464 Final Exam
free slack
(AKA free float)The amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the early start of any immediately following activities
causes of scope creep
--fuzzy requirements or not clearly defining the scope early --lack of formal guidelines or procedures for identifying, validating or managing changes --allowing stakeholders or customers to add features without penalty
tools for managing scope
--integrated change control --variance analysis - compare actual with predicted --scope validation with customer, sponsor or user to inspect product and determine if it meets requirements --collect better requirements --involve users throughout the project
6 sigma philosophy
-formal system for improving quality, decreasing costs, and better meeting customer needs, based on facts, data, and statistical analysis -DMAIC: Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control -"belt" system: yellow, green, black, master black -primary principle: no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities
expected monetary value (EMV)
-helps determine contingency reserves -quantifies risk to budget -helps decide between different choices -evaluate risk based on historical data -provides average outcome of all identified risks -as reliable as the historical data used for calculations -used to select a project based on its potential risk; uses a decision tree analysis
cultural dimensions
-individual/ collective -power distance -masculine/ feminine -uncertainty avoidance -long term/short term orientation -indulgence/ restraint
process groups
-initiating -planning -executing -monitoring and controlling -closing
quality control tools
-ishikawa diagrams -control chart -checksheet, tally sheet, checklist -scatter diagram -histogram -pareto chart -flowcharts -statistical sampling -
costs of quality
-prevention cost -appraisal cost -internal failure cost -external failure cost -measurement and test equipment cost
ISO 9000
-quality system standard -3 part continuous cycle of planning, controlling and documenting quality in an organization -requires outside auditing to confirm compliance
Factors Constraining Project Success
-scope -quality -stakeholders -schedule -budget -resources -risk -customer satisfaction
project attributes
-unique purpose -temporary -developed using progressive elaboration -requires resources from various areas -has a customer or sponsor -involves uncertainty and risk
procurement pros
1. access skills and technologies 2. reduce fixed and recurring costs 3. focus on core business 4. flexibility 5. accountability
negative risk responses
1. avoid 2. accept 3. transfer 4. mitigate 5. escalate
trends affecting projects
1. diversity in projects, people, and technology 2. globalization 3. outsourcing 4. virtual teams
positive risk responses
1. exploit 2. share 3. enhance 4. accept 5. escalate
10 characteristics of org culture
1. member identity 2. group emphasis 3. people focus 4. unit integration 5. control 6. risk tolerance 7. reward criteria 8. conflict tolerance 9. means-end orientation 10. open systems focus
6 work processes in resource management
1. plan 2. estimate 3. acquire 4. develop 5. manage 6. control
3 processes of procurement management
1. plan procurement engagement 2. conduct procurement engagement 3. control procurement
3 processes of project quality management
1. plan quality engagement 2. manage quality engagement 3. control quality
7 processes of project risk management
1. plan risk engagement 2. identify risks 3. perform qualitative risk analysis 4.perform quantitative risk analysis 5. plan risk responses 6. implement risk responses 7. monitor risk
3 processes in communications management
1. planning 2. managing 3. monitoring
procurement cons
1. reduced control 2. increased dependency on supplier 3. strategic assets may be lost 4. political issues 5. principal-agent problems
interactive communication
2 way exchange, we're working together
project systems
3 aspects: 1. person 2. organization 3. program (to be solved by the system)
systems thinking
3 places to look for issues: 1. business 2. organization 3. technology
pareto rule
80% of problems are caused by 20% of causes 80% of problems are caused by 20% of people (want to focus on the biggest problem first, it will solve the majority of other issues)
tracking gantt chart
A Gantt chart that compares planned and actual project schedule information
project archives
A complete set of organized project records that provide an accurate history of the project
requirement
A condition or capability that must be met by the project or that must be present in the product, service, or result to satisfy an agreement or other formally imposed specification what the project needs to do -- satisfies a business need -- enough detail so we can understand and measure it -- measurement needs to be an objective
collaborating mode
A conflict-handling mode in which decision makers incorporate different viewpoints and insights to develop consensus and commitment
rough order of magnitude (ROM) estimate
A cost estimate prepared very early in the life of a project to provide a rough idea of what a project will cost
definitive estimate
A cost estimate that provides an accurate estimate of project costs
budgetary estimate
A cost estimate used to allocate money into an organization's budget
bottom up estimates
A cost-estimating technique based on estimating individual work items and summing them to get a project total
parametric estimating
A cost-estimating technique that uses project characteristics (parameters) in a mathematical model to estimate project costs
top down estimates
A cost-estimating technique that uses the actual cost of a previous
analogous estimates
A cost-estimating technique that uses the actual cost of a previous similar project as the basis for estimating the cost of the current project; also called top-down estimates
scrum team
A crossfunctional team of five to nine people who organize themselves and the work to produce the desired results for each sprint
DevOps
A culture of collaboration between software development and operations teams to build, test, and release reliable software more quickly
work breakdown structure
A deliverable-oriented grouping of the work involved in a project that defines its total scope --outline of major activities in the project --may be organized in any logical system that makes sense to the project or project team --provides basis for building the schedule and assigning resources
project charter
A document that formally recognizes the existence of a project and provides direction on the project's objectives and management
communications management plan
A document that guides project communications --stakeholder communications requirements --who will receive the information and who will produce it --information to be communicated, including format, content, and level of detail --suggested methods or technologies for conveying the information --frequency of communication --escalation procedures for resolving issues --revision procedures for updating the communications management plan --glossary of common terminology
project scope statement
A document that includes at least a description of the project, including its overall objectives and justification, detailed descriptions of all project deliverables, and the characteristics and requirements of products and services produced as part of the project project charter provides basis for starting the scope statement
WBS dictionary
A document that includes detailed information about each WBS item
change control board
A formal group of people responsible for approving or rejecting changes on a project
change control system
A formal, documented process that describes when and how official project documents may be changed
organizational project management
A framework in which portfolio, program, and project management are integrated with organizational enablers in order to achieve strategic objectives.
executive steering committee
A group of senior executives from various parts of the organization who regularly review important corporate projects and issues
resource breakdown structure
A hierarchical structure that identifies the project's resources by category and type
kanban
A just-in-time method of inventory control that can be used in conjunction with Scrum
theory of constraints (TOC)
A management philosophy that any complex system at any point in time often has only one aspect or constraint that limits the ability to achieve more of the system's goal
kill point
A management review that should occur after each project phase to determine if projects should be continued, redirected, or terminated; also called a phase exit`
function points
A means of measuring software size in terms that are meaningful to end users
cash flow analysis
A method for determining the estimated annual costs and benefits for a project
critical chain scheduling
A method of scheduling that takes limited resources into account when creating a project schedule and includes buffers to protect the project completion date
slipped milestone
A milestone activity that is completed later than planned
tuckman model
A model that describes five stages of team development: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning
activity on arrow (AOA)
A network diagramming technique in which activities are represented by arrows and connected at points called nodes to illustrate the sequence of activities; also called arrow diagramming method (ADM)
precedence diagramming method (PDM)
A network diagramming technique in which boxes represent activities
forward pass
A network diagramming technique that determines the early start and early finish dates for each activity
scrum master
A person who ensures that the team is productive, facilitates the daily Scrum, enables close cooperation across all roles and functions, and removes barriers that prevent the team from being effective
requirements management plan
A plan that describes how project requirements will be analyzed, documented, and managed
use case modeling
A process for identifying and modeling business events, who initiated them, and how the system should respond to them
configuration management
A process that ensures that the descriptions of a project's products are correct and complete
deliverable
A product or service, such as a technical report, a training session, a piece of hardware, or a segment of software code, produced or provided as part of a project
program evaluation and review technique (PERT)
A project network analysis technique used to estimate project duration when there is a high degree of uncertainty about the individual activity duration estimates
critical path method (CPM)
A project network diagramming technique used to predict total project duration
hierarchy of needs
A pyramid structure illustrating Maslow's theory that people's behaviors are guided or motivated by a sequence of needs
start to finish dependency
A relationship on a project network diagram in which the "from" activity cannot start before the "to" activity is finished cannot finish task A until task B starts
start to start dependency
A relationship on a project network diagram in which the "from" activity cannot start until the "to" activity starts ex. we can start dismantling and cleaning up at the same time
finish to start dependency
A relationship on a project network diagram in which the "from" activity must be finished before the "to" activity can be started ex. can't start drying the car until after we finish washing it
fast tracking
A schedule compression technique in which you do activities in parallel that you would normally do in sequence --can shorten the schedule but may increase the cost --may increase risk which could increase the schedule
network diagram
A schematic display of the logical relationships or sequencing of project activities
champion
A senior manager who acts as a key proponent for a project
sprint
A set period of time, normally two to four weeks, during which specific work must be completed and made ready for review when using Scrum methods
milestone
A significant event that normally has no duration on a project; serves as a marker to help in identifying necessary activities, setting schedule goals, and monitoring progress -- 0 duration -- no time frame (marks something) -- builds confidence -- proves results should be SMART (specific, measurable, assignable, realistic, time-framed)
product backlog
A single list of features prioritized by business value
burst
A single node followed by two or more activities on a network diagram
gantt chart
A standard format for displaying project schedule information by listing project activities and their corresponding start and finish dates in a calendar format; sometimes referred to as bar charts
balanced scorecard
A strategic planning and management system that helps organizations align business activities to strategy, improve communications, and monitor performance against strategic goals
requirements traceability matrix (RTM)
A table that lists requirements, their various attributes, and the status of the requirements to ensure that all are addressed
activity list
A tabulation of activities to be included on a project schedule --identifier or number and brief description
work package
A task at the lowest level of the WBS
crashing
A technique for making cost and schedule trade-offs to obtain the greatest amount of schedule compression for the least cost shortens the schedule
resource leveling
A technique for resolving resource conflicts by delaying tasks
learning curve theory
A theory that when many items are produced repetitively, the unit cost of those items normally decreases in a regular pattern as more units are produced
cost baseline
A time-phased budget that project managers use to measure and monitor cost performance
dummy activites
Activities with no duration and no resources used to show a logical relationship between two activities in the arrow diagramming method of project network diagrams
scope
All the work involved in creating the products of the project and the processes used to create them Deliverables plus the work to create them, including documentation (if we expand scope, cost is increased, time increased-- other 2 parts are affected)--we have some control over scope
activity
An element of work normally found on the WBS that has an expected duration, cost, and resource requirements; also called a task --specific actions that will produce the deliverables in enough detail to produce resource and schedule estimates --should agree with the WBS and WBS dictionary
task
An element of work normally found on the WBS that has an expected duration, cost, and resource requirements; also called an activity
earned value
An estimate of the value of the physical work actually completed
estimate at completion
An estimate of what it will cost to complete the project based on performance to date
three point estimate
An estimate that includes an optimistic, a most likely, and a pessimistic estimate
project manager
An individual who is an expert in project planning and management, defines and develops the project plan, and tracks the plan to ensure the project is completed on time and on budget, works with the project sponsors, team, and other people involved to achieve project goals
Rational Unified Process (RUP)
An iterative software development process that focuses on team productivity and delivers software best practices to all team members
groupthink
Conformance to the values or ethical standards of a group
executing processes
Coordinating people and other resources to carry out the project plans and create the products, services, or results of the project or project phase
indirect costs
Costs that are not directly related to the products or services of the project, but are indirectly related to performing the project
direct costs
Costs that can be directly related to creating the products and services of the project
bottom up approach
Creating a WBS by having team members identify as many specific tasks related to the project as possible and then grouping them into higher- level categories
top down approach
Creating a WBS by starting with the largest items of the project and breaking them into subordinate items
analogy approach
Creating a WBS by using a similar project's WBS as a starting point
smoothing mode
Deemphasizing or avoiding areas of differences and emphasizing areas of agreement
Six Sigma methodologies
Define, Measure, Analyze, Improve, and Control (DMAIC) is used to improve an existing business process, and Define, Measure, Analyze, Design, and Verify (DMADV) is used to create new product or process design
initiating processes
Defining and authorizing a project or project phase
prototyping
Developing a working replica of the system or some aspect of it to help define user requirements
unknown unknowns
Dollar amounts included in a cost estimate to allow for future situations that are unpredictable (sometimes called management reserves)
management reserves
Dollar amounts included in a cost estimate to allow for future situations that are unpredictable (sometimes called unknown unknowns) money not in the baseline but are in the budget in case of unknown risks
known unknowns
Dollar amounts included in a cost estimate to allow for future situations that may be partially planned for (sometimes called contingency reserves) and that are included in the project cost baseline
contingency reserves
Dollar amounts included in a cost estimate to allow for future situations that may be partially planned for (sometimes called known unknowns) and that are included in the project cost baseline money in the baseline for known risks
reserves
Dollar amounts included in a cost estimate to mitigate cost risk by allowing for future situations that are difficult to predict
probabilistic time estimates
Duration estimates based on using optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic estimates of activity durations instead of using one specific or discrete estimate
affiliative
Emphasizes the importance of teamwork and creating harmony by connecting people to each other. This approach is effective when trying to increase morale, improve communication, or repair broken trust.
confrontation mode
Facing a conflict directly using a problem-solving approach that allows affected parties to work through their disagreements
democratic
Focuses on people's knowledge and skills and creates a commitment to reaching shared goals. This leadership style works best when the leader needs the collective wisdom of the group to decide on the best direction to take for the organization.
scope validation
Formal acceptance of the completed project deliverables
benchmarking
Generating ideas by comparing specific project practices or product characteristics to those of other projects or products inside or outside the performing organization
referent power
Getting others to do things based on a person's own charisma
legitimate power
Getting people to do things based on a position of authority
SMART criteria
Guidelines to help define milestones that are specific, measurable, assignable, realistic, and time-framed
stakeholder register
ID info, assessment (requirements and expectations), influence, phase when most interested, classification (internal/external, supportive/ resistant), etc. precursor for the stakeholder engagement plan which is a separate document
integrated change control
Identifying, evaluating, and managing changes throughout the project life cycle
activity attributes
Information about each activity, such as predecessors, successors, logical relationships, leads and lags, resource requirements, constraints, imposed dates, and assumptions related to the activity
push communication
Information is sent or pushed to recipients without their request you didn't ask for this but I'm sending it to you anyways
pull communication
Information is sent to recipients at their request you have to get this or request it yourself
kaizen
Japanese term for continuous improvement or change for the better
explicit knowledge
Knowledge that can be easily explained using words, pictures, or numbers and is easy to communicate, store, and distribute, such as information in textbooks, project documents, and plans
sunk cost
Money that has been spent in the past
commanding
Most often used, also called autocratic or military style leadership. This style is most effective in a crisis or when a turnaround is needed.
visionary
Needed when an organization needs a new direction, and the goal is to move people toward a new set of shared dreams. The leader articulates where the group is going, but lets them decide how to get there by being free to innovate, experiment, and take calculated risks
coaching
One-on-one style that focuses on developing individuals, showing them how to improve their performance. This approach works best with workers who show initiative and request assistance.
6 processes of scope management
PCDCVC 1. Plan scope management -- creating and deciding what is and isn't in the scope (the deliverable is the project management plan) 2. Collect requirements 3. Define scope 4. Create WBS 5. Validate scope -- check it against requirements, make sure everyone agrees 6. Control scope -- make sure it doesn't go out of bounds
4 processes of project cost management
PEDC 1. plan cost management 2. estimate costs 3. determine the budget 4. control costs
stakeholders
People involved in or affected by project activities (include the project sponsor, project team, support staff, customers, users, suppliers, and opponents of the project)
resources
People, equipment, and materials
forecasts
Predictions of future project status and progress based on past information and trends
lessons learned report
Reflective statements written by project managers and their team members to document important information they have learned from working on a project
monitoring and controlling processes
Regularly measuring and monitoring progress to ensure that the project team meets the project objectives
internal dependencies
Relationships between project activities that are generally inside the project team's control
progress reports
Reports that describe what the project team has accomplished during a certain period of time
status reports
Reports that describe where a project stands at a specific point in time
tacit knowledge
Sometimes called informal knowledge, this type of knowledge is difficult to express and is highly personal, such as beliefs, insight, and experience
decomposition
Subdividing project deliverables into smaller pieces
duration
The actual amount of time worked on an activity plus elapsed time
overrun
The additional percentage or dollar amount by which actual costs exceed estimates
resource loading
The amount of individual resources an existing schedule requires during
slack
The amount of time a project activity may be delayed without delaying a succeeding activity or the project finish date; also called float AKA wiggle room
float
The amount of time a project activity may be delayed without delaying a succeeding activity or the project finish date; also called slack AKA wiggle room
total slack
The amount of time an activity may be delayed from its early start without delaying the planned project finish date (AKA Total Float)
project management
The application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements
schedule baseline
The approved planned schedule for the project
baseline
The approved project management plan plus approved changes
scope baseline
The approved project scope statement and its associated WBS and WBS dictionary
variance
The difference between planned and actual performance
early finish date
The earliest possible time an activity can finish based on the project network logic
early start date
The earliest possible time an activity can start based on the project network logic
cost variance (CV)
The earned value minus the actual cost what you want: POSITIVE (work costs less than planned costs)
schedule variance
The earned value minus the planned value what you want: POSITIVE (less time than planned)
sprint backlog
The highest-priority items from the product backlog to be completed in a sprint
late finish date
The latest possible time an activity can be completed without delaying the project finish date
late start date
The latest possible time an activity may begin without delaying the project finish date
scrum
The leading agile development methodology for completing projects with a complex, innovative scope of work
effort
The number of workdays or work hours required to complete a task
product owner
The person responsible for the business value of the project and for deciding what work to do and in what order when using a Scrum method
planned value
The portion of the approved total cost estimate planned to be spent on an activity during a given period
murphy's law
The principle that if something can go wrong, it will
parkinson's law
The principle that work expands to fill the time allowed
project scope management
The processes involved in defining and controlling what work is or is not included in a project
project cost management
The processes required to ensure that the project is completed within the approved budget should identify: --level of accuracy of estimates such as rounding guidelines --units of measure, such as labor hours vs. days and basis of currency used --org procedures (esp. related to accounting) --control thresholds --reporting formats, process descriptions for managing costs, etc.
project schedule management
The processes required to ensure timely completion of a project
rate of performance
The ratio of actual work completed to the percentage of work planned to have been completed at any given time during the life of the project or activity
cost performance index (CPI)
The ratio of earned value to actual cost; can be used to estimate the projected cost to complete the project what you want: >1 (100%) -- greater than 1 under budget
schedule performance index (SPI)
The ratio of earned value to planned value; can be used to estimate the projected time to complete a project what you want: >1 (100%) -- greater than 1, ahead of schedule
profit margin
The ratio of profits to revenues
discretionary dependencies
The sequencing of project activities or tasks defined by the project team and used with care because they may limit later scheduling options
mandatory dependencies
The sequencing of project activities or tasks that are inherent in the nature of the work being done on the project
external dependencies
The sequencing of project activities or tasks that involve relationships between project and non-project activities
relationship
The sequencing of project activities or tasks; also called a dependency
dependency
The sequencing of project activities or tasks; also called a relationship
node
The starting and ending point of an activity on an activity-on-arrow diagram
scope creep
The tendency for project scope to keep getting bigger by adding more requirements
life cycle costing
The total cost of ownership, or development plus support costs, for a project
actual cost
The total of direct and indirect costs incurred in accomplishing work on an activity during a given period
feeding buffers
Time added before tasks on the critical chain if they are preceded by other tasks that are not on the critical path
project buffer
Time added before the project's due date
merge
Two or more nodes that precede a single node on a network diagram
pacesetting
Used to set high standards for performance. The leader wants work to be done better and faster and expects everyone to put forth their best effort.
compromise mode
Using a give-and-take approach to resolve conflicts; bargaining and searching for solutions that bring some degree of satisfaction to all the parties in a dispute
forcing mode
Using a win/lose approach to conflict resolution to get one's way
JAD (joint application design)
Using highly organized and intensive workshops to bring together project stakeholders—the sponsor,
reward power
Using incentives to induce people to do things
expert power
Using one's personal knowledge and expertise to get people to change their behavior
coercive power
Using punishment, threats, or other negative approaches to get people to do things they do not want to do
systems approach
a holistic and analytical approach to solving complex problems that includes using a systems philosophy, systems analysis, and systems management.
to complete performance index (TCPI)
a measure of the cost performance that must be achieved with the remaining resources to meet a specific goal, such as the BAC or EAC
gantt chart
a standard format for displaying project schedule information by listing project activities and their corresponding start and finish dates in calendar form
issue log
a tool to document and monitor the resolution of project issues -these are unresolved issues that are or may cause conflict if not handled immediately -ideally, issues should not remain unresolved for long
enagement
actively giving and receiving feedback, communicating project and managing expectations
Brook's Law
adding people to a late project makes it later
political frame
addresses organizational and personal politics
issue
anything that has already impacted a project's success
transformational leadership
by working with others to identify needed changes, these leaders empower others and guide changes through inspiration
project life cycle
collection of project phases: 1. starting the project 2. organizing and preparing 3. carrying out the work 4. finishing the project
interactional leadership
combination of transactional, transformational, and charismatic
expectations management matrix
deliverable that : -identifies key requirements -spreadsheet/table format showing stakeholders' major expectations and how to manage them -big expectations identified and ranked by multiple stakeholders
stakeholder engagement plan
deliverable that defines: -current and desired engagement levels -interrelationships among stakeholders (their networks) -communication requirements -potential strategies for managing the stakeholder -process to update the stakeholder management plan
PERT weighted average
e (Optimistic time 1 4 * most likely time 1 pessimistic time)/6
human resources frame
focuses on producing harmony between the needs of the organization and the needs of people
symbolic frame
focuses on symbols and meaning (not actually what happened but what it means)
program
group of related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities managed in a coordinated manner to obtain benefits and control not available from managing them individually
project organizational structure
hierarchical, but instead of functional managers or vice presidents reporting to the CEO, program managers report to the CEO. Their staffs have a variety of skills needed to complete the projects within their programs. An organization that uses this structure earns its revenue primarily from performing projects
functional organizational structure
hierarchy most people think of when picturing an organizational chart. Functional managers or vice presidents in specialties such as engineering, manufacturing, IT, and human resources report to the chief executive officer (CEO).
time
how long should it take to complete the project
structural frame
how the organization is structured (usually depicted in an organizational chart) and focuses on different groups' roles and responsibilities to meet the goals and policies set by top management.`
quality assurance
improve work processes used on all projects
stakeholder categories
internal / external to the company not to the project support/ resistant interested/ disinterested
critical path
it is the the longest path, but it also represents the shortest time required to complete a project. If one or more activities on the critical path take longer than planned, --tasks that have 0 wiggle room, cannot be delayed without delaying everything
probability impact matrix
likelihood of each risk x its impact (high/med/low) to help prioritize response
transactional leadership
management by exception approach focuses on achieving goals or compliance by offering team members appropriate rewards and punishments
lean
maximizing customer value, minimizing waste
laissez faire leadership
meaning "let go", hands off approach lets teams determine their own goals and how to achieve them
servant leader leadership
people using this approach focus on relationships and community first and leadership is secondary
program manager
provides leadership and direction for the project managers heading the projects wihin a program
quality management
quality assurance + quality control = QM
matrix organizational structure
represents the middle ground between functional and project structures. Personnel often report both to a functional manager and to one or more project managers
profits
revenue minus expenses (total costs)
secondary risk
risk caused by a response strategy, like water damage after putting out a fire
residual risk
risk left after using all of the response strategies; might have to live with it
triple constraint
scope, time, cost
organizational culture
set of shared assumptions, values, and behaviors that characterize the functioning of an organization
quality audit
structured review of specific QM activities to identify lessons learned, to improve future performance
earned value management
system for providing forecasts of project performance based on past performance A project performance measurement technique that integrates scope, time, and cost data
risk register
table or spreadsheet that lists the risks and information about them, including triggers which indicate risk is occuring
project
temporary endeavor undertaking to create a unique product, service, or result -stages or lifecycles -progressive elaboration -makes major changes or responds to external pressure
quality control
test and improve the product itself -accept, rework, or process adjustments directly related to the product
principal agency theory
the agent represents the principal in transactions with third parties, or performs a service on the principal's behalf
project management knowledge areas
the key competencies that project managers must develop
budget at completion
the original total budget for a project
charismatic leadership
these people can inspire others based on their enthusiasm and confidence
risk
uncertain event that may or may not occur during a project -anything that could impact a project's success -proactive
control threshold
variance allowed before action needs to be taken
cost
what should it cost to complete the project, budget?
contingency plans
what to do if a risk happens
scope
what work will be done as part of the project
operations
work done to sustain the business -continuous and ongoing -varies by time of year or industry -day to day functions to stay in business
finish to finish dependency
y A relationship on a project network diagram in which the "from" activity must be
cleanroom software engineering
•A philosophy of developing software that emphasizes high-quality, defect-free products •Cleanroom software engineering is a team-oriented process and methods that makes development more manageable and predictable because it is done under statistical quality control. •Formal, yet practical, approach to develop zero-defect software.
