A&P Ch. 13 Bloooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooood

Tissue plasminogen activator

(t-PA) One of the substances that stimulates the conversion of plasminogen into plasmin—can be administered as a drug. It's often given as an early treatment to dissolve clots causing strokes and heart attacks

Factor X

1st Stage of Formation of a Blood Clot Both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways result in the formation of factor X. (This occurs in a single reaction in the extrinsic pathway, whereas, in the intrinsic pathway, four different reactions are required to activate factor X.) Either way, once factor X is activated, the formation of a blood clot follows a common pathway,

Prothrombin activator

2nd Stage of Formation of a Blood Clot The end result of both the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways is the production of an enzyme called ___________ ____________

Prothrombin

3rd Stage of Formation of a Blood Clot Prothrombin activator acts on a globulin called _______ (factor II)...

Thrombin

4th Stage of Formation of a Blood Clot Converted from prothrombin. ________ transforms the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into fine threads of insoluble fibrin.

Proerythroblast

A ____________ (or rubriblast, or pronormoblast) is the earliest of four stages in development of the normoblast. In histology, it is very difficult to distinguish it from the other "-blast" cells (lymphoblast, myeloblast, monoblast, and megakaryoblast).

Megakaryoblast

A ____________is a precursor cell to a promegakaryocyte, which in turn becomes a megakaryocyte during haematopoiesis. It is the beginning of the thrombocytic series.

Oxyhemoglobin

A bright red substance formed by the combination of hemoglobin with oxygen, present in oxygenated blood. Each heme molecule can combine with one molecule of oxygen; therefore, one hemoglobin molecule can unite with four molecules of oxygen to form ______________. (Hemoglobin also carries CO2, but, instead of binding with heme, CO2 binds with globin.) (For more information about gas transport by hemoglobin.

Leukemia

A cancer of the blood or bone marrow, leukemia is characterized by an extremely high WBC count. The term leukemia encompasses a number of varieties of the disease. To differentiate between types, leukemia is subdivided into several large groups.

Progranulocyte

A cell in bone marrow that is in an intermediate stage of development between a myeloblast and a myelocyte and has the characteristic granulations but lacks the specific staining reactions of a mature granulocyte of the blood—called also premyelocyte, ___________.

Leukocyte

A colorless cell that circulates in the blood and body fluids and is involved in counteracting foreign substances and disease; a white (blood) cell. There are several types, all amoeboid cells with a nucleus, including lymphocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, and macrophages.

Monoblast

A motile cell of the spleen and bone marrow that gives rise to the monocyte of the circulating blood.

Agglutination

A reaction in which particles (as red blood cells or bacteria) suspended in a liquid collect into clumps and which occurs especially as a serological response to a specific antibody.

Erythrocytes

A red blood cell that (in humans) is typically a biconcave disc without a nucleus. __________ contain the pigment hemoglobin, which imparts the red color to blood, and transport oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the tissues.

Stem cell

All blood cells can trace their beginnings to a specific type of bone marrow cell called a ______ ________ (also called a pluripotent _____ ______). Stem cells are unspecialized cells that give rise to immature red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelet-producing cells.

Leukopenia

An abnormally low WBC count (called ___________) may result from certain viral illnesses, including AIDS, as well as lead poisoning.

Leukocytosis

An elevated WBC count (called ______________) usually indicates infection or an allergy.

Plasmin

An enzyme, formed in the blood in some circumstances, that destroys blood clots by attacking fibrin.

Reticulocyte

An immature red blood cell without a nucleus, having a granular or reticulated appearance when suitably stained.

Vascular Spasm

As soon as a blood vessel is injured, smooth muscle fibers in the wall of the vessel spasm. This constricts the blood vessel and slows the flow of blood. (This response is only temporary but gives the other hemostatic mechanisms time to activate.)

Albumin

Asimple form of protein that is soluble in water and coagulable by heat, such as that found in egg white, milk, and (in particular) blood serum.

Universal donor blood

Because type O blood contains neither antigens A or B, it has been referred to as ______ _______ ______, implying that it can be given to any recipient. This isn't true, however, because the donor's plasma contains both anti-A and anti-B antibodies; this means that the type O blood would agglutinate the RBCs of a type A, B, or AB recipient. Usually this doesn't occur because only the RBCs are transfused. Traces of plasma still remain, however, so a reaction is possible, although unlikely. The only way to be certain is to perform a test in which a sample of the donor's blood is mixed (or cross-matched) with a sample of the recipient's blood to ensure that agglutination won't occur.

The Rh Group

Blood is also classified as being Rh positive or Rh negative. Rh-positive blood contains the Rh antigen; Rh-negative blood lacks this specific antigen. About 85% of white Americans and 95% of African Americans have Rh-positive blood. Blood does not normally contain anti-Rh antibodies; however, it's possible for someone with Rh-negative blood to develop anti-Rh antibodies. There are two ways this can occur. The first way is when someone with Rh-negative blood receives a transfusion of Rh-positive blood. The second way is when an Rh-negative mother becomes pregnant with an Rh-positive fetus. All Rh-negative women who become pregnant with an Rh-positive baby should be treated with an Rh immune globulin called RhoGAM. The immune globulin prevents the formation of anti-Rh antibodies by the mother, thus preventing an attack on the fetus's RBCs.

Heme

Bound to each globin is an iron-containing molecule called __________

Fibrinolysis

Fibrin dissolves and breaks up.

Fibrin

Final Stage of Formation of a Blood Clot The sticky ______ threads form a web at the site of the injury. Red blood cells and platelets flowing through the web become ensnared, creating a clot of fibrin, blood cells, and platelets. A blood clot can effectively seal breaks in a smaller vessel; however, blood clotting alone may not stop a hemorrhage from a large blood vessel.

Globins

Hemoglobin consists of four ribbon-like protein chains called ________.

Erythroblastosis fetalis

Hemolytic anemia developed by infants. A severe form of anemia caused in a fetus or newborn infant by incompatibility with the mother's blood type, typically when the mother is Rh negative and produces antibodies that attack Rh positive fetal blood through the placenta.

Lymphoblast

Immature cells which typically differentiate to form mature lymphocytes.[

Platelet plug

In the second step of vascular spasm, _________ _______ formation, platelets stick together to form a temporary seal to cover the break in the vessel wall. The third and last step is called coagulation or blood clotting.

Megakaryocytes

Instead of being individual cells, platelets are actually fragments of larger bone marrow cells called _______________ The edges of the megakaryocyte break off to form cell fragments called platelets. The platelets live only about 7 days.

White blood cells

Less technical term for Leukocyte

Basophils.

One of the three types of granulocytes A basophilic white blood cell. The fewest of the WBCs, __________ comprise only 0.5% to 1% of the WBC count. ___________secrete heparin (an anticoagulant), which prevents clotting in the infected area so WBCs can enter; they also secrete histamine, a substance that causes blood vessels to leak, which attracts WBCs.

Eosinophils

One of the three types of granulocytes A white blood cell containing granules that are readily stained by eosin. __________account for 2% to 5% of circulating WBCs. Eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions; they also kill parasites.

Neutrophils

One of the three types of granulocytes. A neutrophilic white blood cell. Most abundant of the WBCs, ___________ make up 60% to 70% of all the WBCs in circulation. Highly mobile, neutrophils quickly migrate out of blood vessels and into tissue spaces, where they engulf and digest foreign materials. Worn-out neutrophils left at the site of infection form the main component of pus.

Lymphocytes

One of the two types of agranulocytes A form of small leukocyte (white blood cell) with a single round nucleus, occurring especially in the lymphatic system The second most numerous of the WBCs, lymphocytes constitute 25% to 33% of the WBC count. ____________ are responsible for long-term immunity. There are two types: • T lymphocytes, which directly attack an infected or cancerous cell • B lymphocytes, which produce antibodies against specific antigens

Monocytes

One of the two types of agranulocytes A large phagocytic white blood cell with a simple oval nucleus and clear, grayish cytoplasm. __________ comprise 3% to 8% of the WBC count. After circulating in the bloodstream for 10 to 20 hours, _________ migrate into tissues, where they transform into macrophages: aggressive phagocytic cells that ingest bacteria, cellular debris, and cancerous cells. Macrophages can live as long as a few years.

Hemoglobin

Over a third of the interior of a RBC is filled with ___________—a red pigment that gives blood its color. A red protein responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood The oxygen-carrying component of hemoglobin contains iron. Consequently, an adequate supply of dietary iron is crucial for hemoglobin synthesis. Because of the loss of blood through menstruation, women of reproductive age have the highest nutritional requirement for iron. Other nutritional requirements for red blood cell formation include vitamin B12, folic acid, and vitamin C. Iron rich foods: Red meat. Pork. Poultry. Seafood. Beans. Dark green leafy vegetables, such as spinach. Dried fruit, such as raisins and apricots. Iron-fortified cereals, breads and pastas.

Blood type O

People with type ____ blood have neither antigen

Blood type B

People with type _____ blood have the B antigen.

Blood type AB

People with type ______blood have both A and B antigens.

Blood type A

People with type _____blood have the A antigen on their RBCs.

Serum

Plasma without the clotting proteins (which occurs when blood is allowed to clot and the solid portion is removed) is called _______

Myeloblast

The ___________ is a unipotent stem cell, which will differentiate into one of the effectors of the granulocyte series. The stimulation by G-CSF and other cytokines triggers maturation, differentiation, proliferation and cell survival. It is found in the bone marrow.

Reaction cascade

The blood contains numerous proteins called clotting factors. Under normal conditions, these factors are inactive. However, the activation of one factor sets off a chain of reactions, with the product of the first reaction triggering another reaction in the next factor on a set pathway. A series of reactions in which each depends on the product of the preceding reaction is called a ___________ ___________ The process of coagulation involves more than 30 chemical reactions, with one following the other in a precise order. Many of the clotting factors involved in this process are identified by Roman numerals, such as factor VIII, factor X, etc. The numerals indicate the order in which they were discovered, not their order in the _________ ________

Hemopoietic

The body has two types of _____________ tissue: red bone marrow and lymphatic tissue.

Hemopoiesis

The production of blood is called __________

Hemolysis

The rupture or destruction of red blood cells.

Hemostasis

The stopping of a flow of blood.

Hematology

The study of blood is called ________

Coagulation

The third and last step of vascular spasm is called __________, or blood clotting.

Antigen

This scientist discovered that the surface of each red blood cell carries a protein called an _______ (also called agglutinogen). There are two _________(s) : A and B.

Transfusion reaction

Transfusions are successful as long as the recipient's plasma doesn't contain antibodies against the ABO type being transfused. If such antibodies are present, they will attack the donor's RBCs, causing a __________ ___________ The clumping of RBCs blocks blood vessels, cutting off the flow of oxygen. The RBCs also burst (called hemolysis) and release their hemoglobin into the bloodstream. The free hemoglobin could block tubules in the kidneys, leading to renal failure and possibly death.

Universal recipient

Type AB blood is sometimes called the ________ ________ implying that a person with this blood type can receive a transfusion of any type of blood—because it contains neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies. However, the donor's plasma may contain either of those antibodies; if transfused, they would agglutinate the recipient's RBCs. Again, the only way to ensure that won't happen is to cross-match the samples.

Blood type A

Type ___ blood has anti-B antibodies.

Blood type B

Type ____ blood has anti-A antibodies.

Blood type O

Type _____ blood has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies.

Blood type AB

Type ______ blood has no antibodies.

Agranulocytes

WBCs having few or no granules. Nuclues lacks globes.

Prevention of Blood Clots

When a blood vessel has broken, speedy clot formation is essential to stop the bleeding. However, it's just as crucial to prevent clots from forming when they aren't needed. The following factors discourage blood clot formation. ● Smooth endothelium: The inner lining of undamaged blood vessels is very smooth, which helps prevent platelets from sticking. ● Blood flow: The blood normally produces small amounts of thrombin. When blood is circulating normally, the rapidly moving bloodstream dilutes the thrombin before a clot can form. If blood flow decreases—such as when blood pools in the legs during prolonged sitting or lying down—thrombin can accumulate to the point that a clot develops. ● Anticoagulants: Basophils and mast cells normally secrete the anticoagulant heparin, which prevents blood clots by blocking the action of thrombin. Heparin is also given by injection to inhibit clot formation in patients who are susceptible to developing unwanted blood clots.

Intrinsic Pathway

When the clotting factors are activated within the blood—such as by the platelets as they adhere to the collagen in the damaged vessel wall—this sets off a different cascade of events called the __________ _________

Extrinsic Pathway

When the damaged blood vessel and surrounding tissues—areas outside or extrinsic to the blood—release clotting factors, this kicks off a cascade of events called the ___________ __________

Antibodies

While the blood cell carries antigens, the blood plasma carries ___________ (called agglutinins) against the antigens of the other blood types.

Red bone marrow

____ ______ ___________found in the ends of long bones and in flat irregular bones such as the sternum, cranial bones, vertebrae, and pelvis—produces all types of blood cells. Found exclusively in the epiphysis of these bones in adults.

Formed elements

________ ____________—which include cells and cell fragments—make up 45% of blood. Specific blood cells include erythrocytes (red blood cells, or RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs), and platelets.

Lymphatic tissue

_________ ____________found in the spleen, lymph nodes, and thymus gland—supplement blood cell production by producing lymphocytes, a specific type of WBC.

Plasma

__________ is the clear, extracellular matrix of this liquid connective tissue. It accounts for 55% of blood.

Viscosity

__________ refers to how thick or sticky a fluid is.

Platelets

___________ (also called thrombocytes) are the second most abundant of the formed elements, with each microliter of blood containing between 150,000 and 400,000 platelets. Platelets play a key role in stopping bleeding. A small colorless disk-shaped cell fragment without a nucleus

Erythropoiesis

___________ (from Greek 'erythro' meaning "red" and 'poiesis' meaning "to make") is the process which produces red blood cells (erythrocytes). It is stimulated by decreased O2 in circulation, which is detected by the kidneys, which then secrete the hormone erythropoietin.

Anemia

a condition marked by a deficiency of red blood cells or of hemoglobin in the blood, resulting in pallor and weariness.

Granulocytes

a white blood cell with secretory granules in its cytoplasm, e.g., an eosinophil or a basophil.

Polycythemia

an abnormally increased concentration of hemoglobin in the blood, through either reduction of plasma volume or increase in red cell numbers. It may be a primary disease of unknown cause, or a secondary condition linked to respiratory or circulatory disorder or cancer.

Hematocrit

the ratio of the volume of red blood cells to the total volume of blood.