A&P Ch. 1 The Human Body: An Orientation

Responsiveness (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

ability to sense changes and react

Stable Body Temperature (Survival Needs)

*37 degrees C (98 degrees F)

Water (Survival Needs)

*60 to 80 percent of body weight. *most abundant chemical in the human body. *provides for metabolic reactions

Digestion

Breaking food down into smaller pieces.

Which of the following is visible when viewing the front of a human body in anatomical position?

Patellar Region

Tarsal (anterior body landmarks)

ankle region

Patellar (anterior body landmarks)

anterior knee

Serous Fluid

Serous Membranes are separated by a thin fluid

What cavity is superior to the diaphragm?

Thoracic

Mental (anterior body landmarks)

chin

Sagittal Plane

A vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts

Physical trauma to a body organ is known as blunt trauma. Which organs of the body account for 75% of all blunt trauma?

Abdominal Cavity Organs

Deep (Internal)

Away from the body Surface Ex. The lungs are deep to the skin

Which of the following is an example of a homeostatic imbalance?

Being sick with the flu

Which of these regions is distal to the antebrachial region?

Carpel Region

Umbilical Region

Centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel)

Stimuli

Changes in the body that trigger receptors

Proximal

Close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. (i.e. The elbow is proximal to the wrist (meaning that the elbow is closer to the shoulder or attachment point of the arm than the wrist is.)

Control Center

Determines the level at which a variable is to be maintained and analyzes the input to determine the appropriate output.

Cranial Cavity

Encases the brain

Vertebral or spinal Cavity

Encloses the delicate spinal cord

Which organ system is the slow-acting control system of the body?

Endocrine System

Pleural Cavities

Enveloping a lung

Maintaining Boundaries (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

Every living organism must be able to maintain its boundaries so that its "inside" remains distinct from its "outside". (i.e. the integumentary system)

a. Integumentary System

External Covering of the body. It waterproofs and cushions and protects deeper tissues from injury. It also excretes salts and urea in perspiration and helps regulate body temperature.

Distal

Farther from the origin of a body Ex. The knee is distal to the thigh

Distal

Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk. (i.e. The knee is distal to the thigh)

Ventral Body Cavity

Houses internal organs called the viscera

Movement

Includes all the activities promoted by the muscular system.

Growth

Increasing in size.

Set Point

Level at which a variable is to be maintained.

Hypogastric Region

Located inferior to the umbilical region

Right and left iliac or inguinal

Located lateral to the hypogastric region

Which of these terms to a body area found on the dorsal surface?

Popliteal

Homeostasis

Process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment.

Effector

Provides the means for the control center's response to the stimulus.

Which term best characterizes the concept of homeostasis?

Relatively stable internal environment.

Excretion

Removing wastes from the body.

Positive Feedback Mechanisms

Result or response enhances the original stimulus so that the response is accelerate

Transverse or Horizontal Plane

Runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts

Microscopic Anatomy

Structures cannot be seen with the naked eye (i.e. cells and tissues) These structures can only be seen with a microscope.

Physiology

Study of how the body and its parts work or function.

Thoracic Cavity

Surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest

Which of these body parts is distal to the crural region?

Tarsal Region

Which of these is an example of Maintaining Boundaries?

The cell membrane control the movement of substances into and out of the cell.

Relationship between Anatomy and Physiology

The structure of the body determines what functions 'can' occur. If the structure changes, the function must also change.

Dorsal (posterior)

Toward back of the body Ex. The heart is posterior to the breastbone

Ventral (anterior)

Toward front of the body Ex. The breastbone is anterior to the spine

Plane (body planes and sections)

When the section of the body is made through the body wall or through an organ, it is made through this imaginary line.

Viscera

an organ in a body cavity

Digestion (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

breakdown and absorption of nutrients

Sternal (anterior body landmarks)

breastbone area

Organ level

each organ performs a specific function

Antebrachial (anterior body landmarks)

forearm

Tissue level

groups of similar cells sharing a common function

Fibular (anterior body landmarks)

lateral part of leg

Nasal (anterior body landmarks)

nose area

Popliteal (Posterior Body Landmarks)

posterior knee area

Occipital (Posterior Body Landmarks)

posterior surface of head or base of skull.

Gross Anatomy

study of larger body structures (i.e. heart and bones); these structures are easily observable.

Digital (anterior body landmarks)

toes

Body Cavities

two body cavities *dorsal *ventral -body cavities provide varying degrees of protection to organs within them.

Abdominopelvic Cavity Subdivisions

*Four Quadrants -Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) -Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) -Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) -Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) *Nine Regions **top** -right hypochondriac region -epigastric region -left hypochondriac region **middle** -right lumbar region -umbilical region -left lumbar region **bottom** -right iliac (inguinal) region -hypogastric (pubic) region -left iliac (inguinal) region

Oxygen (Survival Needs)

*Required for chemical reactions

Homeostatic Imbalance (Homeostasis)

*a disturbance in homeostasis results in disease.

Abdominopelvic Cavity (ventral)

*cavity inferior to the diaphragm *superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver, and other organs -protected only by the trunk muscles *inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum -protected somewhat by bony pelvis *no physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic cavities.

Thoracic Cavity (ventral)

*cavity superior to the diaphragm *houses heart, lungs, and other organs *mediastinum, the central region, houses heart, trachea, and other organs.

Nutrients (Survival Needs)

*chemicals for energy and cell building *includes carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals.

Control Center (maintaining homeostasis)

*determines set point *analyzes information *determines appropriate response

Excretion (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

*eliminates waste from metabolic reactions. *wastes may be removed in urine or feces.

Directional Terms

*explains location of one body structure in relation to another

Negative Feedback (feedback mechanisms)

*includes most homeostatic control mechanisms *shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity *works like a household thermostat

Growth (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

*increases cell size and number of cells

Positive Feedback (feedback mechanisms)

*increases the original stimulus to push the variable farther *reaction occurs at a faster rate *in the body positive feedback occurs in blood clotting and during the birth of a baby.

Atmospheric Pressure (Survival Needs)

*must be appropriate for gas exchange

Reproduction (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

*occurs on cellular level or organismal level *produces future generation (offspring)

Other Body Cavities...

*oral and digestive (oral: mouth, containing teeth and tongue)(cavity is part of and continues into the digestive cavity all the way to the anus) *nasal (located within and posterior to the nose; part of respiratory system) *orbital (located in skull house; the eyes and presents them in an anterior position) *middle ear cavities (carved into the skull; lie just medial to the ear drums. these cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears.)

Effector (maintaining homeostasis)

*provides a means for response to the stimulus *information flows from control center to effector along efferent pathway.

Levels of Structural Organization

1) atoms {tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules such as water, sugar, and proteins. Molecules, in turn, associate to form microscopic cells} 2) cells {smallest units of all living things. Simple creatures are make of simple cells while complex organisms such as trees or humans, the structure continues to tissues.} 3) tissues {consists of groups of similar cells that have a common function. Each of the four basic tissue types (epithelial, connective, muscular and neural) plays a definite but different role in the body.} 4) organs {structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs a specific function for the body. At the organ level of organization extremely complex functions become possible} 5) organ systems {group of organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose. (i.e. the heart and blood vessels of the cardiovascular system circulate blood continuously to carry nutrients and oxygen to all body cells)} 6) organisms {all 11 organ systems make up a living being, or an organism, which represents the highest level of structural organization. The organismal level is the sum of structures working together to keep us alive.}

Digestive System

A tube running through the body from mouth to anus. The organs of the digestive system include the oral activity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, and rectum plus a number of accessory organs (liver, salivary glands, pancreas, and others). Their role is to break down food and deliver the products to the blood for dispersal to the body cells. The undisgested food that remains in the tract leaves the body through the anus as feces. The breakdown activties that begin in the mouth are completed in the small intestine. From that point on, the major function of the digestive system is to reclaim water. The liver is considered a digestive organ because the bile it produces helps to break down fats. The pancreas, which delivers digestive enzymes to the small intestine, also is functionally a digestive organ.

Metabolism

All chemical reactions that occur in body cells.

Deep (internal)

Away from the body surface; more internal. (i.e. The lungs are deep to the rib cage)

Inferior (caudal)

Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body: below. (i.e. The navel is inferior to the breastbone)

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body Ex. The arms are lateral to the chest

Lateral

Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of (i.e. The arms are lateral to the chest)

Intermediate

Between a more medial and a more lateral structure. (i.e. The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and the shoulder)

Intermediate

Between a more medial and more lateral structure Ex. The collarbone is intermediate between the breastbone and shoulder

Anatomical Position

Body facing forward, feet are parallel to each other, arms are at he sides with the palms facing forward

Melanin is a protein pigment that protects us from ultraviolet radiation. What level of structural organization is the classification of melanin?

Chemical Level

Lymphatic System

Complements the Cardiovascular system. Its organs include lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid organs such as the spleen and tonsils. The lymphatic vessels return leaked from the blood back to blood vessels so that blood can be kept continuously circulating through the body. The lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs help to cleanse the blood and house cells involved in immunity.

b. Skeletal System

Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints. It supports the body and provides the framework that the skeletal muscles use to cause movement. It also has a protective function. Hematopoiesis or the formation of the blood cells, takes place within the cavities of the skeleton. The hard substance of bones acts as a storehouse for minerals.

Mediastinum

Contains the pericardial cavity with encloses the heart.

Output

Control center's information sent to the effector.

Visceral Serosa

Covering the organs in the cavity.

Abdominopelvic Cavity

Diaphragm important to breathing

Homeostatic Imbalance

Disturbance of Homeostasis

Median Plane or Midsagittal Plane

Divides the body into equal left and right halves

Response

Effector feeds to reduce the effect of the stimulus and returns the variable to homeostatic level.

Maintain its boundaries

Internal environment remains distinct from the external environent

Maintaining Boundaries

Keeping ones "inside" distinct from the "outside".

Right and Left Lumbar Regions

Lie lateral to the umbilical region

Right and left hypochondriac Regions

Lie laterally to the epigastic region and deep into the ribs

Frontal Planes

Lie vertically and divide the body into anterior and posterior parts

Endocrine System

Like Nervous System, controls body activities, but it acts much more slowly. The endocrine glands produce chemical molecules called hormones and release them into the blood to travel to relatively distant target organs. The Endocrine glands include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries, and testes. The endocrine glands are not connected anatomically in the same way that parts of the other organ systems. What they have in common is that they all secrete hormones, which regulate other structures. The body functions controlled by hormones are many and varied, involving every cell in the body. Growth, reproduction and food use by cells are all controlled (at least in part) by hormones.

Epigastric Region

Located superior to the umbilical region

The skin prevents the loss of body fluids from evaporation. Which function necessary for life does this describe?

Maintaining Boundaries

Homeostasis (Homeostasis)

Maintenance of a stable internal environment. *a dynamic state of equilibrium *necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain life.

Receptor

Monitors and Responds to change in the environment.

Anatomical Position

Palms facing anterior (forward), Anterior (front) body view, Thumbs Lateral, Standing erect, Feet slightly apart.

Parietal Serosa

Part of the membrane lining the cavity walls

Cardiovascular System

Primary organs are the heart and blood vessels. Using blood as the transportation fluid, the cardiovascular system carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones, and other substances to and from the tissue cells where exchanges are made. White blood cells and chemicals in the blood help to protect the body from foriegn invaders (i.e bacteria, toxins and tumor cells. The heart acts as the blood pump, propelling blood out of its chambers into the blood vessels to be transported to all body tissues.

Stimulus

Produces a change in variable

Reproduction

Producing Offspring

What is the overall effect of a negative feedback mechanism?

Reduces or stops the initial stimulus.

Which of these describes the effect of a negative feedback mechanism?

Reduces the intensity of the initial stimulus.

Receptor

Sensor the monitors the environment and responds to changes

What organ system is responsible for breaking down food into molecules that can be absorbed by the body?

The Digestive System

Responsiveness

The ability to sense changes in the environment and react to them.

Nervous System

The bodies fast-acting control system. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, nervous, and sensory receptors. The body must be able to respond to irritants or stimuli coming from outside the body (i.e. light, sound, change in temperature) and from inside the body (i.e. decreases in oxygen or stretching of tissue). The sensory receptors detect these changes and send messages (via electrical signals called nerve impulses) to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) so that it is constantly informed about what is going on. The Central Nervous System then assess this information and responds by activating the appropriate body effectors (muscles or glands).

Maintaining Homeostasis

The body communicates through neural and hormonal control systems. *receptor -responds to changes in the environment (stimuli) -sends information to control center along an afferent pathway

Urinary System

The body produces wastes as by-products of its normal functions, and these wastes must be disposed of. One type of waste contains nitrogen (i.e are urea and uric acid), which results when the body cells break down proteins and nucleic acids. The Urinary System removes the nitrogen-containing wastes from the blood and flushes them from the body in urine. The system, often called the excretory system, is composed of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Other important functions of this system include maintaining the body's water and salt (electrolyte) balance and regulating the acid-base balance of the blood.

Atmospheric Pressure

The force that air exerts on the surface of the body

Which of these is an example of physiology?

The liver produces many of the blood proteins.

Negative Feedback Mechanisms

The most common homeostatic control mechanism. The net effect is that the output of the system shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity

Muscular System

The muscles of the body only have one function- to contract, or shorten. When this happens, movement occurs. Hence, muscles can be viewed as the "machines" of the body. The mobility of the body as a whole reflects the activity of skeletal muscle, the large, fleshy muscles attached to bones. When these contract, you are able to stand erect, walk, leap, grasp, throw a ball, or smile. Then skeletal muscles form the muscular system. These muscles are distinct from the muscles of the heart and of other hollow organs, which move which move fluids (i.e. blood and urine) or other substances (i.e. food) along definite pathways within the body.

A microscopic image shows many cube-shaped cells forming a tube or duct. What level of structural organization is this?

Tissue Level

Respiratory System

To keep the body constantly supplied with oxygen and to remove carbon dioxide. The respritory system consists of the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs. Within the lungs are tiny air sacs. Gases are transported to and from the blood through the thin walls of these air sacs.

Inferior (Caudal)

Toward lower part of the body Ex. The navel is inferior to the chin

Medial

Toward midline of the body Ex. The heart is medial to the arm

Dorsal (posterior)

Toward or at the backside of the body; behind. (i.e. The heart is posterior to the breastbone)

Superficial (external)

Toward or at the body surface. (i.e. The skin is superficial to the skeleton)

Ventral (anterior)

Toward or at the front of the body; in front of. (i.e. The breastbone is anterior to the spine)

Medial

Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of (The heart is medial to the arm.

Superficial (External)

Toward the body Surface Ex. The skin is superficial to the skeletal muscles

Superior (cranial or cephalad)

Toward the head end or upper part of a structure of the body; above. (i.e. The forehead is superior to the nose)

Superior (Cranial)

Toward the upper body Ex. The head is superior to the abdomen

Abdominal (anterior body landmarks)

anterior body trunk inferior to ribs.

Oblique Section

are cuts made diagonally between horizontal and vertical planes.

sacral (Posterior Body Landmarks)

area between the hips

Lumbar (Posterior Body Landmarks)

area of back between ribs and hips, the loin

Vertebral (Posterior Body Landmarks)

area of the spinal column

Pelvic (anterior body landmarks)

area overlaying the pelvis anteriorly

Inguinal (anterior body landmarks)

area where thigh meets body trunk; groin

Gluteal (Posterior Body Landmarks)

buttocks

Cellular level

cells functions in the body

Metabolism (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

chemical reactions in the body *break down complex molecules into smaller ones. *Build larger molecules from smaller ones. *Produces energy *Regulated by hormones

Thoracic (anterior body landmarks)

chest

Deltoid (anterior body landmarks)

curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle.

Section (body planes and sections)

cut

Transverse (Body planes and sections)

cut along horizontal plane, dividing the body or organ into superior and inferior parts. Also called cross section.

Sagittal (body planes and sections)

cut along lengthwise or longitudinal plane of the body, dividing the body into the right and left parts.

Frontal (Body planes and sections)

cut lengthwise plane that divides the body (or an organ) into anterior and posterior parts. It is also called coronal section.

Reproductive System

exists primary to produce offspring. The testes of the male produce sperm. Other male reproduction system structures include scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and the duct system, which carries sperm to the outside of the body. The ovaries of the female produce eggs, or ovas; the female duct system consists of the uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina. The uterus provides the site for the development of the fetus (immature infant) once fertilization has occurred.

Orbital (anterior body landmarks)

eye area

Frontal (anterior body landmarks)

forehead

Pubic (anterior body landmarks)

genital region

Dorsal Body Cavity

has two subdivisions 1) cranial cavity *houses the brain *protected by the skull 2) spinal cavity *houses the spinal cord *protected by the vertebrae

Ventral Body Cavity

has two subdivisions separated by the diaphragm 1) thoracic cavity 2) abdominopelvic cavity

Cephalic (Posterior Body Landmarks)

head

calcaneal (Posterior Body Landmarks)

heel of foot

Median/ midsagittal (body planes and sections)

if the cut is down the median plane of the body and the right and left side are equal in size. (*all other sagittal sections are parasagittal sections*) (**para=near**)

Movement (maintaining life: necessary life functions)

includes all activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another (i.e. walking, swimming, ect) locomotion/ movement of substances.

Oral (anterior body landmarks)

mouth

umbilical (anterior body landmarks)

navel

Acromial (anterior body landmarks)

point of shoulder

Olecranal (Posterior Body Landmarks)

posterior surface of the elbow

Scapular (Posterior Body Landmarks)

shoulder blade region

Chemical Level

simplest level

organismal level

sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive

Sural (Posterior Body Landmarks)

the posterior surface of leg; the calf

Plantar Region

the sole of the foot; on the inferior body surface

Anatomy is

the study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts. Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of parts.

Femoral (Posterior Body Landmarks)

thigh

Femoral (anterior body landmarks)

thigh

Organ system

works together to accomplish a common purpose