4430 Midterm Stuff

data flow diagram (DFD)

(school system) uses various symbols and shapes to represent data flow, processing, and storage

Users

(some-times called end users) inside and outside the company who will interact with the system, and IT staff members, such as systems analysts, programmers, and network administrators, who develop and support the system

data manipulation language (DML)

A DML controls database operations, including storing, retrieving, updating, and deleting data. Most commercial DBMSs, such as Oracle and IBM's DB2, use a DML.

sequence diagram

A UML diagram that shows the timing of transactions between objects as they occur during system execution.

task name

A brief descriptive name for a task, which does not have to be unique in the project. For example, a task named Conduct Interviews might appear in several phases of the project.

Management Information Systems (MIS)

A business function, like accounting and human resources, which moves information about people, products, and processes across the company to facilitate decision-making and problem-solving

scalability

A characteristic implying the system can be expanded, modified, or downsized easily to meet the rapidly changing needs of a business enterprise.

scalability

A characteristic of a system, implying that the system can be expanded, modified, or down-sized easily to meet the rapidly changing needs of a business enterprise.

system requirement

A characteristic or feature that must be included in an information system to satisfy business requirements and be acceptable to users.

database management system (DBMS)

A collection of tools, features, and interfaces that enables users to add, update, manage, access, and analyze data in a database.

histogram

A common tool for showing the distribution of questionnaire or sampling results. It takes the form of a vertical bar chart.

task box

A component of a PERT/CPM chart that contains important scheduling and duration information about a task. Each task in a project is represented by its own task box in the PERT/CPM chart.

cardinality

A concept that describes how instances of one entity relate to instances of another entity. Described in ERDs by notation that indicates combinations that include zero or one-to-many, one-to-one, and many-to-many.

corporate culture

A corporate culture is the set of beliefs, rules, traditions, values, and attitudes that define a company and influence its way of doing business.

relational database

A database in which tables are related by common fields, creating a unified data structure that provides improved data quality and access.

requirements specifications

A description of the system requirements from the analyst or engineering team's point of view.

requirements definitions

A description of the system requirements from the user's point of view.

SysML

A dialect of UML 2, used for representing requirements (and other things), primarily in MBSE applications.

questionnaire

A document containing a number of standard questions that can be sent to many individuals. Also called a survey.

business case

A documented economic feasibility study used to establish validity of the benefits of a selected component lacking sufficient definition and that is used as a basis for the authorization of further project management activities.

brainstorming

A fact-finding technique for gaining information through the use of a small group discus-sion of a specific problem, opportunity, or issue.

observation

A fact-finding technique where an analyst sees a system in action. Observation allows the verification of statements made in interviews.

Feasible?

A feasibility study examines operational, technical, economic, and schedule factors

foreign key

A field in one table that must match a primary key value in another table in order to establish the relationship between the two tables.

secondary key

A field or combination of fields that can be used to access or retrieve records. Secondary key values are not unique. For example, to access records for only those customers in a specific postal code, the postal code field could be used as a secondary key

primary key

A field or combination of fields that uniquely and minimally identifies a particular member of an entity. For example, in a customer table the customer number is a unique primary key because no two customers can have the same customer number. That key also is minimal because it contains no information beyond what is needed to identify the customer.

file-oriented system

A file-oriented system, also called a file processing system, stores and manages data in one or more separate files.

binary storage format

A format that offers efficient storage of numeric data. For example, when numeric data types are specified using Microsoft Access, there are a variety of storage formats choices, including integer and long integer, among others.

entity-relationship diagram (ERD)

A graphical model of the information system that depicts the relationships among system entities.

business process model (BPM)

A graphical representation of one or more business processes.

unstructured brainstorming

A group discussion where any participant can speak at any time.

structured brainstorming

A group discussion where each participant speaks when it is his or her turn or passes.

byte

A group of eight bits is called a byte, or a character. A set of bytes forms a field, which is an individual fact about a person, a place, a thing, or an event.

character

A group of eight bits is called a character, or a byte. A set of bytes forms a field, which is an individual fact about a person, a place, a thing, or an event.

query by example (QBE)

A language allows the user to provide an example of the data requested.

Data center

A large concentration of networked computers working together is a

logical record

A logical record contains field values that describe a single person, place, thing, or event. Application programs see a logical record as a set of fields, regardless of how or where the data is stored physically.

task pattern

A logical sequence of tasks in a WBS. Can involve sequential tasks, multiple successor tasks, and multiple predecessor tasks.

data structure

A meaningful combination of related data elements that is included in a data flow or retained in a data store. A framework for organizing and storing data.data warehouseAn integrated collection of data that can support management analysis and decision making.

bottom-up technique

A method for analyzing a large, complex project as a series of individual tasks, called project tasks.

Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)

A method for analyzing the tasks involved in completing a given project, estimating the time needed to complete each task, and identifying the minimum time needed to complete the total project.

relational model

A model used in relational databases. The relational model was introduced during the 1970s and became popular because it was flexible and powerful.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

A network of national standards institutes from over a hundred countries working in partnership with international organizations, governments, industries, and business and consumer representatives. The ISO acts as a bridge between public and private sectors.

task ID

A number or code that uniquely identifies a task.

total cost of ownership (TCO)

A number used in assessing costs, which includes ongoing support and maintenance costs as well as acquisition costs.

entity

A person, a place, a thing, or an event for which data is collected and maintained. For example, an online sales system may include entities named CUSTOMER, ORDER, PRODUCT, and SUPPLIER.

requirements planning phase

A phase that combines elements of the systems planning and systems analysis phases of the SDLC.

construction phase

A phase that focuses on program and application development tasks similar to the SDLC.

cutover phase

A phase that resembles the final tasks in the SDLC implementation phase, including data conversion, testing, changeover to the new system, and user training.

Hawthorne Effect

A phenomenon where employees who know they are being observed are more productive.

interview

A planned meeting during which information is obtained from another person.

Scrum

A popular technique for agile project management. Derived from a rugby term. In Scrum, team members play specific roles and interact in intense sessions.

risk response plan

A proactive effort to anticipate a risk and describe an action plan to deal with it. An effective risk response plan can reduce the overall impact by triggering a timely and appropriate action.slack timeThe amount of time by which an event can be late without delaying the project. The difference between latest completion time (LCT) and earliest completion time (ECT).

Y2K issue

A problem faced by many firms in the year 2000 because their computer systems used only two digits to represent the year; most dates now use a four-digit format for the year (YYYYMMDD).

normalization

A process by which analysts identify and correct inherent problems and complexities in their record designs.

sampling

A process where an analyst collects examples of actual documents, which could include records, reports, or various forms.

encryption

A process where data is coded (converted into unreadable characters) so that only those with the required authorization can access the data (usually via decoding software)

work breakdown structure (WBS)

A project broken down into a series of smaller tasks

Structured Query Language (SQL)

A query language that allows PC users to communicate with servers and mainframe computers.

second normal form (2NF)

A record design is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and if all fields that are not part of the primary key are dependent on the entire primary key. If any field in a 1NF record depends on only one of the fields in a combination primary key, then the record is not in 2NF. A 1NF record with a primary key that is a single field is automatically in 2NF.

third normal form (3NF)

A record design is in 3NF if it is in 2NF and if no nonkey field is dependent on another nonkey field. A nonkey field is a field that is not a candidate key for the primary key.

first normal form (1NF)

A record is said to be in 1NF if it does not contain a repeating group (a set of data items that can occur any number of times in a single record).

unnormalized

A record that contains a repeating group, which means that a single record has multiple occurrences of a particular field, with each occurrence having different values.

Unicode

A relatively recent coding method that represents characters as integers. Unlike EBCDIC and ASCII, which use eight bits for each character, Unicode requires 16 bits per character, which allows it to represent more than 65,000 unique characters.

standard notation format

A representation that makes designing tables easier as it clearly shows a table's structure, fields, and primary key.

structured walk-through

A review of a project team member's work by other members of the team. Generally, systems analysts review the work of other systems analysts, and programmers review the work of other programmers, as a form of peer review. Should take place throughout the SDLC and are called requirement reviews, design reviews, code reviews, or testing reviews, depending on the phase in which they occur.

document review

A review of baseline documentation. A useful fact-finding technique that helps an analyst understand how the current system is supposed to work.

systematic sample

A sample that occurs at a predetermined periodicity. For example, every tenth customer record might be selected as a systematic sample for review.

network diagram

A schematic display of the logical relationships or sequencing of project activities

random sample

A selection taken in a random, unplanned manner. For example, a random sample might be a sample that selects any 20 customers.

critical path

A series of events and activities with no slack time. If any activity along the critical path falls behind schedule, the entire project schedule is similarly delayed. As the name implies, a critical path includes all activities that are vital to the project schedule.

stratified sample

A set metric is collected across functional areas. For example, a certain percentage of transactions from every work shift, or five customers from each of four zip codes, could be a stratified sample.

repeating group

A set of one or more fields that can occur any number of times in a single record, with each occurrence having different values.

record

A set of related fields that describes one instance, or member of an entity, such as one customer, one order, or one product. A record might have one or dozens of fields, depending on what information is needed. Also called a tuple.

data element

A single characteristic or fact about an entity. A data element, field, or attribute is the smallest piece of data that has meaning within an information system. For example, a Social Security number or company name could be examples of a data element. The term data item is also used.

field

A single characteristic or fact about an entity. A field, or attribute, is the smallest piece of data that has meaning within an information system. For example, a Social Security number or company name could be examples of a field. The terms data element, data item, and field are used interchangeably.

attribute

A single characteristic or fact about an entity. An attribute, or field, is the smallest piece of data that has meaning within an information system. For example, a Social Security number or company name could be examples of an attribute. In object-oriented analysis, an attribute is part of a class diagram that describes the characteristics of objects in the class. Also known as a data element.

help desk

A single point of contact for all user inquiries and problems about a particular information system or for all users in a particular department.

predecessor task

A single prior task upon which two or more concurrent tasks depend.

Sales Transaction

A single sales transaction consists of six separate tasks, which the TP system processes as a group.A single sales transaction consists of six separate tasks, which the TP system processes as a group. 1. Verify Customer Data 2. Check Credit Status 3. Check Stock Status 4. Post to Accounts Receivable 5. Adjust Inventory Levels 6. Update Sales File

data mart

A specialized database designed to serve the needs of a specific department, such as sales, marketing, or finance. Each data mart includes only the data that users in that department require to perform their jobs.

business process modeling notation (BPMN)

A standard set of shapes and symbols used to represent events, processes, and workflows in computer-based modeling tools.

java database connectivity (JDBC)

A standard that enables Java applications to exchange data with any database that uses SQL statements and is ODBC-compliant

non-functional requirements

A statement of operational system constraints.

functional requirement

A statement of the services a system provides.

electronic proof of delivery (EPOD)

A supplier uses RFID tags on each crate, case, or shipping unit to create a digital shipping list to verify receipt of goods. RFID Application

joint application development (JAD)

A systems development technique that uses a task force of users, managers, and IT professionals who work together to gather information, discuss business needs, and define the new system requirements.

dependent task

A task is said to be dependent when it has to be completed in a serial sequence.

task group

A task that represents several activities.

rapid application development (RAD)

A team-based technique that speeds up information systems development and produces a functioning information system. RAD is similar in concept to JAD but goes further by including all phases of the SDLC.

fill-in form

A template used to collect data on the Internet or a company intranet

Gantt chart

A time and activity bar chart that is used for planning, managing, and controlling major programs that have a distinct beginning and end.

personal information manager (PIM)

A tool that helps manage tasks and schedules. Many handheld devices also include this function.

functional decomposition diagram (FDD)

A top-down representation of business functions and processes. Also called a structure chart.

site visit

A trip to a physical location to observe a system in use at another location.

tuple

A tuple (rhymes with couple), or record, is a set of related fields that describes one instance, or member of an entity, such as one customer, one order, or one product. A tuple might have one or dozens of fields, depending on what information is needed.

market basket analysis

A type of analysis that can detect patterns and trends in large amounts of data.

crow's foot notation

A type of cardinality notation. It is called crow's foot notation because of the shapes, which include circles, bars, and symbols, that indicate various possibilities. A single bar indicates one, a double bar indicates one and only one, a circle indicates zero, and a crow's foot indicates many.

combination key

A type of data validation check that is performed on two or more fields to ensure that they are consistent or reasonable when considered together. Even though all the fields involved in a combination check might pass their individual validation checks, the combination of the field values might be inconsistent or unreasonable.

M:N

A type of entity relationship. A many-to-many relationship, abbreviated M:N, exists when one instance of the first entity can be related to many instances of the second entity, and one instance of the second entity can be related to many instances of the first entity.

1:M

A type of entity relationship. A one-to-many relationship, abbreviated 1:M, exists when one occurrence of the first entity can be related to many occurrences of the second entity, but each occurrence of the second entity can be associated with only one occurrence of the first entity.

1:1

A type of entity relationship. A one-to-one relationship, abbreviated 1:1, exists when exactly one of the second entity occurs for each instance of the first entity.

referential integrity

A type of validity check. Referential integrity is a set of rules that avoids data inconsistency and quality problems.

subschema

A view of the database used by one or more systems or users. A subschema defines only those portions of the database that a particular system or user needs or is allowed to access.

fishbone diagram

A visual identification of many potential causes of a problem

use case diagram

A visual representation that represents the interaction between users and the information system in UML.

Unified Modeling Language (UML)

A widely used method of visualizing and documenting software systems design. UML uses object-oriented design concepts, but it is independent of any specific program-ming language and can be used to describe business processes and requirements generally.

Unified Modeling Language (UML)

A widely used method of visualizing and documenting software systems design. UML uses object-oriented design concepts, but it is independent of any specific programming language and can be used to describe business processes and requirements generally.

query language

Allows a user to specify a task without specifying how the task will be accomplished. Some query languages use natural language commands that resemble ordinary English sentences

abbreviation code

Alphabetic abbreviation. For example, standard state codes include NY for New York, ME for Maine, and MN for Minnesota

Agile methods

An approach to managing projects that includes an iterative workflow and incremental delivery of software in short iterations

common field

An attribute that appears in more than one entity. Common fields can be used to link entities in various types of relationships.

associative entity

An entity that has its own set of attributes and characteristics. Associative entities are used to link between many-to-many (M:N) relationships.

risk

An event that could affect the project negatively

actor

An external entity with a specific role. In a use case model, actors are used to model interaction with the system.

research

An important fact-finding technique that includes the review of journals, periodicals, and books to obtain background information, technical material, and news about industry trends and developments.

weight

An important multiplier that managers factor into estimates so they can be analyzed.

open database connectivity (ODBC)

An industry-standard protocol that makes it possible for software from different vendors to interact and exchange data.

preliminary investigation

An investigation at project request time to determine the costs and benefits of the project, as well as examine alternatives to the proposed solution in order to determine the feasibility of carrying out the project.

informal structure

An organization based on interpersonal relationships, which can develop from previous work assignments, physical proximity, unofficial procedures, or personal relationships.

orphan

An unassociated or unrelated record or field. An orphan could be created if a customer order was entered in an order table where that customer did not already exist in the customer table. Referential integrity would prevent the creation of this orphan.

nonkey field

Any field that is not a primary key or a candidate key is called a nonkey field.

activity

Any work that has a beginning and an end and requires the use of company resources including people, time, and/or money. Examples include conducting a series of interviews, designing a report, selecting software, waiting for the delivery of equipment, and training users.

productivity software

Applications such as word processing, spreadsheet, database management, and presentation graphics programs.

Blockchain

Blockchain provides a distributed ledger system that is efficient, secure, transparent. Large companies such as IBM are already using blockchain to improve operations for their customers, such as the Food Trust product shown in

significant digit code

Cipher that distinguishes items by using a series of subgroups of digits. U.S. Postal Service zip codes, for example, are significant digit codes

block sequence code

Cipher that uses blocks of numbers for different classifications.

category codes

Ciphers that identify a group of related items. For example, a local department store may use a two-character category code to identify the department in which a product is sold.

mnemonic code

Ciphers using a specific combination of letters that are easy to remember. Many three-character airport codes are mnemonic codes. For example, LAX represents Los Angeles.

range-of-response questions

Closed-ended questions that ask the person to evaluate something by providing limited answers to specific responses or on a numeric scale.

cardinality notation

Code that shows relationships between entities.

derivation code

Combining data from different item attributes, or characteristics, to build the code. Most magazine subscription codes are derivation codes.

NoSQL databases

Databases that can manipulate structured as well as unstructured data and inconsistent or missing data; are useful when working with Big Data.

data flow diagram (DFD)

Diagram that shows how the system stores, processes, and transforms data into useful information.

just-in-time (JIT)

EDI enabled inventory systems that rely on computer-to-computer data exchange to minimize unnecessary inventory. The purpose of a JIT system is to provide the right products at the right place at the right time

file

Each file or table contains data about people, places, things, or events that interact with the information system.

table

Each file or table contains data about people, places, things, or events that interact with the information system.

successor task

Each of the concurrent tasks of a predecessor task.

critical success factor

Elements that must be completed in order for the project to be considered complete. Critical success factors that are not satisfactory can lead to project failure.

qualitative risk analysis

Evaluating risk by estimating the probability that it will occur and the degree of impact.

quantitative risk analysis

Evaluating risk in terms of the actual impact in terms of dollars, time, project scope, or quality.

systems request

Formal way of asking for IT support and starting point for most projects

Brooks' law

Frederick Brooks, an IBM engineer, observed that adding more manpower to a late soft-ware project only makes it later

functionally dependent

Functional dependence is an important concept for understanding the 2NF. The field X is said to be functionally dependent on the field Y if the value of X depends on the value of Y. For example, an order date is dependent on an order number; for a particular order number, there is only one value for the order date. In contrast, the product description is not dependent on the order number. For a particular order number, there might be several product descriptions, one for each item ordered.

Project management

IT professionals includes planning, scheduling, monitoring and controlling, and reporting on information system development.

systems support and security phase

IT staff maintains, enhances, and protects the system. Maintenance changes correct errors and adapt to changes in the environment, such as new tax rates.

XY chart

Important problem-solving tool that shows a correlation between variables

swim lanes

In a business process diagram, the overall diagram is called a pool and the designated customer areas are called swim lanes.

scenarios

In an agile project, a real-world example of how users will interact with the system.

user stories

In an agile project, a set of more refined requirements derived from features.

storyboard

In an agile project, a simple graphic organizer that helps systems analysts visualize the status of a project

epic

In an agile project, a simple, high-level statement of a requirement.

feature

In an agile project, a simple, high-level statement of a requirement.

systems review committee / computer resources committee

In most organizations, the IT department receives more systems requests than it can handle. Many organizations assign responsibility for evaluating systems requests to a group of key managers and users

user design phase

In this phase, users interact with systems analysts and develop models and prototypes that represent all system processes, outputs, and inputs.

risk management plan

Includes a review of the project's scope, stakeholders, budget, schedule, and any other internal or external factors that might affect the project. The plan should define project roles and responsibilities, risk management methods and procedures, categories of risks, and contingency plans.

action code

Indicates what action is to be taken with an associated item. For example, a student records program might prompt a user to enter or click an action code such as D (to display the student's record), A (to add a record), and X (to exit the program)

physical storage

Information storage mechanism that is strictly hardware related, because it involves the process of reading and writing binary data to physical media, such as a hard drive, flash drive, or DVD.

risk identification

Listing each risk and assessing the likelihood that it could affect a project.

inference rules

Logical rules that identify data patterns and relationships

data mining

Looking for meaningful patterns and relationships among data. For example, data min-ing software could help a consumer products firm identify potential customers based on their prior purchases.

PERT/CPM

Network techniques Developed in 1950s CPM by DuPont for chemical plants (1957) PERT by Booz, Allen & Hamilton with the U.S. Navy, for Polaris missile (1958) Consider precedence relationships and interdependencies Each uses a different estimate of activity times

sequence code

Numbers or letters assigned in a specific order. Sequence codes contain no additional information other than an indication of order of entry into a system.

Stakeholders

People who have an interest in an information system

systems planning phase

Phase of the SDLC model whose purpose is to perform a preliminary investigation

fact-finding

Problem or opportunity Benefits Costs Project Scope and Constraints

recovery procedure

Process for restoring data and restarting a system after an interruption. Recovery procedures can be used to restore a file or database to its current state at the time of the last backup.

encryption

Process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to prevent unauthorized access.

discretionary projects

Projects where management has a choice in implementing them

nondiscretionary projects

Projects where management has no choice in implementing them

open-ended questions

Queries that allow for a range of answers. They encourage spontaneous and unstructured responses and are useful in understanding a larger process.

closed-ended questions

Queries that limit or restrict the range of responses. Used in the interview pro-cess when specific information or fact verification is desired.

leading questions

Queries that suggest or favor a particular reply.

audit log files

Record details of all accesses and changes to a file or database and can be used to recover changes made since the last backup.

clickstream storage

Recording web visitor behavior and traffic trends for later data mining. use.codeA set of letters or numbers that represents a data item. Codes can be used to simplify output, input, and data formats.

logical storage

Refers to information as seen through a user's eyes, regardless of how or where that information is organized or stored.

Critical Path Method (CPM)

Shows a project as a network diagram. The activities are shown as vectors, and the events are displayed graphically as nodes. Although CPM developed separately from the Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT), the two methods are essentially identical.

middleware

Software that connects dissimilar applications and enables them to communicate and exchange data. For example, middleware can link a departmental database to a web server that can be accessed by client computers via the Internet or a company intranet.

integrated development environments (IDE)

Software that provides features to help a programmer to develop their program

database administrator (DBA)

Someone who manages a DBMS. The DBA assesses overall requirements and maintains the database for the benefit of the entire organization rather than a single department or user.

composite key

Sometimes it is necessary for a primary key to consist of a combination of fields. In that case, the primary key is called a combination key, composite key, concatenated key, or multivalued key.

multivalued key

Sometimes it is necessary for a primary key to consist of a combination of fields. In that case, the primary key is called a combination key, composite key, concatenated key, or multivalued key.

candidate key

Sometimes it is possible to have a choice of fields or field combinations to use as the primary key. Any field that could serve as a primary key is called a candidate key.

audit fields

Special fields within data records to provide additional control or security information. Typical audit fields include the date the record was created or modified, the name of the user who performed the action, and the number of times the record has been accessed.

table design

Specifies the fields and identifies the primary key in a particular table or file.

ASCII

Stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange, a data storage coding method used on most personal computers and workstations.

EBCDIC

Stands for Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code, a coding method used on main-frame computers and some high-capacity servers.

Six main reasons for systems requests

Stronger Controls Reduced Cost More Information Better Performance Improved Service More Support

agile methods

Systems development methods that attempt to develop a system incrementally by build-ing a series of prototypes and constantly adjusting them to user requirements. Also called adaptive methods.

traceability

The ability to follow a requirement backward to its origins and forward through the SDLC to link design documents, code fragments, and test artifacts.

engaged listening

The ability to really concentrate on what someone is saying and avoid the temptation to hear what is expected. Also includes noticing nonverbal communication.

clicks to close

The average number of page views to accomplish a purchase or obtain desired information.

schema

The complete definition of a database, including descriptions of all fields, records, and relationships.

start day/date

The day or date when a task is scheduled to begin

systems implementation phase

The fourth phase of SDLC. During this phase the new system is constructed, programs are written, tested, and documented, and the system is installed.

economy of scale

The inherent efficiency of high-volume processing on larger computers. Database design allows better utilization of hardware. If a company maintains an enterprise-wide database, processing is less expensive using a powerful mainframe server instead of using several smaller computers.

Supply Chain Management (SCM)

The management of information flows between and among activities in a supply chain to maximize total supply chain effectiveness and profitability

probable-case estimate

The most likely outcome is called a probable-case estimate

best-case estimate

The most optimistic outcome.

worst-case estimate

The most pessimistic outcome

pool

The overall diagram in BPMN.

project creep

The process by which projects with very general scope definitions expand gradually, without specific authorization.

requirements elicitation

The process of gathering requirements

risk management

The process of identifying, evaluating, tracking, and controlling risks to minimize their impact.

backup

The process of saving a series of file or data copies to be retained for a specified period of time. Data can be backed up continuously, or at prescribed intervals.

scalable

The property of a network that allows you to add nodes or increase its size easily.

systems analysis phase

The second SDLC phase. The purpose of this phase is to build a logical model of the new system.

bit

The smallest unit of data is one binary digit.

systems request

The starting point for most information systems projects, which is a formal way of asking for IT support.

System requirements document

The system requirements document describes management and user requirements, costs, and benefits and outlines alternative development strategies

project triangle

The three major components of a project: cost, scope, and time. A project manager tries to find the optimal balance among these factors.

absolute date

The total number of days from some specific base date. To calculate the number of days between two absolute dates, subtract one date from the other. For example, using a base date of January 1, 1900, September 27, 2012, has an absolute date value of 41179 and July 13, 2011, has an absolute date of 40737. If the earlier date value is subtracted from the later one, the result is 442 days.

task group

This allows a complex project to be viewed as a set of integrated modules.

Preliminary Investigation Steps

Understand the problem or opportunity Define the project scope and constraints Perform fact-finding -Analyze organizational charts -Review Documentation -Observe operations -Conduct a user survey Study usability, cost, benefit, and schedule data Evaluate Feasibility -Operational -Technical -Economic -Schedule

cipher codes

Use of a keyword to encode a number. A retail store, for example, may use a 10-letter word, such as CAMPGROUND, to code wholesale prices, where the letter C represents 1, A rep-resents 2, and so on. Thus, the code, GRAND, would indicate that the store paid $562.90 for the item.

key fields

Used during the systems design phase to organize, access, and maintain data structures. The four types of key fields are primary keys, candidate keys, foreign keys, and secondary keys.

requirements engineering

Used in the systems planning phase of the SDLC. It involves fact-finding to describe the current system and identify the requirements for the new system.

permissions

User-specific privileges that determine the type of access a user has to a database, file, or directory. Also called user rights.

alphabetic code

Uses alphabet letters to distinguish one item from another based on a category, an abbreviation, or an easy-to-remember value, called a mnemonic code.

Legacy systems

When planning an information system, a company must consider how a new system will interface with older systems

Pareto chart

a bar graph whose bars are drawn in decreasing order of frequency or relative frequency

Big Data

a broad term for datasets so large or complex that traditional data processing applications are inadequate.

Intangible costs

a category of location costs that cannot be easily quantified, such as quality of life and government

class

a collection of similar objects

Critical Path Method (CPM)

a project-management tool that illustrates the relationships among all the activities involved in completing a project and identifies the sequence of activities likely to take the longest to complete

Mission Statement

a statement of the firm's business based on a careful analysis of benefits sought by present and potential customers and an analysis of existing and anticipated environmental conditions

Intangible benefits

advantages that are difficult to measure in dollars but are important to the company. Examples of intangible benefits include the following: •A user-friendly system that improves employee job satisfaction•A sales tracking system that supplies better information for marketing decisions•A new website that enhances the company's image

Supply chain

all the companies who provide materials, services, and functions needed to provide a product to a customer. For example, a Sherwin-Williams customer who buys a gallon of paint is at the end of a chain that includes the raw mate-rial sources, packaging suppliers, manufacturers, transporters, warehouses, and retail stores.

knowledge base

allows users to find information by entering keywords or questions in normal English phrases

Iterative Development

an approach to system development in which the system is "grown" piece by piece through multiple iterations

Business profile

an overview of a company's mission, functions, organization, products, services, customers, suppliers, competitors, constraints, and future direction

Tangible benefits

benefits that can be measured in dollars. Tangible benefits result from a decrease in expenses, an increase in revenues, or both. Examples of tangible benefits include the following: A new scheduling system that reduces overtime•An online package tracking system that improves service and decreases the need for clerical staff•A sophisticated inventory control system that cuts excess inventory and eliminates production delays

B2C

business to consumer

biometric devices

can identify a person by a retina scan or by mapping a fingerprint pattern. The technology uses infrared scanners that create images with thousands of measurements of personal physical characteristics

properties

characteristics used to describe an object

Information system

combines technology, people, and data to provide support for business functions such as order processing, inventory control, human resources, accounting, and many more

Data

consists of basic facts that are the system's raw material

Hardware

consists of everything in the physical layer of the information system. For example, hardware can include servers, workstations, networks, telecommunications equipment, fiber-optic cables, mobile devices, scanners, digital capture devices, and other technology-based infrastructure

Application software

consists of programs that support day-to-day business functions and provide users with the information they need.

systems design phase

create a physical model that will satisfy all documented requirements for the system. At this stage, the user interface is designed, and necessary outputs, inputs, and processes are identified

strategic plans

define the company's overall mission and goals. To plot a future course, top managers ask questions such as "How much should the company invest in information technology?", "How much will Internet sales grow in the next five years?", or "Should the company build new factories or contract out production functions?" To develop a strategic plan, top managers also need information from outside the company, such as economic forecasts, technology trends, competitive threats, and governmental issues

Processes

describe the tasks and business functions that users, managers, and IT staff members perform to achieve specific results. Processes are the building blocks of an information system because they represent actual day-to-day business operations

business model

describes the information that a system must provide. Analysts also create models to represent data, objects, networks, and other system components.

system design specification

description of the main components in a system and their relationship to one another

Groupware

enables users to share data, collaborate on projects, and work in teams

business process model (BPM)

graphically displays one or more business processes, such as handling an airline reservation, filling a product order, or updating a customer account

project coordinator

handles administrative responsibilities for the team and negotiates with users who might have conflicting requirements or want changes that would require additional time or expense.

business information systems

identified as enterprise computing systems, transaction processing systems, business support systems, knowledge management systems, user productivity systems, digital assistants, or systems integration

user productivity systems

include email, voice mail, video and web conferencing, word processing, automated calendars, database management, spreadsheets, desktop publishing, presentation graphics, company intranets, and integrated mobile computing systems

Enterprise applications

include order processing systems, payroll systems, and company communications networks. On a smaller scale, individual users can boost productivity with tools such as spreadsheets, presentation software, and database management systems.

critical thinking skills

include the ability to compare, classify, evaluate, recognize patterns, analyze cause and effect, and apply logic. Critical thinkers often use a what-if approach, and they have the ability to evaluate their own thinking and reasoning

service-oriented

included consultants, vendors, software developers, and service providers

Project planning

includes identifying all project tasks and estimating the completion time and cost of each.

Project reporting

includes regular progress reports to management, users, and the project team itself. Effective reporting requires strong communication skills and a sense of what others want and need to know about the project.

technical support

includes seven main functions: application development, systems support and security, user support, database administration, network administration, web support, and quality assurance. These functions overlap considerably and often have different names in different companies

business process modeling notation (BPMN)

includes standard shapes and symbols to represent events, processes, workflows, and more. Multipurpose application such as Microsoft Visio or online diagramming tools such as draw.io can be used to create

systems analyst

investigates, analyzes, designs, develops, installs, evaluates, and maintains a company's information systems. To perform those tasks, a systems analyst constantly interacts with users and managers within and outside the company. The following sections describe a systems analyst's role, knowledge, skills, education, certifications, and career opportunities.

feasibility study

investigation that gauges the probability of success of a proposed project and provides a rough assessment of the project's feasibility

work breakdown structure (WBS)

involves breaking a project down into a series of smaller tasks. Before creating WBSs, the two primary chart types should be under-stood: Gantt charts and PERT/CPM charts.

System

is a set of related components that produces specific results. For example, specialized systems route Internet traffic, manufacture microchips, and control complex entities like the Hubble telescope

Business Process

is a specific set of transactions, events, and results that can be described and documented.

Systems analysis and design

is a step-by-step process for developing high-quality information systems

Horizontal system

is a system, such as an inventory or payroll application, that can be adapted for use in many different types of companies.

Systems analyst

is a valued member of the IT department team who helps plan, develop, and maintain information systems. Analysts must be excellent communicators with strong analytical and critical thinking skills. Because systems analysts trans-form business requirements into IT projects, they must be business-savvy as well as technically competent and be equally comfortable with managers and programmers, who sometimes have different points of view

Information

is data that has been transformed into output that is valuable to users

Vertical system

is designed to meet the unique requirements of a specific business or industry, such as an online retailer, a medical practice, or an auto dealership.

Mission-critical system

is one that is vital to a company's operations. An order processing system, for example, is mission-critical because the company cannot do business without it

Quick Response codes (QR Codes)

like bar codes but square in shape. They contain more information than traditional bar codes, but less than RFID tags. They do have the advantage of being less expensive to use than RFID tags, and they can be printed on almost anything—including online advertisements

constraint

limitation or restriction

System software

manages the hardware components, which can include a single computer or a global network with many thousands of clients. Either the hardware manufacturer supplies the system software or a company purchases it from a vendor. Examples of system software include the operating system, security software that protects the computer from intrusion, device drivers that communicate with hardware such as printers, and utility programs that handle specific tasks such as data backup and disk management.

Product-oriented

manufactured computers, routers, or microchips

Operational feasibility

means that a proposed system will be used effectively after it has been developed

Schedule feasibility

measures the project time frame to ensure it can be completed on time

Internet-of-Things (IOT)

newer development that involves almost all electronic devices communicating with one another over a computer network. The communication can use radio signals, as with RFID tags, digital messages, or other means. IoT devices can act as sensors, send-ing important information to centralized data storage and processing nodes.

Moore's law

number of transistors on an integrated circuit chip would double about every 24 months

business rules

precise descriptions of policies, procedures, or principles in any organization that stores and uses data to generate information

Transaction processing (TP) systems

process data generated by day-to-day business operations. Examples of TP systems include customer order processing, accounts receivable, and warranty claim processing

Modeling

produces a graphical representation of a concept or process that systems developers can analyze, test, and modify

radio frequency identification (RFID)

product tags with tiny chips containing information about the item's content, origin, and destination

Business support systems

provide job-related information support to users at all levels of a company. These systems can analyze transactional data, generate information needed to manage and control business processes, and provide information that leads to better decision making.

Tangible costs

readily identifiable costs that can be measured with some precision Examples People, including IT staff and users•Hardware and equipment•Software, including in-house development as well as purchases from vendors•Formal and informal training, including peer-to-peer support•Licenses and fees•Consulting expenses•Facility costs•The estimated cost of not developing the system or postponing the project

Enterprise computing

refers to information systems that support company-wide operations and data management requirements. Walmart's inventory control system, Boeing's production control system, and Hilton Hotels' reservation system are examples

Information Technology (IT)

refers to the combination of hardware, software, and services that people use to manage, communicate, and share information. Companies use information as a way to increase productivity, deliver quality products and services, maintain customer loyalty, and make sound decisions. In a global economy with intense competition, information technology can mean the difference between success and failure

Software

refers to the programs that control the hardware and produce the desired information or results. Software consists of system software and application software.

Technical feasibility

refers to the technical resources needed to develop, purchase, install, or operate the system

spiral model

represents a series of iterations, or revisions, based on user feedback

data science

represents the data aspect. The world is producing more and more data at an incredible rate. New tools and techniques are being developed to manage these large datasets. Areas such as machine learning and predictive analytics are experiencing tremendous growth as companies try to apply artificial intelligence techniques to the problem of big data.

Project monitoring

requires guiding, supervising, and coordinating the project team's workload.

personal digital assistant

small portable computer which provides tools for everyday office tasks (PDA)

SWOT analysis

strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats

enterprise resource planning (ERP)

systems provide cost-effective support for users and managers throughout the company. For example, a car rental company can use ERP to forecast customer demand for rental cars at hundreds of locations. Because of its growth and potential, many hardware and software vendors target the enterprise computing market and offer a wide array of products and services

customer relationship management (CRM)

systems that integrate all customer-related events and transactions, including marketing, sales, and customer service activities

electronic product code (EPC)

technology that uses RFID tags to identify and monitor the movement of each individual product, from the factory floor to the retail checkout counter

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI)

the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents from a retailer to a vendor and back

electronic data interchange (EDI)

the computer-to-computer exchange of business documents from a retailer to a vendor and back For example, an automobile company might require that suppliers code their parts in a certain manner to match the auto company's inventory control system

Analysis Types

the most popular alternatives are structured analysis, which is a traditional method that still is widely used, object-oriented (O-O) analysis, which is a more recent approach that many analysts prefer, and agile methods, which include the latest trends in software development.

Project management

the process of planning, scheduling, monitoring, controlling, and reporting upon the development of an information system

B2B

the process of selling merchandise or services from one business to another

Economic feasibility

the projected benefits of the proposed system out-weigh the estimated costs usually considered the total cost of ownership (TCO)

waterfall model

the result of each phase is called a deliverable, which flows into the next phase

application lifecycle management (ALM) / product lifecycle management (PLM)

the set of activities that revolve around a new software product, from its inception to when the product matures and perhaps retires.

systems development life cycle (SDLC)

to plan, analyze, design, implement, and support an information system. Although structured analysis evolved many years ago, it remains a popular systems development method. Structured analysis is based on an overall plan, similar to a blueprint for constructing a building, so it is called a predictive approach

computer-aided systems engineering (CASE)

tools automate parts of the application development process. These tools are particularly helpful for investigation and analysis in large-scale projects because they automate parts of the design phase.

project manager

usually is a senior systems analyst or an IT department manager if the project is large. An analyst or a programmer/analyst might manage smaller projects.

Certification

verifies that an individual demonstrated a certain level of knowledge and skill on a standardized test

requirements engineering

where the analyst investigates business processes and documents what the new system must do to satisfy users. Requirements engineering continues the investigation that began during the systems planning phase