher lacks the 'insider knowledge', they risk being found out. The ability to successfully mix into a group carries its own problems. It can be difficult to separate the roles of participant and observer, especially if the researcher is well mixed (integrated) into a group: At one extreme, the researcher may have to choose between participation and observation, for example if a group participates in criminal activities. At the other extreme, the researcher may become so much a part of the group they go native and stop being an observer, which can raise doubts about the validity of the research. 3 Getting out: it can be difficult to stop participating. A member of a criminal gang, for example, cannot simply leave. In other groups leaving may raise ethical questions, such as the effect of leaving people who have grown to trust and depend on the researcher. This type of research raises further ethical questions, such as whether a researcher has the right to pretend to be one of the group or use its members for their own purposes. In addition to problems of entrance, acceptance and departure, further limitations include: •research cannot be replicated •we have to trust that the researcher saw what they claim to have seen •recording data is frequently difficult; the researcher cannot take notes, ask too many questions or openly record conversations.

strengths of group interviews

In group interviews, the researcher can help the discussion. They can: control the pace and extent (scope) of the discussion plan a schedule that allows them to focus and refocus the discussion ask questions, stop or change the focus of discussions create a situation that reflects how people naturally share and discuss ideas. Because social life does not involve individuals on their own, those who prefer group interviews argue that they are more realistic. We decide how we think and feel about things not on our own but by talking to and listening to others; this is what happens in a group interview.

LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

Laboratory experiments take place in a closed environment where conditions can be precisely monitored and controlled. This ensures that no 'outside' or uncontrolled variables affect the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. These kind of experiments are unusual in sociology, because they involve an artificially created situation and so it is unlikely that the findings will apply to the 'real' world.

Limitations of structured interviews

Limitations Structured interviews involve assumptions (pre-judgements) about people's behaviour and, like questionnaires, can also contain (not on purpose) biased questions. The lack of anonymity in an interview also contributes to two related limitations: 1 The interview effect occurs when a respondent tries to 'help' the researcher by providing answers designed to please. This reduces validity because respondents simply provide answers they think the researcher wants or which will make a good impression. 2. The researcher effect is when the relationship between researcher and respondent may bias responses: Aggressive interviewers, for example, may introduce bias by forcing (intimidating) respondents into giving answers that they do not really believe. Status considerations, based on factors such as gender, age, class and ethnicity, may also bias the data. For example, a female respondent may feel embarrassed about answering personal questions posed by a male interviewer, and vice versa.

limitations of content analysis

Limitations: -In some types of content analysis, reliability may be limited because researchers must make subjective judgements about what they are counting. Not only do they have to decide which categories will and will not be used, they may also have to judge which forms of behaviour fit which categories. -This raises questions about whether all observed behaviour can be neatly categorised. Content analysis does not tell us very much about how or why audiences receive, understand, accept or ignore themes and patterns discovered by the research.

Example of lab experiment

Milgram's obedience study. Milgram (1963) examined justifications for acts of genocide offered by those accused at the World War II, Nuremberg War Criminal trials. Their defense often was based on "obedience" - that they were just following orders from their superiors. Milgram selected participants for his experiment by newspaper advertising for male participants to take part in a study of learning at Yale University.

Non-participant observation

Non-participant observation involves observing behaviour from a distance so that the research subjects do not know they are being observed. The ethical issue of consent may not be a problem here. A researcher observing behaviour in a shopping mall or the crowd at a sporting event could not be expected to get permission from everyone. Non-participant observation usually means that the researcher does not become personally involved in the behaviour they are studying. This kind of research, unlike participant observation, can be used to produce quantitative data, such as the number of times people are observed carrying out a particular act.

Research design

Oberg (1999) suggests that there are four linked stages of research design: 1 Planning is where the researcher decides on the strategy - such as what to research and how to research it - and plans (formulates) research hypotheses or questions. 2 Information gathering involves identifying a sample to study, conducting an initial pilot study and applying research methods to collect data. 3 Information processing relates to the idea that once data has been gathered, its meaning must be analysed and interpreted. 4 Evaluation involves both an internal analysis that asks questions about how the research was conducted (whether the research method was appropriate, for example) and an external analysis, by which conclusions are reported to a wider public audience for their analysis and criticism.

Overt participant observation

Overt participant observation involves participating in the behaviour of people who know they are being studied. The researcher joins the group openly, and usually conducts the research with the permission and cooperation of the group (or significant members of the group).

example of field experiment

Piliavin study.

what is quantitative data?

Quantitative data expresses information numerically, in one of three ways: 1 A raw number, such as the total number of people who live in a society. 2 A percentage, or the number of people per 100, in a population; for example, around 80% of Indians follow the Hindu religion. 3 A rate, or the number of people per 1,000 in a population; a birth rate of 1, for example, means that for every 1,000 people in a population, one baby is born each year.

QUESTIONNAIRES

Questionnaires consist of written questions that take one of two forms: 1 Postal questionnaires are normally completed in private without the researcher being present. Today this includes web-based or emailed questionnaires. 2 Researcher-administered questionnaires are completed in the presence of the researcher, with respondents answering questions verbally: these are structured interviews. Questionnaires involve two basic types of question. Closed-ended or pre-coded questions involve the researcher providing a set of answers from which the respondent can choose. The researcher limits the responses that can be given, as in the following example:

Research hypothesis or question

Research hypothesis or question -This sets the basic theme for a study: If a hypothesis is used - for example, Ginn and Arber's (2002) analysis of how motherhood affects the lives of graduate women was based on the hypothesis 'The effect of motherhood on full-time employment is minimal for graduate women' - it must be tested and this means using research methods suitable for this purpose. Hypotheses are associated more with methods that produce quantitative data. -If a research question is used - Conway's (1997) examination of parental choice in secondary education was based on the question 'Does parental choice help to strengthen the advantage of the middle classes over the working class?'- the research method used must be capable of generating high levels of descriptive data. Research questions are associated more with methods that produce qualitative data.

PERSONAL DOCUMENTS

Secondary source of data covering areas such as personal letters, diaries, oral (verbal) histories, websites, social networking sites and photographs.

Strengths of structured interviews

Strengths Potential reliability problems, such as respondents misunderstanding or not answering questions, can be fixed by the researcher. In addition, a structured interview avoids the problem of unrepresentative samples - the response rates will be 100%.

Ethical issues of content analysis

The ethical issues in this method could be: -invasion of privacy -lack of informed consent -maybe confidentiality

The research problem

The research problem -This is the initial stage, when the sociologist decides things such as the general topic to study and then develops more specific ideas about what aspect to study. This decision may be based on factors such as •the personal interests of the researcher •current interest in the topic, among sociologists or society in general •whether money (funding) can be obtained practical factors such as whether it will be possible to contact respondents easily. -At this stage, the researcher will review previous research in the area under consideration. A review like this may generate ideas about what to study, whether to replicate previous research and how to avoid errors made in previous research.

Random sampling

This is based on the probability that the random selection of names from a sampling frame will produce a representative sample. For the sample to be truly random, everyone in the target population must have an equal chance of being chosen. A simple random sample, therefore, is similar to a lottery.

practical issues of official statistics

Time-whilst seen as easy to access, the level of statistical data may take time to interpret. Access- some statistics may be unavailable for periods of time or not match the definitions of researchers.

unstructured interviews

Unstructured interviews enable researchers to acquire an understanding of how people think and feel. Respondents are encouraged to talk freely about the things they feel are important.

Theoretical issues of official statistics

Validity-interpretivists would state that statistics are a social construction-decisions made by those in power Theoretical perspectives-functionalists would support statistics, but marxists and feminists would be critical of official statistics because they can be manipulated to suit state's needs.

what is qualitative data?

aims to capture the quality of people's behaviour by exploring the 'why' rather than the 'what, when and where'. It involves questions about how people feel about their experiences and can be used to understand the meanings applied to behaviour.

choice of topic and example

concerns of the researcher/career interests society perception of what is a problem researcher's past experiences. Example: Durkheim's (1897) friend had committed suicide.

Methods

ethical considerations limit how the subject can be pursued. Schofield (1965) did not use postal questionnaires in his survey of young people's sexual behaviour as the range of questions might have corrupted some young people.

practical issues of personal documents

gaining access-personal documents will be difficult to access. Time-personal documents may require being translated to the researcher's spoken language for better understanding which is time consuming. -Finding documents that fit the purpose of the research can be time consuming and costly to find documents that are specific to a researcher's needs.

what is primary data?

involves information collected personally by a researcher. The researcher may use a range of methods, such as questionnaires, interviews and observational studies.

what is secondary data?

is data that already exists in some form, such as documents (government reports and statistics, personal letters and diaries) or previous research completed by other sociologists.

practical issues of questionnaires

response rates- too low to give representative sample -open questions can be time consuming to analyse -closed questions have imposition problem.

characteristics of the topic

theoretical perspectives of the researcher social characteristics of researcher example feminists will focus on women, functionalists will look for the useful purposes of institutions.

Publication

withholding information that might compromise the subjects of the research or contradict the researcher's theory. example: Whyte (1955) used fictitious names and places in the 'street corner society'

weaknesses of lab experiments

• Lacks external validity -The artificial environment that most sociologists agree that the results gained from such experiments tell us very little about how respondents would actually act in real life. • Deception and lack of informed consent -The Hawthorne Effect - Often necessary to deceive subjects as to the true nature of the experiment so that they do not act differently.§ This means that they are not in a position to give full, informed consent .• Practical problems -Can't get a large group of people, or a subculture, or a community into a lab in order to observe how the interact with 'independent variables' .•Bias when experiments expectations affect behaviour • inability to identify all social variables.

Weaknesses of field experiments

• Not possible to control variables as closely as possible • Practical Problems -Access is likely to be more of a problem with lab experiments. Schools and workplaces might be reluctant to allow researchers in. • Ethical Problems -Possible to not inform people that an experiment is taking place in order for them to act naturally, so the issues of deception and lack of informed consent apply here too, as does the issue of harm.

What are sampling techniques?

- Random sample - Systematic sample - Stratified random sample -stratified quota sample - Opportunity sample -non-representative sampling

Strenghts of lab experiment

- Tighter control of variables - Good reliability because its easy to replicate the exact same conditions. - Can be done multiple times which increases representativeness. - High level of detachment between researcher and subject = more accurate result

Stratified quota sampling

-Although a sampling frame is always useful, it is not strictly necessary. It is enough just to know the characteristics of the respondents in order to construct a sample. -The selection is done on an opportunity basis. The researcher may, for example, need 20 males for the sample; they then ask men to be part of the sample and once 20 males have agreed, the quota (allowed amount) is complete and no further males can be selected.

Stratified random sampling

-Although simple and stratified (divided) random samples can be used in many research situations, problems can occur when a target population is made up of small groups, such as a population with many age groups. A biased sample can easily occur by chance, with some groups over-represented and others under-represented. -Stratified random sampling avoids these problems by stratifying the target population into groups whose characteristics are known to the researcher, such as different age groups. Each group is then treated as a separate random sample in its own right.

Ethical issues of personal documents

-Anonymity and confidentiality-personal documents are usually kept away from the public for specific reasons. potential harm-relatives may not wish their family history to be discussed or researcher's to investigate sensitive issues such as suicide.

strengths of semi structured interviews

-As there are no specific questions prepared, there is less risk of the researcher deciding (predetermining) what will be discussed. Where the respondent can talk about things that interest them, it is possible to pick up ideas and information that may not have occurred to the interviewer or of which they had no previous knowledge. This new knowledge can be used to inform later interviews with different respondents and to suggest further questions. -By allowing respondents to develop their ideas, the researcher tries to discover what someone really means, thinks or believes. The focus on issues that the respondent considers important results in a much greater depth of information. This may increase the validity of the data as it is more likely that the research will achieve its real aims.

examples of questionnaires

-BOWLES AND GINTIS (1976) 237 questionnaires were given to New York Higher School students to gain information on character traits that were rewarded by the school. There was a reasonably large sample size which increased generalisability. -Census

Collecting data

-Before data can be collected, the researcher needs to identify the people - or respondents - who will be the subject of the research. Although it would be ideal to select and study everyone in a particular group (the target -Type Overt or covert Participation Characteristics population), this is not always possible. For example, if the target population was 'doctors in India', the size and geographic distribution of such a population would make it impossible to observe or question everyone personally. This is where sampling enters the research process. -A sample is a relatively small number of people who belong to the target population. In the example above, the researcher might choose 1000 doctors in India and, by studying their behaviour draw certain conclusions about all doctors in India. However, this only works if the sample is representative of the target population. Representativeness may be more significant than sample size because it relates to whether the characteristics of the sample accurately reflect those of the target population. -For example, if 60% of doctors are male, then 60% of the sample should be also. If the sample is representative, anything discovered can be generalised to the target population. -A researcher can make statements about the larger group they have not studied (the target population) based on the behaviour of the smaller group they have studied (the sample).

Pilot studies

-Before starting a full-scale study, many researchers choose to run a pilot study to test the various elements of their research design. Pilot studies are a research tool normally used for one of two reasons: 1 As a 'mini version' of a full-scale study designed to test the feasibility of carrying out such a study. In other words, before starting a study that may take up large amounts of time, money and effort, a researcher may conduct a smaller study to identify any problems, such as access to respondents, that may occur in a larger study. A pilot study is also helpful in working out the resources, such as staffing and finance, needed for a study. The results of a pilot study can be used to demonstrate to funding bodies that a full study would be feasible and worthwhile. 2 To pre-test a research method, such as a questionnaire. This might involve testing different types of question, examining and analysing the data it produces to ensure the questions will get the data required, and identifying and removing possible sources of bias or unreliability, such as leading or unclear (ambiguous) questions.

limitations of unstructured interviews

-Carrying out unstructured interviews requires considerable skill. The researcher must resist the temptation to influence, encourage or interrupt. The researcher, by design, has little control over the direction of the interview and the conversation may lead into areas that later prove irrelevant to the research. -The interviews are time- consuming and so are analysing and interpreting all the data they generate (analysing may involve listening to a recording of the interview and transcribing it). -Reliability is low because the non-standardised format makes the interview impossible to replicate. -Another limitation is that all forms of interviewing are naturally biased by interview effects. Respondents may try to please the researcher by telling them what they believe the researcher wants to hear, perhaps influenced by what they know of the interviewer from their interaction.

Sampling frame

-Constructing a representative sample often requires a sampling frame. This is a list of everyone in a target population, such as a voting (an electoral) or school register, and it is used for two main reasons: 1 Unless everyone in the target population can be identified, the sample drawn may not accurately reflect the characteristics of the population. 2 For a researcher to contact people in their sample, to interview them for example, they must know who they are. However, simply because a sampling frame exists does not mean that a researcher will automatically have access to it. This may be denied for reasons of: •Legality: names cannot be revealed by law. •Confidentiality: a business may deny access to its payment records, for example. •Privacy: some groups do not want to be studied. There are a number of sampling techniques for choosing the sample.

Strengths of content analysis

-Content analysis can identify underlying themes and patterns of behaviour that may not be immediately apparent; for example, the extent to which women in television or magazine advertisements are associated with housework and cleaning. -Content analysis can also be used for 'concept mapping'. Page (2005) tracked how media professionals portrayed global warming in order to show how far global warming was reported in terms of 'natural' or 'social' causes. The quantification of such behaviour allows researchers to draw complex conclusions from quite simple data-collection techniques. The use of a standardised framework (the grid) also means that data can be checked and replicated.

covert participant observation

-Covert observation may be the only way to study people who would not normally allow themselves to be researched. Such people may include: Criminal or deviant groups: Ward (2008) 'was a member of the rave dance drugs culture' when she began her five-year study 'in London nightclubs, dance parties, bars, pubs and people's houses'. Her knowledge of the 'dance scene', added to her friendship with those involved, meant that she was able to gain easy access to this world. Closed groups: Lofland and Stark (1965) secretly studied the behaviour of a religious sect because this was the only way to gain access. Defensive groups: Ray (1987) covertly studied Australian environmental groups who would have been suspicious of his motives if he had tried to study them openly. -Covert participation avoids the observer effect - the subjects' behaviour is largely unaffected by the researcher's presence. -Through personal experience, the researcher gains valuable understanding (insights) of the meanings, motivations and relationships within a group. These can explain why people behave in certain ways. -The ability to experience things from the point of view of those involved, coupled with the sociological insights a researcher brings to the role of observer, means that they can make sense of behaviour even in situations where group members may not fully understand the reasons for that behaviour.

ethical issues of field experiments

-Deception and lack of consent:In order for them to act as naturally as possible, researchers or observers must lie to them in order to keep them in their natural environment and some may not be aware they're in a study which could be viewed as unethical since it's stalking.

strengths of field experiments

-Field experiments are very representative because by observing the sample population in their natural environment, the observer is able to generalise it to the target population hence making it representative. • Better external validity -Have better external validity, because they take place in normally occurring social settings .• Larger Scale Settings -able to do field experiments in large institutions in schools or workplaces in which thousands of people interact. • No Hawthorne Effect-As the experiment takes place in a natural environment, there will be a low chance of the participants knowing the purpose of the experiment.This means that their behaviour are less likely to change meaning there is no Hawthorne Effect.

theoretical issues of field experiments

-Field experiments tend to be carried out by interpretivists as they're the ones who look for the real meanings in the social world through observation to be able to get a better understanding on how society works -Positivists rely more on numerical and statistical data found through experiments to reveal information about how society functions, which is why they prefer lab experiments over field experiments.

practical issues of structured interviews (general)

-Gaining access may be a problem as schools are hierarchical institutions and the lower down the hierarchy an individual is, the more permissions the interviewer will require to gain access to interview them -Employing and training interviewers costs money and time- more expensive and more timely eg than postal questionnaires -If have larger sample may need bigger facility; could be more expensive.

Group interviews

-Group interviews involve respondents gathering to discuss a topic decided in advance by the researcher. These groups may be selected as representative samples - a cross-section of society, for example - or they may simply represent a group that the researcher wants to explore in detail. -Focus groups are often same-sex and from similar backgrounds to prevent gender and class variables affecting the reliability and validity of the data. -The success of group interviews depends on: an interview structure with clear guidelines for the participants, to avoid arguments within the group advance (predetermined) questions through which the experiences of participants can be explored interaction within the group, which Gibbs (1997) argues gives 'unique insights into people's shared understandings of everyday life' the skill of the researcher who must, for example, try to ensure that the discussion is not dominated by one or two individuals.

Strengths of official statistics

-In practical terms, official statistics may be the only available source covering a particular area of study, such as suicide. -In addition, data that would be costly, time-consuming and difficult to collect, such as statistics on marriage, divorce or crime, is readily available - especially since the development of the internet. -Another strength of official statistics is their representativeness because they are often based on carefully chosen large samples. -provide trends overtime between different social groups, genders, beliefs sexuality etc. -high in reliability as repeated often

Opportunity sampling

-In some circumstances, it may not be possible to create a representative sample. Here, the researcher may be forced to settle for opportunity sampling, a general type of sampling - with two main sub-divisions: 1 Best opportunity sampling involves deliberately choosing a sample that gives the best possible opportunity to test a hypothesis. If the hypothesis is false for this group, it will probably be false for other similar groups. Goldthorpe et al. (1968), for example, wanted to test the claim that the working class in the UK was becoming hard to tell from the middle class. Their best opportunity sample consisted of highly paid car- assembly workers in Luton. This group was chosen because if any working-class group was likely to show lifestyles similar to their middle-class peers, it would be these 'affluent workers'. 2 Snowball samples work on the principle of 'rolling up' more and more people to include in the sample over time, like a snowball. The researcher would identify someone in the target population who was willing to participate in their research. This person then suggests more people who are also willing to participate. These then suggest further possible participants, until the researcher has a usable sample. Although this technique is unrepresentative, it may be the only option in certain situations. -Opportunity sampling can be a useful technique when no sampling frame is available and the researcher knows little or nothing about the characteristics of their target population.

Theoretical issues of personal documents

-Interpretivists are likely to be keen on personal documents compared to positivists. -Interpretivist sociologists are very keen on personal documents because they believe diaries etc. give a more valid insight into the meanings people apply to their actions. They enable sociologists to get close to people's interpretation of reality. For example, suicide notes can be taken to be the final thoughts of the individual committing suicide. -Positivists tend not to use personal documents as their main source of data.it is often difficult to quantify documents it is also documents it is also difficult to obtain representative samples of documentary material and to make generalisations from the data.

OBSERVATION

-Observational methods are based on the idea that data are more valid if they are gathered by seeing how people behave, rather than taking on trust that people do what they say they do. There are two main observational techniques: non-participant and participant.

limitations of non-participant observation

-Observational studies cannot be easily or exactly replicated because the characteristics and structure of a group may change over time. -Observing people 'from a distance' may also produce data that fails to capture the depth, richness and personal (intimate) details of their behaviour. -This type of study also raises ethical questions, because people are being observed without their permission.

OFFICIAL STATISTICS

-Official statistics created and published by governments are a major source of secondary quantitative data used by sociologists to examine trends and patterns within and between societies: •Patterns of behaviour may be picked up by statistical analysis because they provide a broad overview of behaviour across potentially wide areas: local, national and international. Durkheim (1897), for example, identified distinct patterns to suicidal behaviour based on a comparative analysis of official suicide statistics across a range of different societies. •In terms of trends, statistical data drawn from different years can be used to understand how something has changed. Statistics can be used for comparisons within groups, such as differences in middle- and working-class family size, and between societies.

Strengths of Overt Participant Observation

-On a practical level, recording data is relatively easy because the group knows and understands the role of the researcher. The researcher can ask questions, take notes and observe behaviour openly. With groups that have hierarchical structures, such as large businesses, the researcher can gain access to all levels - the boardroom as well as the shop floor. -It can be difficult to get access to some groups, so researchers may use sponsorship to find a way in. This involves gaining the trust and cooperation of an important group member. Venkatesh's (2009) study of a black American gang, for example, was only possible because a gang leader called 'JT' 'sponsored' and protected Venkatesh while he observed the gang and eventually gained access to some of its more powerful members. Sponsorship makes it easier to separate the roles of participant and observer. -It reduces the chance of researchers becoming so involved in a group that they stop observing and simply become participants (known as 'going native'). Even so, Venkatesh found there were times when his involvement was so complete that he acted 'like one of them' and effectively ceased to be an objective and fair observer. -The ability to ask questions, observe individual behaviours and experience the day-to-day life of respondents helps researchers to build up a highly detailed picture of the lives they are describing. This means that the researcher not only gets to understand what people say they do, but also witnesses and experiences what people actually do (which may be different). This increases the validity of the data. -Where the observer's role is clearly defined, there is also less risk of involvement in unethical, criminal, dangerous or destructive behaviours. The researcher can, for example, pull back from risky situations without necessarily losing the trust or causing the suspicions of those being studied.

weaknesses of questionnaires

-One significant practical problem with questionnaires is a low response rate, where only a small number of those receiving a questionnaire return it. This can result in a carefully designed sample becoming unrepresentative, because it effectively selects itself. There is also nothing the researcher can do if respondents ignore questions or respond incorrectly, such as choosing two answers when only one was requested. -The questionnaire format makes it difficult to examine complex issues and opinions. Another weakness is the fact that the researcher has to decide at the start of the study what is and is not significant. There is no opportunity to change this later on. -The researcher has no way of knowing whether a respondent has understood a question properly. The researcher also has to trust that the questions mean the same thing to all respondents. While remaining unknown (anonymity) may encourage honesty, if someone other than the intended respondent completes the questionnaire, it will affect the validity and representativeness of the research. Some of these problems can be avoided by pilot studies (see below), but they cannot be totally removed. -A further problem involves (unintentional) biased questions. These can take a number of forms: If a question has more than one meaning, people will be answering different questions. Leading questions suggest a required answer. For example, "Why do you think it is important to study Sociology?" doesn't allow respondents to question whether it is important. If an option is not precisely defined, it will mean different things to different people. For example, people may define the word 'occasionally' or 'often' in different ways.

Participant observation

-Participant observation is when the researcher takes part in the behaviour being studied. It is based, in part, on what Weber (1922) termed verstehen - 'to understand by experiencing' or, as Mead (1934) described it, the researcher's ability to take the part of the other and see things from their viewpoint (empathy). Participant observation can take two forms: overt and covert.

theoretical issues of lab experiments

-Positivists are likely to prefer laboratory experiments because of the high level of detachment between the researcher and the respondent which makes the reliability high. -You can collect 'objective' knowledge - about how facts 'out there' affect individuals.

weaknesses of personal documents

-Practical limitations tend to focus on the availability of documentary sources - they are not always easy to find - and where they come from. Paper documents can be faked and a researcher needs to know whether they are originals or copies that may have been changed by other authors. -Similar considerations apply to digital text, photographic and video sources. We do not always know why or by whom a document was created, which means we cannot always be sure if it is a believable source. Did the author have first-hand experience of the things they describe, or are they simply repeating something they heard? -Documents offer reliability problems in that they may be: • incomplete • inaccurate • unrepresentative - diaries, for example, may simply be one individual's view. Digital sources can be subject to change; old websites become inaccessible while others may be updated so that the original content is lost. Some sources may become harder to access as technologies become no longer used (for example floppy disks).

strengths of questionnaires

-Pre-coded questions make it easier to quantify data, because the options are already known, they are limited in number and easy to count. Such questions are also quick and easy to code; this can be just a simple count of the number of responses. Pre-coded questions are useful when the researcher needs to contact large numbers of people quickly and efficiently. The respondents do the time-consuming work of completing the questionnaire. -Questionnaires can result in highly reliable data; because everyone answers the same questions, it is easy to replicate the research. The fact that respondents often remain unknown (anonymous) means that the validity of the research is improved, especially when it involves questions that might be seen as personal. There is also less risk that the respondent will give biased answers or try to anticipate what the researcher wants to hear.

What are the limitations of primary data

-Primary research can be time-consuming to design, construct and carry out, especially if it involves personally interviewing large numbers of people. -Primary research can also be expensive -In addition, the researcher may have difficulty gaining access to the target group. Some people may refuse to participate or, in the case of historical research, potential respondents may no longer be alive.

what are the limitations of qualitative data?

-Qualitative research focuses on the intensive study of relatively small groups, which may limit the opportunity for applying the data more widely - such groups may not be representative of anything but themselves. (low generalisability) -It is also difficult to compare qualitative data across time and location because no two groups will ever be qualitatively the same. -The depth and detail of the data also makes such research difficult to replicate, which means their reliability is generally lower than that of quantitative research.

what are the limitations of quantitative data?

-Quantification is often achieved by placing the respondent in an 'artificial social setting' in order to control the responses and the data collected. People rarely, if ever, encounter situations where they are asked to respond to a list of questions from a stranger, or have their behaviour observed in a laboratory. -Some argue that it is impossible to capture people's 'normal' behaviour or collect 'real' responses when the subjects are placed in such an artificial environment. Quantitative data only captures a relatively narrow range of information - the 'who, what, when and where' of people's behaviour. -Quantitative data does not usually reveal the reasons for behaviour because it lacks depth; the more detailed the behavioural data, the more difficult it is to quantify. As a result, quantitative data is often seen as surface level only data and superficial.

Non-representative sampling

-Researchers generally find representative samples useful, but there are times when a non-representative sample serves the purpose. For some types of research, the sociologist might not want to make generalisations about a very large group based only on a small sample. -They might simply be interested in the behaviour of the group itself, rather than what it represents. In Venkatesh's gang study, the fact that the gang was only representative of itself was unimportant, as he did not want to generalise from his findings and simply wanted to understand that gang in depth.

What are the limitations of secondary data

-Secondary data is not always produced with the needs of sociologists in mind. For example, official definitions of poverty, class or ethnicity may be different from sociological definitions. -Sources, such as personal documents, can be unreliable. -official crime stats may not measure all crimes but only those reported to authorities. - Some forms of secondary data, such as historical documents, may only reflect the views of a single individual rather than representing wider opinions.

Operationalisation

-Sociological research often involves ideas and concepts that non-sociologists may find difficult or unclear. In carrying out research and in asking questions, sociologists need to make decisions about how to put these ideas and concepts into practice - that is, to operationalise them. -An example is the term 'social class'. Most people are familiar with the term, and with terms such as 'middle- class' and 'working-class' but they won't agree on exactly what they mean or how to measure then. If respondents were asked which social class they belong to, they would give answers based on their different understandings of these terms. -The researcher will therefore operationalise the term by asking questions, the answers to which enable the researcher to judge what class the respondent belongs to. For example, they might ask about occupation or income.

example of content analysis

-The Glasgow university media group studied television news to look for any evidence of bias They concentrated on coverage of workplace strikes. They used detailed content analysis of Tv news bulletins.

what are the strengths of quantitative data?

-The ability to express relationships statistically can be useful if the researcher does not need to explore the reasons for people's behaviour - if they simply need to compare numbers. -Quantitative data allows sociologists to summarise sources of information and make comparisons. Statistical comparisons and correlations can test whether a hypothesis is true or false. They can also track changes in the behaviour of the same group over time (a longitudinal study). -Quantitative research is more reliable because it is easier to repeat (replicate) the study. Standardised questions that do not change, for example, can be asked of different groups or the same group at different times. The results can then be quantified and compared. If the answers are the same, or very similar, then the research is more likely to be reliable. -Quantitative data also makes it easier for researchers to remain objective. They do not need to have a close personal involvement with the subjects of the study, so their personal views or biases are less likely to get in the way of (intrude into) the data-collection process.

what are the strengths of qualitative data?

-The aim of qualitative research is to understand people's behaviour, so they must be allowed to talk and act freely. This allows the researcher to capture the complex reasons for behaviour. -Qualitative methods, such as participant observation involve the researcher establishing a strong personal relationship or rapport with respondents in order to experience their lives. By collecting qualitative data in this way, researchers have greater freedom to study people in their 'normal' settings. The results are more likely to show how people really behave and what they really believe.

What are the strengths of primary data

-The researcher has complete control over how data is collected, by whom and for what purpose. -In addition, where a researcher designs and carries out their own research they have greater control over the reliability and validity of the data, as well as how representative it is.

What are the strengths of secondary data?

-The researcher is able to save time, money and effort by using existing data such as official government statistics about crime, marriage or divorce. -There may also be situations where secondary data is the only available resource, such as when researching suicide. -Secondary data is also useful for historical and comparative purposes. Aries (1962) used paintings and historical documents to support that childhood was a relatively recent invention. -Some forms of secondary data, such as official statistics, may be highly reliable because the data is collected consistently, in the same way from the same sources. This type of data is also more likely to represent what it claims to represent.

limitations of group interviews

-The researcher must control the behaviour of the group to allow people to speak freely and openly about an issue while maintaining the focus of the research, which can require considerable skill. -There may also be problems with representativeness: if in a carefully selected group of ten, one person does not show up, the sample becomes unrepresentative. -Group interviews are also at risk from another type of 'interview effect', which has been called 'Groupthink'. This refers to the pressure people feel to arrive at 'desired outcomes', such as saying what they believe the researcher or the rest of the group wants to hear. -Group interviews also run the risk of simply reflecting a 'group consensus' rather than revealing what individuals really believe; individuals may not want to say what they really think if they feel that they are on their own.

strengths of unstructured interviews

-The researcher's limited input means that data reflects the interests of the respondent. It is therefore more likely to be an accurate and detailed expression of their beliefs. Allowing the respondents to talk freely in their own words avoids the problem of the researcher pre-judging what makes important or irrelevant data. -The researcher must establish a strong understanding with respondents. If this is achieved, people who don't trust being studied can open up to the researcher, allowing sensitive issues to be explored in depth. If the research is relatively informal, it can take place somewhere the respondent will feel at ease, such as in their own home.

systematic sampling

-This is a variation on simple random sampling that is often used when the target population is very large. It involves taking a sample directly from a sampling frame. For a 25% sample of a target population containing 100 names, every fourth name would be chosen. -This technique is not truly random - for example, the fifth name on the list could never be included in the sample so not everyone has an equal chance of being included. However, it is random enough for most samples.

Limitations of semi-structured interviews

-This method demands certain skills in the researcher, such as asking the right questions, establishing a good rapport and thinking quickly about relevant question opportunities. -Semi-structured interviews are not only more time-consuming than questionnaires but the large amounts of information they produce must also be analysed and interpreted. This data is rarely tightly focused on a particular topic, so a researcher may spend a lot of time analysing data that has little or no use to the study. Respondents must remember and describe past events, and this creates problems for both researcher and respondent. While a researcher has no way of knowing whether someone is telling the truth, a further problem is that it may not only be difficult to remember things that have happened months or years ago, but memories can also be selective - respondents only remember those things that seem important to them: imperfect recall. Finally, semi-structured interviews lack standardisation; the same questions are not necessarily put to all respondents and similar questions may be phrased differently. This makes analysing data and generalising difficult.

Semi-structured interviews

-This type of interview attempts to combine the strengths of unstructured and structured interviews. Researchers are free to ask questions in any order and to phrase the questions as they think best. -Semi-structured interviews, therefore, allow a respondent to talk at length and in depth about a particular subject. The interview has a structure or 'interview schedule' - the areas the interviewer wants to focus on - but there is no list of specific questions. Different respondents may be asked different questions on the same topic, depending on how the interview develops. The aim is to understand things from the respondent's viewpoint, rather than to make generalisations about behaviour. -Open-ended questions are frequently used in semi-structured interviews. Some of these are created before the interview, while others arise naturally from whatever the respondent wants to talk about.

practical issues of content analysis

-a practical issue for content analysis could be that they may be time-consuming (for example, analysing a range of newspapers or TV programmes in detail).

ethical issues of structured interviews (general)

-can be useful for socially sensitive issues, however they may cause respondents to recall psychologically upsetting memories. -Revealing information in group interviews may be distressing or have consequences. -Anonymity and confidentiality of responses needs to be guaranteed as could cause distress to others if their experiences are revealed to others.

limitations of overt participant observation

-if a group refuses the researcher permission to observe it, then the research cannot be carried out. In addition, overt observation requires substantial amounts of time, effort and money. (PRACTICAL ISSUE)Venkatesh, for example, spent around eight years on his study of a single gang in a small area of one US city. -Theoretical criticisms focus on the observer/Hawthorne effect and the extent to which knowledge of being watched changes how people behave. While people may be studied in their natural environment, an awareness of the presence of the researcher may make them behave unnaturally. For example, Venkatesh witnessed a fake punishment beating designed to demonstrate the limits of his observational role; higher-level gang members were 'putting on a show' for his benefit. -There is a risk that the researcher will become too involved and effectively 'become the story' they are reporting. Their presence becomes the focal point around which people adapt their behaviour. Venkatesh was given 'special treatment'; he was invited to meetings and was introduced to people he would not have met if he had not been known as a researcher sponsored by a gang leader

theoretical issues of structured interviews (general interviews)

-interactions with the interviewer may also be influenced by theoretical preferences of interviewer. -positivists prefer unstructured interviews, whilst interpretivists favour unstructured interviews.

ethical issues of questionnaires

-potentially sensitive topics could cause distress. -Respondents may only give information if anonymity is maintained.

theoretical issues of unstructured interviews

-whilst interpretivists favour unstructured interviews because they aid for deeper understanding and meaning which unstructured interviews provide

practical issues of lab exp

.-Practical problems -Can't get a large group of people, or a subculture, or a community into a lab in order to observe how the interact with 'independent variables' -Small samples mean you will need to conduct consecutive experiments on small groups if you want large samples, which will take time

FIELD EXPERIMENTS

A field experiment is an experiment carried out in people's natural environment outside of a laboratory setting.They're better for sociological research since they're not conducted in a controlled environment.

Structured interviews

A structured interview is where the researcher asks questions to respondents in person. To achieve consistent and comparable results, the same questions are asked in the same order each time; there is no flexibility to change the order or the questions.

Strengths of non-participant observation

Access is one practical advantage of non-participant observation. It allows research on people who may not want to be studied because their behaviour is illegal, secret or personally embarrassing, for example. When the researcher does not participate in the behaviour being observed, respondents can be objectively studied in a natural setting. The researcher gets to see 'everyday behaviour' just as it would normally occur.

Weaknesses of official statistics

Apart from not providing any great depth or detail official statistics involve problems of validity due to what governments include in or exclude from published data. Such data may only give a partial picture of reality for two reasons: 1 Not all information may be available to those collecting the statistics. For example, while official crime statistics provide valuable data about crimes reported to the police, they tell us little or nothing about the 'dark figure of crime' - crimes that are not reported or recorded. 2 Statistical data do not reveal much about the reasons for people's behaviour. For example, although we have a reasonably precise figure for the number of year-on-year murders in countries around the world, this data tells us little about why people kill each other. -Although quantitative data is normally considered more objective than qualitative data, its significance must always be interpreted by researchers; who decide what the data means. A statistical rise in crime, for example, may be the result of: •a real rise •a different way of defining and counting crime •police targeting certain types of crime and arresting more people. Governments occasionally change the definition of key concepts. Different governments may also define a concept differently. Such changes and differences bring into question the reliability of the data, because when making comparisons the researcher must compare like with like.