A&P Chapter 17- Endocrine System
Aldosterone
"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure
Transcription
(genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA
Translation
(genetics) the process whereby genetic information coded in messenger RNA directs the formation of a specific protein at a ribosome in the cytoplasm
Toxic goiter
(graves disease)- antibodies mimic TSH, increase TH, exophthalmos (bulgiing of the eyeballs)
Ovary
(vertebrates) one of usually two organs that produce ova and secrete estrogen and progesterone
Lipid metabolism
- greater energy yield than from glucose or protein catabolis
Mineralocorticoids
1 of 3 the major groups of steroid hormones produced by the adrenal cortex; stim: by ACTH and low blood volume; func: reabsorb NA+ & water, including aldosterone.
Pituicytes
AKA glial cells specialized neuroglia
Lipoxygenase
Enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to leukotriene precursors
Pineal gland
Secretes melatonin
Cholecalciferol
Vitamin D3
Paracrines
chemical messengers, exert effect on nearby cells
IGFs
insulin-like growth factors (somatomedins)- liver, other tissues
Renal calculi
kidney stones
Stage of exhaustion
third stage of the GAS during which the body depleates its resources in responding to an ongoing stressor
Thyroglobulin
thyroid hormnone synthesis involves secretion of a glycoprotein called_____ by the follicular cells
TH
thyroid hormone (t3 and t4 collectively)- thyroid
TSH
thyroid stimulating hormone (thyrotropin)- anterior pituitary metabolic effects
TRH
thyrotropin releasing hormone- hypothalamus
T4
thyroxine (tetraiodothyronine)- thyroid
Protein kinases
transfer phosphates from ATP to protein (phosphorylation)
TH Synthesis
1. cells of thyroid follicule begin process by absorbing iodine ions from blood (at same time) 2. follicle cells synthesize throglobin and release by exocytosis from apical surface into lumen 3. an enzyme at cell surface adds iodine to tyrosines, some of which receive one iodine and become monoiodtyrosine and some receive two and become diiodotyrosine. The tyrosines link to each other 4. When follicle cells receive TSH they absorb Tg by pinocytosis a TH gets liberated 5. TH is release into capillaries, in blood it binds to transport proteins that carry it to target cells
Three interactive effects of hormones
1. synergistic 2. permissive 3. antagonistic
The half life of GH
6-20 minutes
Epinephrin
A catecholamine secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to stress preparing the body for "flight or fight" (trade name Adrenalin)
Basophil
A circulating leukocyte that produces histamine.
Diabetes mellitus
A condition in which the body is unable to produce enough insulin, the hormone required for the metabolism of sugar Hyposecretion or inaction of insulin Disruption of carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia, hyperglycemia, glycosuria, ketonuria
Calmodulin
A cyoplasmic Ca2+-binding protein. Calmodulin is particularly important in smooth muscle cells, where binding of Ca2+ allows calmodulin to activate myosin light-chian kinase, the first step in smooth muscle cell contraction.
Prostaglandins
A group of bioactive, hormone-like chemicals derived from fatty acids that have a wide variety of biological effects including roles in inflammation, platelet aggregation, vascular smooth muscle dilation and constriction, cell growth, protection of from acid in the stomach, and many more.
Estrogens
A group of sex hormones found more abundantly in females than males. They are responsible for female sexual maturation and other functions.
Parathyroid Hormone
A hormone of the parathyroid gland that regulates the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in the body
Erythropoietin
A hormone produced and released by the kidney that stimulates the production of red blood cells by the bone marrow.
Leptin
A hormone produced by adipose (fat) cells that acts as a satiety factor in regulating appetite.
Progesterone
A hormone produced by the ovaries which acts with estrogen to bring about the menstral cycle.
Calcitriol
A hormone produced from vitamin D that acts in essentially the same manner as parathyroid hormone.
Cortisol
A hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, which sit on top of the kidneys; it is secreted in response to stress and helps trigger the changes of the fight or flight response, including increased blood glucose, altered immune function, and reduction in nonessential body functions.
Transport protein
A membrane protein, specifically a transport protein, that has a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or atomic ions use as a tunnel.
Hypothalamus
A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
Stress
A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation.
Calcitonin
A polypeptide hormone especially from the thyroid gland that tends to lower the level of calcium in the blood plasma
Glucagon
A protein hormone secreted by pancreatic endocrine cells that raises blood glucose levels; an antagonistic hormone to insulin.
Inhibin
A protein hormone secreted by sustenacular cells of the testes that acts to inhibit the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary.
Cyclic AMP
A second messenger derived from ATP and triggers specific cellular changes in metabolic regulation
Cyclic amp
A second messenger derived from ATP and triggers specific cellular changes in metabolic regulation
Inositol triphosphate
A second messenger derived from membrane phospholipids and triggers the release of CA2+ from the endoplasmic reticulum
Diacylglycerol
A second messenger produced by the cleavage of a certain kind of phospholipid in the plasma membrane.
Infundibulum
A stalk that attaches the pituitary gland to the hypothalamus.
Transport proteins
A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane.
mRNA
A type of RNA, synthesized from DNA, that attaches to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein.
Cholesterol
A type of fat made by the body from saturated fat; a minor part of fat in foods.
Communication by nervous and endocrine system
A) a neuron has a long fiber that delivers its neurotransmitter to the immediate vicinity of its target cells. B) endocrine cells secrete a hormone into the bloodstream. At a point often remote from its origin, the hormone leaves the bloodstream and enters or binds to its target cells
Anterior pituitary
AKA adenohypophysis Gland in the brain that releases many hormones, including growth hormone, luteinizing hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and follicle-stimulating hormone
Corticosteroids
AKA corticoids Steroid hormones secreted from the adrenal cortex. The two major classes are the mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. Aldosterone is the principal mineralocorticoid, and cortisol is the principal glucorcorticoid.
Posterior pituitary
AKA posterior lobe or neurohypohysis This part of the pituitary does not produce hormones, but stores and releases oxytocin and ADH.
Pituitary gland
AKA: hypophysis-The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands. -suspended by infundibulum -housed in sella turica of sphenoid bone -adenophypophysis=anterior pituitary -neuroohyphysis=posterior pituitary
Zona glomerosa
Adrenal cortex outer zone
Adrenal medulla
An endocrine organ that secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine in concert with the activation of the sympathetic nervous system; for example, in response to stress
Thymus
An immune organ located near the heart. The thymus is the site of T cell maturation and is larger in children and adolescents.
Cholecystokinin
An intestinal hormone that stimulates the gallbladder to release bile
Pancreas
An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.
Gonadotropins
Anterior pituitary topic hormones FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing homeon) that stimulates the gonads (testes and ovaries) to produce gametes and to secrete sex steroids.
ADH
Antidiuretic hormone (arginine vasopressin)- posterior pituitary increases water retention by kidneys; vasoconstrictor at high concentrations
Transcriptional activator
As substrate for an enzyme increases, the amount of enzyme present can be increased to facilitate catalysis. This would be best achieved by
Hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis
Axons extend to posterior pituitary, release ADH, and oxytocin
Prostacyclins
Biologically active substances produced by blood vessel walls that inhibit platelet aggregation and there fore blood clotting, dilate blood vessels and reduce blood pressure.
Monamine
Blocks the action of monoamine oxidase in the brain which then allows the accumulation of monoamines which can alter mood norepinephrine
Chromaffin Cells
Cells are modified postganglionic sympathetic neurons that become secretory Typically stain brown
Keratinocytes
Cells made of Keratin, comprise of 95% of the Epidermis; move up thru the layers
Acinar
Cells that make up exocrine galnds, adn that secrete their products into ducts. For example, in the pancreas, acinar cells secrete digestive enzyme; in the salivary glands, acinar cells secrete saliva.
Membrane proteins
Channels, Recogniton, Support, Receptors, Cell attachment
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.
Hormones
Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another
Leukotrienes
Chemical substances that contribute to anaphylaxis; released by the immune system in allergic reactions.
Pancreatic islets
Control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolism
Dehydroepiandrosterone
DHEA precursor of testosterone; indirectly promotes growth of bones, , pubic and axillary hair, apocrine glands, and fetal male reproductive tract; stimulates libido; targets- bone, muscle, integument, brain, many other tissues; source- adrenal cortex
Sustentacular cells
Developing sperm cells are protected by a blood-testis barrier formed by
Theca
Develops a rich supply of blood vessels and collaborates with follicle cells to secrete sex hormones, especially estrogen
Gastrin
Digestive hormone that stimulates sustained secretion of gastric juice from the stomach
Endocrine glands
Ductless or tubeless organs or groups of cells that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream
Signal amplification
Enzyme cascades amp the cell's response to a signal. At each step in the cascade, the number of activated products is much greater than the prev step
EPO
Erythropoietin- kidney, liver
FSH
Follicle stimulating hormone-anterior pituitary, stimulates egg or sperm production
Protein synthesis
Forming proteins based on information in DNA and carried out by RNA
Sympathetic ganglion
Ganglion receives preganglionic sympathetic fibers from T1 to L1-2 and innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, head, thoracic viscera, and blood vessels of the body wall and limbs.
Communication within the body
Gap junctions paracrine hormones neurotransmitters hormones
Carbohydrate metabolism
Glycogenesis -- (glycogen synthesis) is the building of glycogen using two main enzymes
Fenestrated capillaries
Have pores that allow small molecules and some proteins to diffuse. They are found in the endocrine system, intestines, and pancreas
Type II diabetes
High blood sugar levels due to lack of insulin production in the pancreas. A noninsulin dependent disease known as adult onset diabetes.
Type I diabetes
High blood sugar levels due to lack of insulin prodution in he pancreas. An insulin dependent disease. Can delay lactogenesis II
Somatostatin
Hormone inhibits glucagon release and pancreatic exocrine secretions synonym for growth hormone
Thymopoietin
Hormone secreted by the thymus, thought to stimulate the production of T-cells.
Steroid
Hydrocortisone, prednisone, dexmethasone; indicated for hormone replacement, severe rheumatoid arthritis, and autoimmune disorders; adverse reactions: emotional liability, impaired wound healing, skin fragility, abnormal fat disposition, hyperglycemia, hirsutism, moon face, osteoporosis; wean slowly; monitor serum potassium, glucose and sodium; weigh daily and report >5lb/week; administer with antiulcer drugs; prevent injurys; monitor BP and HR
Adrenogenital syndrome
Hypersecretion of androgens from the adrenal gland which leads to development of male sex characteristics
Cushing's disease
Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids causing upper body obesity, moon face, poor skin integrity, osteoporosis, hyperglycemia, hypernatremia,hypokalemia, hirsutism, amenorrhea, elevated triglycerides, hypertension, and immunosuppression
Insulin-like growth factor I
IGF-I Released by Liver, circulate in blood and directly stimulates bone and cartilage growth
Eicosanoids
Important in regulating many physiologic functions such as inflammation, pain perception, blood flow and smooth muscle contraction
Up-regulation
In circumstances where the body requires prolonged or increased levels of a hormone, the DNA of target cells will specify the synthesis of more receptors on the surface of the cells of the target organ.
Phosphodiesterase
Inhibit cyclic adenosine monophosphate phosphodiesterase, leading to increased levels of adenosine monophosphate within the cells.
Testis
Interstitial cells make testosterone/sperm when stimulated by FSH and LH from the pituitary gland.
Electrolyte balance
Involves keeping osmolarity stable by adjusting the fluid in the extracellular compartment
Neuroendocrine reflexes
Is initiated by the stimulation of sensory neurons, that cause of release of neurohormone from the neurosecretory cells, it id controlled by a simple neural reflex. (sensory impulses, hormonal signal, physiological response) the secretion of prolactin is controlled by this reflex. suckling stimulates the sensory fibers in the breast and they send nerve impulses to the hypothalamus.
LH
Luteinizing hormone- anterior pituitary stimulates secretion of estrogen and progesterone or testosterone
Testosterone
Male hormone
Zona fasciculata
Middle layer; secretes cortisol in response to ACTH (glucocorticoids).
Synergism
More than one hormone produces the same effects on a target cell
Cyclooxygenase
NSAIDs help relieve inflammation by blocking the effect of ____ on arachadonic acid
NE
Norepinephrine- adrenal medulla
Permissive effects
One hormone enhances the target organ's response to a second later hormon
Peptide YY
PYY regulates digesta flow and enhances absorption
Zona reticularis
Part of the adrenal cortex are androgens made
Glucocorticoids
Produced by adrenal cortex; is 1 of 3 corticosteriods (corticoids); increase blood sugar levels during times of stress.
Mechanisms of GH-IGF Action
Protein synthesis lipid metabolism Carbohydrate mechanism Electrolyte balance
G-proteins
Proteins that are activated by exchanging bound GDP for bound GTP (and thus also known as GTP-binding proteins).
Endrocrine system
Regulates body activities through hormones
SAIDs
SAIDS: steroids; inhibit inflammation; block paracrine messengers; Cushing syndrome side effect
Stage of resistance
Second stage of the GAS, during which the body adapts to and uses resources to cope with a stressor
Hypophyseal portal system
Several hormones are synthesized in the hypothalamus and transported to the anterior pituitary gland. The mechanism of transportation from hypothalamus to anterior pituitary gland.
Second messengers
Small, non-protein water soluble molecules or ions that send messages throughout the cells by diffusion.
Eicosanoid synthesis
Stimulus activates the enzyme phospholipase A2; Arachidonic acid splits off from membrane phospholipids; Those metabolized by either cyclooxygenase or lipoxygenase; leads to formation of leukotrienes and prostaglandins
Hormone interaction
Synergistic Permissive Antagonistic
Stress response
The body's initial reaction to stress.
General adaptation
The body's response to an increased demand. The first stage is initial adaptive response aka fight or flight mechanism. If it is prolonged maladaptive responses can occur
General Adaptation Syndrome
The body's response to an increased demand. The first stage is initial adaptive response aka fight or flight mechanism. If it is prolonged maladaptive responses can occur: alarm reaction; stage of resistance, stage of exhaustion
Protein sparing effect
The consumption of sufficient kilocalories in the form of carbohydrate and fat, which protect protein from being used as energy before other protein related functions are met
Estradiol
The granulosa cells of developing follicles secrete this
Negative feedback inhibition
The pituitary stimulates another endocrine gland to secrete its hormone, and that hormone feeds back to the pituitary or hypothalamus and inhibits further secretion of the pituitary hormone. Ex.) the Thyroid hormone inhibits TRH and TSH secretion
Unmyelinated nerve fiber
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland consists of
Thymulin
Thymus hormone responsible for T-cell differentiation and enhancement of T and NK cell actions
T3
Triiodothyronine- thyroid
Follicular cells
What cells of the thyroid gland secrete T3 and T4
Synergistic effects
When the effects of two factors working together have more impact than either would working alone
Arachidonic acid
______ is the precursor for prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and thromboxanes.
Acidophil
`bacteria that survive in a pH below 6.0 and make foods such as sour cream and yogurt
Pheochromocytoma
a benign tumor of the adrenal medulla that causes the gland to produce excess epinephrine
Osteocalcin
a calcium-binding protein in bones, essential for normal mineralization
Angiotensinogen
a circulating protein produced by the liver from which angiotensin I is cleaved by the action of renin
Pituitary dwarfism
a condition of congenital hyposecretion of growth hormone that slows growth and causes short, yet proportionate, stature (not affecting intelligence); often treated during childhood with growth hormone; other forms of dwarfism are most often caused by genetic defects
Hepcidin
a hormone produced by the liver that regulates iron balance.
Isthmus
a narrow bridge of tissue in the thymus connecting two winged lobes
Norepinenphrin
a neurotransmitter whose abnormal activity is linked to depression and panic disorder
Adrenal gland
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress.
Hypersecretion
abnormally increased secretion
Antagonistic
acting in opposition to another
Corticosteron
adrenal gland (cortex) - glucocorticoids - targets most cells; accelerate glucose synthesis and glycogen formation, show anti-inflammitory effects, inhibit release of histamines
ACTH
adrenocorticotropic hormone (corticotropin)-anterior pituitary stress response; stimulates secretion of corticosteroids by adrenal cortex
Myxedema
advanced hypothyroidism in adulthood
Peptide hormones
amino acid polymers, chain of amino acids, they are water solubluable
Hashimoto's thyroiditis
an autoimmune disease in which the body's own antibodies attack and destroy the cells of the thyroid gland
Graves' disease
an autoimmune disorder that is caused by hyperthyroidism and is characterized by goiter and/or exophthalmos
Glucose sparing effect
as circulating fatty acid levels rise, many tissues stop breaking down glucose and start breaking down fatty acids to generate atp
ANP
atrial natriuretic peptide- Heart
Bound hormone
attached to carrier
Alkalosis
buildup of excess base in the body fluids
Chromophobe
cells of the adenohypophysis may have undergone degranulation
Interstitial cells
cells which in the female are located between the ovarian follicles and in the male are located between the seminiferous tubules of the testes
C cells
clear cells or parafollicular cells Cell type of the thyroid gland; also called parafollicular cells; situated between or within the walls of follicles; responsible for the production of calcitonin.
Tetany
constant muscle contraction
Paraventricular nuclei
controls rate at which posterior pituitary releases vasopressin, lie in the walls of the third ventricle
CRH
corticotropin-releasing hormone- hypothalamus
Transport maximum
creates a limit for reabsorption, maximum amount of substance that can be absorbed at a given time, limited by the # of transport proteins present
Hyposecretion
deficient hormone production by an endocrine gland
Hypokalemia
deficient potassium in the blood
DHEA
dehydroepiandrosterone- adrenal cortex
Nervous system Internal communication
electrical impulses and neurotransmitters, local, specific effects, reacts, stops, and adapts quickly
Thyroid gland
endocrine gland located below the voice box; it produces hormones which control metabolism
Acromegaly
enlargement of the extremities
Endemic goiter
enlargement of the thyroid gland occurring in certain regions and peoples where there is a lack of iodine in the diet
Thromboxanes
facilitate the clumping of platelet and constrict blood vessels, Antagonists in hemostasis
Parathyroid
for glands embedded in the thyroid; secretes parathormone; controls announces level of calcium and phosphate (which influence levels of excitability)
Calcidiol
form of vitamin D is measured in the blood
Gluconeogenesis
formation of glucose from noncarbohydrate sources
Unbound hormone
free unattached very small fraction, able to exit blood, bind to receptor
The body's four principle avenues of communication from cell to cell
gap junction, neurotransmitters, paracrines, hormones
GnRH
gonadotropin-releasing hormone-hypothalamus
What are both endocrine and exocrine
gonads; exocrine are eggs and sperm; endocrine Ovaries:Estradiol Progesterone Inhibin Testes: Testosterone Inhibin
GH
growth hormone (somatotropin)- anterior pituitary acts on body tissues; stimulates liver to produce IGF (somatomedins) - affects protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, electrolyte balance
HGRH
growth hormone-releasing hormone- hypothalamus
Organs that have endocrine functions
heart: Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) decreases BP skin: Vitamin D (calcidiol precursor) made by keratinocytes liver: Erythropoietin (EPO) stimulates RBC production Angiotensinogen (angiotensin I precursor) Calcidiol (calcitriol precursor) Insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) mediates action of GH Hepcidin increases intestinal absorption of iron Kidneys: EPO (about 85% of that made) Angiotensin I (converted to angiotensin II in lungs; increases BP), Calcitriol promotes calcium absorption by small intestine Stomach and small intestine: Enteric hormones coordinate digestive gland secretion Placenta:Estriol and estradiol, Progesterone Adipose tissue: Leptin slows appetite Osseous tissue:Osteocalcin secreted by osteoblasts increases number of pancreatic beta cells, pancreatic output of insulin, and insulin sensitivity of body tissues; inhibits weight gain and onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus
Second messenger pathway
hormone binds to receptor-->g protein does two things; 1. opens cell membrane calcium channels, 2. releases calcium from endoplasmic reticulum-->increase in intracellular calcium-->calcium binds to calmodulin-->physiological action results
Ghrelin
hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain
Inhibiting hormones
hormone secreted by the hypothalamus that can suppress secretion of hormones by the anterior pituitary
Renin
hormone secreted by the kidney; it raises blood pressure by influencing vasoconstriction (narrowing of blood vessels)
Catecholamine
hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that affect the sympathetic nervous system in stress response
Enteric hormones
hormones secreted by the stomach and small intestines coordinate digestive motility and glandular secretion.
Insulin like growth factors
hormones that stimulate general body growth and regulate various aspects of metabolism
Releasing hormones
hormones that stimulate other glands to release their hormones
Corticosterone
hormones which works by activation of genes, stimulate fat and protein catabolism, gluconeogenesis; anti-inflammatory
Endocrine system internal communication
hormones, more general, widespread effects, slower, to react, stop, or adapt (release into bloodstream)
Natriuretic peptides
increase GFR, increase urine volume and lower blood pressure
Angiotensin
increases blood pressure by stimulating kidneys to reabsorb more water and by releasing aldosterone
Angiotensin II
increases blood pressure by stimulating kidneys to reabsorb more water and by releasing aldosterone
Diabetes insipidus
insufficient production or utilization of the antidiuretic hormone Decreased secretion of ADH Major polyuria and dehydration NOT increased glucose in blood or urine
Androgens
male sex hormones
Tyrosine
melanin is made up of what Amino Acid
Katoacidosis
metabolic acidosis due to increase in ketones as fat and protein are broken down
Thyroid follicles
microscopic spherical sacs that make up most of the thyroid gland
Supraoptic nuclei
named for location above optic chiasm where ADH comes from
NSAIDs
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
Addison's disease
occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough of the hormones cortisol or aldosterone
Antagonistic effects
one hormone opposes the action of another
Target organs
organs that respond to a particular hormone
OT
oxytocin- posterior pituitary labor, let-down, semen propulsion Positive feedback so can't stop labor
PTH
parathyroid hormone (parathormone)- Parahthyroids
Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract
portal between hypothalamus and pituitary
Chromaffin cells
preganglionic sympathetic fiber
Protein Structure
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
Prostycyclin
produced by walls of BV, where it inhibits blood clotting and vasoconstriction
PIH
prolactin inhibiting hormone (dopamine)- hypothalamus
PRL
prolactin- anterior pituitary stimulates milk synthesis or testicular sensitivity to LH
Mechanisms of GH-IGF action
protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, electrolyte balance
Gap junction
provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent animal cells
Involution
reduction in size of an organ or part (as in the return of the uterus to normal size after childbirth)
Osmoreceptors
respond to osmolarity of blood: water homeostasis
Calorgenic effect
responsible for strong,immediate, short lived increase in rate of cellular metabolism
Exocrine glands
secrete chemical substances into ducts that lead either to other organs or out of the body
Alpha cells
secrete glucagon, Stimulates gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis
Beta cells
secrete insulin, Stimulates cellular absorption of glucose and amino acids Promotes glycogen synthesis
Delta cells
secrete somatostatin, Inhibits glucagon and insulin secretion
Thymosin
stimulates the maturation of lymphocytes into T cells of the immune system
Alarm reaction
stressor triggers increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system
Endocrinology
study of the endocrine glands
Monoamines
synthesized from amino acids by removal of the -COOH group. They retain the -NH2 (amino group), hence their name. Some monoamine neurotransmitters are epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, histamine, ATP, and serotonin. The first three of these are subclass catecholamines
Down-regulation
target cells lose receptors in response to high hormone levels
Protein Synthesis
the formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA
Primary capillaries, portal venules, secondary capillaries
the hypo portal system consists of a network of _ _ in the hypothalamus, a group of small veins called _ _ that travel down the stalk and a compile of _ _ in the anterior pituitary
Granulosa cells
the majority of the cells surrouding an oocyte in a follicle. Granulosa cells secrete estrogen during the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle (before ovulation).
Adrenal cortex
the ourter part of the adrenal gland that secretes many hormones, including cortisone and aldosterone