A&P II Exam 1
______ are T cells that: -modulate activities of other immune cells -secrete chemicals that amplify the activity of other immune cells
CD4 cells
things secreted by ______: -B-cell growth factor -T-cell growth factor (IL-2) -macrophage-migration inhibition factor
CD4 cells
Class II MHC cells are recognized by _____
CD4 helper cells co-receptor
______ is an important population of Th cells that express a transcription factor known as foxo p3
CD4/CD25
____ cells are cytotoxic or killer Tcells
CD8
______ are T cells that destroy host cells harboring anything foreign (virus, cancer)
CD8 cells
Class 1 MHC cells are only recognized by ____ T cells through their ____
CD8; co-receptor
Active Factor XI with _______ activates _____
Ca²⁺ and Factor IV; Factor IX
Thromboplastin (Factor III) for damaged tissues with _____ activates _____
Ca²⁺ and Factor VII; Factor X
Active Factor IX with _____ activates____
Ca²⁺, Factor VIII, PF3; Factor X
_____ MHC self-antigens are found on the surface of all cells
Class 1
HIF-α increases the expression of the gene for ___, a glycoprotein and cytokine that will induce erythropoiesis
EPO
Active Factor X with ____ activates ______
Factor V, Ca²⁺, and PF3; prothrombin to thrombin
Hageman Factor activates ____
Factor XI
Thrombin activates _____ which stabilizes the loose fibrin meshwork of a clot
Factor XIII
____ antibodies are the least plentiful immunoglobulin
IgE
___: -immunoglobulin -*most abundant* Ig in blood -produced in large amounts following *antigen re-exposure*
IgG
antibodies, especially ____, act as opsonins
IgG
___: -immunoglobulin -serves as the receptor for antigen attachment -*secreted in early stages of plasma cell response* -*B cells normally coated with this*
IgM
____ is the most UV sensitive cell of the skin
Langerhans
____ a cell type of the epidermis that functions in specific immunity by presenting antigens to Th cells
Langerhans cells
____ are the APCs of the skin
Langerhans; Granstein
____ *establishes an osmotic gradient* in the renal medulla that is *important in the kidney's ability to produce urine of varying concentrations*
Loop of Henle (of long-looped nephrons)
Ig __ and Ig __ are the main subclasses that produce immune responses
M; G
____ resemble large, doughnut-shaped protein complexes created by the complement system
MACs
one of the main self antigens recognized that can lead to autoimmune diseases is _____
MHC molecules
_____ is a collection of interleukins, specificially aisle 4, 5, and 6
B-cell growth factor;
immediate allergic reactions involve ___ cells and are elicited by ____
B; antibody interactions with an allergen
cancer cells thwart detection by...
-creating blocking antibodies -using a B cell guard -inducing apoptosis in bound Tc cells -promoting Tregs to the area to control Tc cells
the biconcave disc shape of a RBC increases O₂ diffusion into and throughout the RBC because...
-large surface area -thinness of the cell
differences in filtration at regular capillary beds and the glomerular capillary bed
-more permeable -filtration occurs along the entire length
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils once released into the blood will remain for approx. _____ or less before entering tissues
1 day
the nephron consists of _____ cell layers thick
1 endothelial
steps to RBC from Hematopoietic stem cell 1) H stem cell to myeloid stem cell using _____ 2) M stem cell to erythroid progenitor using ____ 3) erythroid progenitor to erythrocyte (RBC) using ______
1) GM-CSF, IL₃ 2) IL₃, GM-CSF, EPO 3) EPO
although 90x more is filtered, only ____ liters of urine are produced and released per day
1-2
the net filtration pressure in the glomerular capillary bed is approximately ____ mmHg, ____ filtration
10 mmHg; favors
macrophages can phagocytize _____ bacteria
100's
lymphocytes live from _____
100-300 days
total blood flow through the kidneys averages ____ mL per minute
1140
RBC survive about ____
120 days
normal GFR is ______ ml/min
120-125
Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure is approximately ___ mmHg
15
combined the kidneys filter ______ liters (__ gallons) of plasma per day
180-190 (50)
B cell plasma membrane receptors have _____ antigen receptor sites
2 identical
RBC must be replaced at a rate of ____ per second
2-3 million
total plasma in body ____ liters
2.75
there are approximately ___ erythrocyte antigen systems in humans excluding ABO and Rh
23
1 RBC contain ____ molecules of Hb and therefore can carry ___ molecules of O₂
250 million, 1 billion
an antibody is comprised of ____ long, heavy chains, ___ short, light chains, held together by _____
2; 2; disulfide bonds
Fluid filtered from the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule passes through _____
3 layers of glomerulus membrane
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils once entering the tissues will remain for _____ unless it dies sooner in the line of duty
3-4 days
hematocrit associated with anemia is ___%
30
the opposing oncotic pressure of the glomerulus is normally ___ mmHg
30
NF-κB can upregulate approximately ____ genes during an inflammatory response
380
blood consists of __ types of specialized elements suspended in ___
3; plasma
there are __ heme groups in 1 hemoglobin
4
normal hematocrit is ___%
45
Average volume of blood in women is ___L
5
NF-κB is a member of ___ different proteins
5
1 mL of blood contains ____ RBCs
5 billion
clinically: 1 mm³ of blood contains ______ RBCs
5 million
neutrophils can phagocytize ____ bacteria before dying from accumulation of toxic by-products from foreign particle degradation or inadvertent release of lysosomal chemicals into the cytosol
5-25
plasma cells live for ___
5-7 days
Average volume of blood in men is ___ L
5.5
the average glomerular capillary BP is ____ mmHg
55
hematocrit associated with polycythemia is ___%
70
Blood represents about ____% of total body weight
8
Type ___ blood will produce anti-B antibodies ONLY
A
myogenic mechanism basically
AAP↑, afferent arteriole constricts, lowering amount of fluid allowed into glomerulus AAP↓, afferent arteriole expands, blood rushes into glomerulus... either way glomerular capillary BP remains the same, so GFR remains constant
Type ___ blood will produce NEITHER anti-A or anti-B antibodies
AB
Type ___ is the universal recipient because ____
AB; lacking anti-A or anti-B antibodies in their plasma, antigen A or antigen B will not set off an immune response
during formation of a platelet plug, platelets release ____ which causes surface of nearby circulating platelets to become ____ and adhere to the first layer of aggregated platelets
ADP; sticky
____ collects the glomerular filtrate, part of the tubular component that surrounds the glomerulus
Bowman's capsule
Rh⁻ individuals can receive ___ blood
Rh⁻
Rh factor is of significant importance when a ____ mother has a ___ fetus
Rh⁻; Rh⁺
during the first exposure to an allergen that will elicit immediate hypersensitivity, ____ cells secrete ____ prodding __ cells to synthesize ___ this is known as the _____
Th; IL-4; B; IgE; sensitization period
activation of Factor ____ by _____ begins the extrinsic pathway
X, Thromboplastin
activation of Factor _____ by exposed collagen begins the intrinsic pathway
XII
antibodies resemble a ___ shape
Y
T cell plasma membrane receptors have _____ antigen receptor sites
a single
To turn off a T cell, the T cell must interact with _____
a single signal from a self antigen
activation of NF-κB results in the upregulation of _______ and _____ by vascular endothelial cells within the tissue
adhesion molecules; chemokines
extrinsic control of GFR is mediated by sympathetic nervous system input to ____
afferent arterioles
once the renal artery enters the kidney, it subdivides to form ____
afferent arterioles
____ is antibody mediated hindrance of antigens seen in mixing of incompatible blood types
agglutination
____ is the clumping of RBC
agglutination
antibody interaction with an RBC-bound antigen may result in ____ or ____
agglutination or hemolysis
antibodies can physically hinder antigens by ____ and _____ (multiple antibody molecules *cross-link* numerous antigen molecules into chains)
agglutination; precipitation
___ is the most abundant plasma protein
albumin
____ is the smallest of the plasma proteins
albumin
_____ are plasma proteins synthesized by the liver
albumin, α/β globulins, fibrinogens
____ contribute the most to colloid osmotic pressure
albumins
function of ____ -establish colloid osmotic pressure -nonspecifically bind poorly soluble substance in plasma
albumins
in allergic responses, the offending agent is known as a _____
allergen
categories of ______: -immediate hypersensitivity -delayed hypersensitivity
allergic responses
by mounting inappropriate immune responses the immune system can lead to ____
allergies and autoimmune diseases
____ is the acquisition of an inappropriate specific immune reactivity (HYPERSENSITIVITY) to a normally HARMLESS environmental substance
allergy
inside of the alveoli are an abundance of phagocytic specialists called _____
alveolar macrophages
____ is characterized by low hematocrit
anemia
______ refers to below normal O₂ carrying capacity of the blood
anemia
types of ______ -nutritional -pernicious -aplastic -renal -hemorrhagic -hemolytic
anemia
____ means new blood growth
angiogenesis
___ are the most powerful activators of the complement system
antibodies
_____ binds with specific antigens against which it is produced and leads to the antigen's destruction
antibodies
most important opsonins are ____
antibodies
the classical complement pathway is activated by ___
antibodies
ways that _______: -activate complement system -enhancing phagocytosis (acts as opsonins) -stimulating NK cells
antibodies augment innate immunity
immunoglobulins are also known as ___
antibodies or γ globulins
during initial contact with microbial antigen, _________ is delayed and _____ are formed
antibody response; plasma cells
_______ immunity involves production of *antibodies by B lymphocyte* derivatives or *plasma cells*
antibody-mediated or humoral
The complement system is activated by antibodies by ______
antigen binds with antibody, receptors on tail of antibody bind with and activate C1, activates complement cascade
APC means
antigen presenting cell
examples of ____: -macrophages -B cells -dendritic cells
antigen presenting cells (APCs)
Fab means ____
antigen-binding fragments
Identical _____ are found at the tip of each arm of an antibody
antigen-binding fragments (Fab)
_____ is the capacity of a chemical structure (either an antigen or Hapten) to bind specifically with a group of certain products that have adaptive immunity
antigenicity
____ stimulate B cells to convert into plasma cells that produce antibodies
antigens
NF-κB is also crucial for the production of ______ and for the _____
antimicrobial effector molecules; survival of WBC
____ anemia is the failure of the bone marrow to produce enough RBC
aplastic
the layers of the kidney is formed by the _____
arrangement of nephrons
____ blood appears reddish
arterial
the GFR marker inulin can be found in ____
artichokes
most important function of antibodies is to _____
augment the innate immune system already initiated
____ is where the immune system turns against one of the body's own tissues
autoimmune disease
example of causes of ______: -exposure of normally inaccessible self-antigens (i.e. Hashimoto's) -normal self-antigens that have been modified by drugs, environmental chemicals, viruses, genetic mutations -exposure to a foreign antigen structurally similar to self-antigen -related to pregnancy
autoimmune diseases
_____ of GFR includes: -myogenic mechanism -tubuloglomerular feedback
autoregulation
______ mechanism of controlling GFR is aimed at *preventing spontaneous changes in GFR*
autoregulation
GFR is controlled via _____
autoregulation and extrinsic sympathetic control
kidneys are located in the _____
back of the abdominal cavity
___ non-nucleated, single-celled microorganisms that primarily cause tissue damage and cause disease by releasing enzymes or toxins
bacteria
immune complex disease can occur in ________ infections
bacterial, viral, or parasitic
______ -part of the glomerular membrane -acellular gelatinous layer (5-7x thicker than any other) -composed of collagen and glycoproteins
basement membrane
____ are the least numerous and most poorly understood leukocyte
basophils
_____: -synthesize and store histamine -produce heparin
basophils
granules of ____ have an affinity for a basic blue dye
basophils
tail portions of IgE bind to _____ during an allergic response which induces degranulation and the release of ____
basophils and mast cells; histamine
some B cells ______
become dormant memory cells
____ tumor does not infiltrate the surrounding tissues
benign
what enhances the diffusion of O₂ across the RBC membrane?
biconcave disc leads to large surface area
what enables O₂ to diffuse rapidly between the exterior and innermost regions of the RBC?
biconcave disc shape creates a thin cell
Mechanism of Killing by Killer T cells 1) Killer cell _____ 2) _____-containing granules fuse with membrane and are released into the _______ 3) exposure to ____ cause conformational change in perforin 4) Remodeled perforin ___________ into target membrane where they group together to form _____ 5) pores admit ______ to cause target cell to burst
binds target; perforin; intercellular space; Ca²⁺; pores; salt and water
structure that temporarily stores urine (hollow, distensible, smooth muscle-walled sac)
bladder
_____ is the transformation of blood from liquid into a solid gel
blood coagulation
about 1/3 of platelets are stored in _____
blood filled spaces in the spleen
_____ of the dermis: -nourish the skin -play role in temperature regulation
blood vessels
lymphocytes recycle continually (monitoring) between ______
blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues
causes of aplastic anemia include ____
bone cancer, radiation treatment, exposure to toxic chemicals such as benzene
Erythropoiesis occurs in ____
bone marrow
hematopoiesis occurs in ____
bone marrow
99% of oxygen in the blood is _____
bound to hemoglobin
most genetic mutations do not lead to cancer because cancer is the ______
build up of multiple mutations inside of a cell with given attributes and not all lead to loss of control of the cell cycle
NF-κB can affect all of the hallmarks of ______
cancer
in the ____ pathway, the inhibitor protein is a separate protein (i.e. IκB)
canonical
2 arms of NF-κB are known as _____
canonical and non-canonical
the alternate complement pathway is activated by ____
carbohydrate chain on microbe surface
RBC contain ______ which allows the conversion of CO₂ to HCO₃⁻
carbonic anhydrase
baroreceptors are located around the ____
carotid artery
primary role of hemoglobin is to ____
carry O₂
Hb plays a role in blood pH buffering system by ____
carrying H⁺ portion of ionized carbonic acid
____ are a family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins secreted by cells. Their name is derived from their ability to induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells; they are chemotactic cytokines.
chemokines
inhibitor of cilia and alveolar macrophages in lungs
cigarette smoke
B and T cells spend the majority of their time ____
circulating between blood and lymphoid organs, concentrated in lymphoid organs
____: (mechanism of tolerance) the idea that a T cell must receive two specific simultaneous signals to be turned "on"
clonal anergy
____: (mechanism of tolerance) triggering of apoptosis of immature cells that will react with the body's own proteins, occurs in the thymus
clonal deletion
_____ is the idea that an individual contains >100 million preformed B cells; and once the BCR comes in contact with an antigen it recognizes, this antigen 'selects' this B cell stimulating 'cloning' of it
clonal selection theory
_____ reinforces platelet plug and converts blood in the vicinity of vessel injury into a nonflowing gel
clot formation
_____ is a series of steps involving 12 plasma clotting factors that lead to final conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin
clotting cascade (clot formation)
fibrinogen is important in the final steps of the ____
clotting process
______ helps maintain plasma volume
colloid osmotic pressure created by plasma proteins
______ created by _____is the primary force preventing excessive loss of plasma from the capillaries
colloid osmotic pressure; plasma proteins
_____ is -a cytokine - part of a family of acidic glycoproteins -important in the monocyte/macrophage lineage
colony-stim factors (CSF)
leukocytes are ____ because ___
colorless; lack Hb
mast cells are most plentiful in regions that ____
come in contact with the external environment
To activate a T cell, one signal comes from _____ and one from ______, afterwards the T cell can interact with any cell bearing the _____ even without the cosignal
compatible antigen; cosignal molecule, B7, on APC membrane; antigen
____ is a series of zymogens that when activated will cause a cascade to destruct foreign cells by attacking their plasma membrane (usually bacteria)
complement system
MACs and proteins in complement cascade do not attack host cells and tissues because ____
confined to surface of microbe because they are unstable and quickly degrade
Tail regions (____ region) are ____ within each subclass
constant; identical
myogenic mechanism includes ____ in response to stretch and ____ in response to relaxation
constricts; dilates
one possible outcome of immune complex disease
continuous activation of complement system, leading to attack of host cells
the predominant type (80%) of nephron is the _____
cortical
peak of antibody response is reached in a _____ by primary response
couple of weeks
GFR can be determined by markers such as ____
creatinine and inulin
____ are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5-20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling. They are released by cells and affect the behavior of other cells, and sometimes the releasing cell itself.
cytokines
common ______ include: -colony-stim factors (CSF) -erythropoietin (EPO) -several interleukins (IL)
cytokines
neutrophils and macrophages secrete ____ to help isolate, destroy, or inactivate invaders by secreting
cytokines
stromal cells secrete a lot of ____
cytokines
NF-κB in the nucleus binds promoter regions of genes of many cellular processes but especially for increased expression of ____
cytokines and chemokines
NK cells are very similar to _____
cytotoxic T cells
_____ kill cancer cells by secreting perforin and toxic chemicals
cytotoxic T cells and NK cells
Upon _____ , perforin inserts itself into the target cell's ______, forming a _____.
degranulation; plasma membrane; pore
relative polycythemia is associated with a high hematocrit but is typically due to ____
dehydration, resulting low levels of plasma
typically contact allergies are ____ hypersensitivity
delayed
____: allergic response does not generally show until a day or so following exposure
delayed hypersensitivity
Class II MHC cells are found on _____
dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells (APC cells)
___ supply the dermis and epidermis and play a major role in *temperature regulation*
dermal blood vessels
___ is the inner, vascular, connective tissue layer of the skin
dermis
____ is the passage of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.
diapedesis
defenses of the _____ system against pathogens: -antimicrobial salivary enzyme -destructive gastric secretions -Gut-associated lymphoid tissue -harmless resident colonic secretions (normal flora)
digestive
functions of ____ in plasma -membrane excitability -osmotic distribution of fluid between ECF and ICF -buffer pH changes
electrolytes
____ are freely floating clots in the blood
emboli
_______: -deregulating cellular energetics -avoiding immune destruction
emerging hallmarks of cancer
_____: -genome instability and mutation -tumor-promoting inflammation
enabling characteristics of cancer
______ are secreted by macrophages and *induce development of fever and augment phagocytosis*
endogenous pyrogen (EP)
plasma cells have an over abundance of the organelle, _____
endoplasmic reticulum
Steps of helper T cell activation: -dendritic cell engulfs a bacterium creating a ____ -the bacterium is broken down by _____ to produce _______ - new _____ molecules bind with the foreign antigen peptides - MHC proteins embeds itself into the membrane with the antigen facing the ECF, the dendritic cells is now an _____ and may activate T cells -once a T cell binds with the Antigen-MHC complex the dendritic cell releases _____ to fully activate the T cell
endosome; lysosomes; antigen peptides; MHC; APC; IL-1
organelles and cytosolic enzymes in platelets are used to produce ____
energy and secretory proteins
once it reaches its tissue destination, monocytes _____
enlarge and differentiate into macrophages
red dye for granules is named ____
eosin
_____ is an *off-switch* to the allergic response by *releasing enzymes that inactive histamine and SRS-A*
eosinophil chemotactic factor
_____: -associated with allergies -mount immune response against parasitic infections
eosinophils
granules of ____ have an affinity for red dye
eosinophils
___ is the outer, keratinized layer of the skin
epidermis
cells of the ____: -melanocytes -keratinocytes -Langerhans -Granstein
epidermis
anemia can be caused by an excessive loss of _____
erythrocytes
____ is the process by which bone marrow generates new RBC
erythropoiesis
anemia can be caused by a decreased rate of ____
erythropoiesis
___ can be used to produce RBC in patients: -with kidney failure -undergoing chemotherapy -with anemia
erythropoietin (EPO)
____ is -a cytokine -glycoprotein -drives the erythropoiesis
erythropoietin (EPO)
during formation of a platelet plug, platelets aggregate on contact with ______ in damaged wall of the vessel
exposed collagen
____ pathway of the clotting cascade requires only four steps
extrinsic
the intrinsic pathway of the clotting cascade is set off when _______ is activated by ______
factor XII (Hageman); contact with exposed collagen
B cells can inhibit cancer cell death by _____
failing to activate the complement system after forming antibodies against it, and the antigen-antibody complex prevents Tc cells from recognizing it.
T/F ABO and Rh are the only erythrocyte antigen systems in humans
false
T/F Bowman's hydrostatic pressure can be regulated and therefore be used to control GFR
false
T/F HIF-α degradation is strictly regulated by oxygen levels
false
T/F Hemoglobin binds preferentially to O₂ over CO
false
T/F Hemoglobin can only combine/carry O₂
false
T/F IgE antibodies freely circulate in the blood during an allergic response
false
T/F NF-κB is a single protein
false
T/F NK cells are part of acquired immunity
false
T/F ONLY T cells (not B cells) have surface receptors for binding with one particular type of possible antigens
false
T/F Plasmin is a fast-acting enzyme
false
T/F RBC can propagate through cell division
false
T/F RBC produce no ATP
false
T/F T lymphocytes secrete antibodies
false
T/F a person with a severe allergy for peanuts could die from the first exposure to it
false
T/F agglutination is one of the main ways antibodies function
false
T/F albumins are more specific in binding insoluble substances than globulins
false
T/F all blood that enters the glomerulus is filtered
false
T/F all bones of adults contain red bone marrow
false
T/F all nephrons are the same
false
T/F all plasma proteins are synthesized by the liver
false
T/F an original antibody specific to an antigen is made once the body encounters the antigen
false
T/F antibodies can directly destroy cells they bind to
false
T/F each antibody has a different gene
false
T/F each collecting duct serves only one nephron
false
T/F erythrocytes vary in structure, function, and number
false
T/F juxtamedullary nephrons have extensive peritubular capillaries that entwine around the loop of Henle
false
T/F leukocytes contain hemoglobin
false
T/F more RBC correlates with higher O₂-carrying capacity
false
T/F most antigens are T-independent antigens
false
T/F most genetic mutations lead to cancer
false
T/F oncotic pressure in the glomerulus can be regulated and therefore be used to control GFR
false
T/F oxygen is very soluble in plasma
false
T/F platelets have nuclei
false
T/F platelets will typically adhere to smooth endothelial surfaces at random
false
T/F red bone marrow only produces erythrocytes
false
T/F the complement system kills microbes by phagocytizing them
false
T/F the nephron lies strictly in the striated region of the kidney
false
T/F there are symptoms of an allergic response during the sensitization period
false
T/F there exists naturally occurring antibodies in individuals against Rh factors found on RBC
false
T/F tubular processes are indiscriminate processes
false
T/F yellow bone marrow is capable of erythropoiesis
false
___ is the plasma protein that is a key factor in blood clotting
fibrinogen
____ is the inactive precursor of the fibrin meshwork of a clot
fibrinogen
ultimate consequence of intrinsic clotting pathway is the activation of ____ into ____
fibrinogen→ fibrin
Inulin is a perfect marker for GFR because it is only ______
filtered, not protein bound, and not reabsorbed
the podocytes of the inner layer of the Bowman's capsule provide ________ or a pathway for fluid leaving the glomerular capillaries to enter the lumen of Bowman's capsule
filtration slits
antigen-antibody complexes normally form in response to _______ and are removed by _____
foreign invasion; phagocytic cells
smooth muscle cells in the wall of the AA in the juxtaglomerular apparatus are specialized to ____
form granules (granular cells)
the peritubular capillaries surrounding a juxtamedullary nephron _____
form hairpin vessels that run in close association with the loop of Henle
old RBC are removed from circulation in the spleen because the old RBC are _____
fragile and less flexible so they rupture as they travel through the narrow, winding capillary networks of the spleen
when antibodies enter blood they are known as ______
gamma globulins or immunoglobulins (Ig)
imbalances in the clotting-anticlotting systems can be due to a _____
genetic mutation
defenses of the ____ system against pathogens: -destructive acidic and particle-entrapping mucus secretions
genitourinary
____ portion of hemoglobin is a protein composed of 4 highly folded polypeptide chains
globin
hemoglobin consists of 2 parts:
globin and heme
plasma proteins that play a role in the immune system
globulins
the _____ capillary wall is more permeable to water and solutes than any other capillary wall in the body (100x) due to the large number of pores
glomerular
____ is the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the blood within the glomerular capillaries
glomerular capillary blood pressure
______ is the major force that causes glomerular filtration
glomerular capilllary blood pressure
GFR means ______
glomerular filtration rate
_____ depends on: -net filtration pressure (~10 mmHg) -glomerular SA available for penetration -glomerular membrane permeability
glomerular filtration rate
______ consists of: -glomerular capillary wall -basement membrane -inner layer of Bowman's capsule
glomerular membrane
_____ is pathophysiological event when immune complexes get clogged in the capillary beds of the kidneys, impeding kidney filtration of the blood
glomerulonephritis
_______: -resisting cell death -sustaining proliferative signaling -evading growth suppressors -activating invasion and metastasis -enabling replicative immortality -inducing angiogenesis
hallmarks of cancer
most important anatomical feature that allows RBC to carry O₂
has hemoglobin
______ generate -erythrocytes, -granulocytes, -monocytes, -mast cells, -lymphocytes, and -megakaryocytes
hematopoietic stem cells
the NF-κB in _______ and occasionally _____ initiate the inflammatory response
hematopoietic; epithelial cells
____ anemia is losing RBC caused by bursting of the RBC
hemolytic
____ is excessive bleeding caused by deficiency of one of the factors in the clotting cascade
hemophilia
____ increase permeability of the capillaries to the WBC so that the WBC can fight the infection in the tissue
histamine
swelling that accompanies inflammation is due to ____
histamine-induced vascular changes
aspirin inhibits the release of _____ and ___
histamine; prostaglandins
____ is secreted by mast cells and *induces local vasodilation and increases capillary permeability*
histamines
_____ is the pressure of fluid at rest
hydrostatic pressure
HIF-α will enter the nucleus to bind with HIF-β under ____ conditions
hypoxia
_____ pathway drives new blood growth into solid tumors
hypoxia inducible factor
the _____ pathway is used for the production of EPO and is often turned on in solid tumor
hypoxia inducible factor
_____: allergic response appears within *20 min* after exposure of a sensitized person
immediate hypersensitivity
chemical mediators of ______: -histamine -slow-reactive substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A) -eosinophil chemotactic factor
immediate hypersensitivity
____ occurs when *overzealous antigen-antibody response* causes damage to normal and invading foreign cells -- too many complexes, phagocytes can't clear away
immune complex disease
general ways to get a _______: -immunodeficiency diseases -inappropriate immune attack
immune disease
_____: (mechanism of tolerance) tissues that escape attack even when transplanted into an unrelated individual (i.e. testes and the eye) contain a specific molecules that triggers apoptosis in approaching lymphocytes
immune privilege
_____ is the process by which T cells recognize and destroy newly arisen, potentially cancerous tumor cells
immune surveillance
___ is made up of leukocytes, their derivatives, and variety of plasma proteins
immune system
_____ recognizes and destroys (neutralizes) materials within the body that are foreign to "normal self" includes outsiders or abnormal cells
immune system
functions of ______ -defends against invading pathogens -ID and destroy cancer cells that arise in the body -functions as a "cleanup crew" that removes worn-out cells and tissue debris
immune system
____ is the body's ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign materials or abnormal cells
immunity
examples of ______: -severe combined _ -AIDS (too little immune response)
immunodeficiency disease
antigenicity AKA ____
immunogenicity
_____: (mechanism of tolerance) AKA antigen sequestering. self-molecules are hidden from immune system because they typically remain inside a cell
immunological ignorance
calculating GFR is difficult due to the ____
inability to determine K_f
examples of _______: -autoimmune disease -immune complex disease -allergies (too much or mistargeted immune response)
inappropriate immune attacks
pathologically, if the plasma protein concentration of the blood decreased (i.e. burn patients), then the GFR would _____
increase
quick adjustment of BP, BP drops it is detected by baroreceptor reflexes, ____ sympathetic activity, ____ cardiac output and total peripheral resistance, ____ arterial blood pressure
increase; increase; increase
long term adjustment of consistent low BP, it is detected by baroreceptor reflexes, ____ sympathetic activity, ____ AA, _____ GFR, _____ urine volume, ____ conservation of fluid and salt, ____ arterial blood pressure
increases; constricts; decreases; decreases; increases; increases
_____ immunity -*nonspecific* -work *immediately* -*nonselectively* defend -1st line of defense -*rapid* but limited responses -activity of Neutrophils, macrophages, several plasma proteins
innate
Defenses of ____: -inflammation -interferon -natural killer cells (NK) -complement system
innate immunity
_____: -transiently *inhibits multiplication of viruses* in most cells -*triggers the production of virus-blocking enzymes* by potential host cells -*released nonspecifically from any cell infected by a virus* -provides *general, rapid defense* until slower, more specific defense begins -enhances macrophage phagocytic activity, stimulate production of antibodies, boosts the power of NK cells -exerts anticancer effect
interferon
____ is secreted by macrophages and *major pro-inflammatory cytokine that enhances proliferation and differentiation of B and T lymphocytes*
interleukin 1 (IL-1)
B cells with antigen binds with Th cell leading to secretion of _____ by ____, leading to ____
interleukins; Th cells; differentiation of B cell into plasma cells and subsequent cloning
APC cells secrete ____ to fully activate CD4 cells meaning that they secrete _____ which leads to _____
interleukins; cytokines; cloning of the Th cell
_____ secreted by the _____; are necessary to bind and absorb B₁₂ in the small intestine
intrinsic factors; stomach
if albumin does enter the tubule, then ____
it is broken down into amino acids
the release of B-cell growth factor by CD4 T cells is important because ______
it leads to antibody production in T-dependent B cells
____ is the specialized combination of tubular and vascular cells where the tubule passes through the angle formed by AA and EA as they join the glomerulus
juxtaglomerular apparatus
_____ monitors and controls: -arterial pressure -sodium content -balance between AA and EA -responsible for renin mechanism
juxtaglomerular apparatus
_____ is secreted by neutrophils and *converts specific plasma proteins precursors produced by liver into activated kinins*
kallikrein
the ____ layer of the epidermis is *airtight, fairly waterproof, and impervious to most substances*
keratinized
_____ produce keratin that forms outer protective layer of the skin; cell type of the epidermis
keratinocytes
functions of _____: -discourage bacteria and other harmful environmental agents from entering the body -prevents loss of water and other valuable body substances -secrete interleukin-1
keratinocytes
functions of ____: -maintaining water balance in the body -maintaining proper osmolarity, concentration of ECF ions, and proper plasma volume -helping maintain proper acid-base balance -excreting bodily metabolic waste products and foreign substances -producing EPO and renin -converting Vit D into its active form
kidneys
the urine forming organs are the ____
kidneys
___ is any of various structurally related polypeptides, such as bradykinin and kallikrein. They *act locally to induce vasodilation and contraction of smooth muscle*
kinin
_____ is secreted by neutrophils and *is a protein that binds with iron, thereby making iron unavailable for use by invading bacteria*
lactoferrin
the high glomerular capillary BP is due to the _____
larger diameter of the afferent arteriole than the efferent arteriole leads to blood damming
_____ are secreted by macrophages and *decreases the plasma concentration of iron by altering iron metabolism within the liver, spleen, and other tissues; also stimulates synthesis and release of neutrophils by the bone marrow*
leukocyte endogenous mediator (LEM)
___: -white blood cells -immune system's mobile defense
leukocytes
____ is the immune system's mobile defense
leukocytes
LPS means _____
lipopolysaccharide
during an inflammatory response, accumulation of leaked plasma proteins into the tissue raises the _______
local interstitial fluid - colloid osmotic pressure
release of histamine by mast cells leads to ______ and _____
local vasodilation; increased capillary permeability (capillary pores widen)
increase in local interstitial fluid-colloid osmotic pressure and the elevated capillary blood pressure due to increased blood flow during an inflammatory response leads to ____
localized edema
extrinsic sympathetic control of GFR is aimed at ______
long term regulation of ABP
if GFR is too low, the salt content will be ____ in the tubule and the macula densa will release ______ causing the AA to ____
low; NO; dilate
women have a ____ GFR than men
lower (85%)
erythrocytes are larger than which leukocyte?
lymphocyte
_____ are the smallest of the leukocytes
lymphocytes
_____ provide immune defenses against targets for which they are specifically programmed
lymphocytes
_____ usually have large spherical nuclei that occupy most of the cell
lymphocytes
_____are cells used in immune responses including production of antibodies
lymphocytes
GALT allows ____
lymphocytes to be close to the GI tract for any pathogens that breach the GI lining
______ tissues include: -bone marrow -lymph nodes -spleen -thymus -tonsils -adenoids -appendix -Peyer's patches (GALT)
lymphoid
hematopoietic stem cells differentiate along 2 pathways becoming either _____ or ____ stem cell
lymphoid or myeloid
complement cells kill microbial cells by ____
lysis from osmotic pressure
Platelets are removed from circulation by ____ in the ____
macrophages; spleen and liver
_____ detects changes in the salt level of the fluid flowing past them in the tubule
macula densa
specialized tubular cells in the juxtaglomerular apparatus are known as _____
macula densa
under normal oxygen conditions, HIF-α is _____
made and destroyed
the high resistance of the efferent arteriole helps ______ and results in _____
maintain pressure throughout the glomerulus; fluid being pushed into the Bowman's capsule
self-antigens as known as ______
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules
MHC means
major histocompatibility complex molecules
hemolytic anemia is often seen in ____
malaria and SCA
______ tumor: - invansive and cancerous -cells tends to metastasize -may spread throughout the body and cannot be removed surgically
malignant
complement system ultimate goal is to form ________ that _____
membrane attack complexes (MAC); punch holes in victim cell membranes
____: -small percentage of B lymphocytes -remain dormant -upon re-exposure to same antigen, more ready for immediate action than original lymphocytes -*mediates a quicker, more potent, and longer-lasting secondary response*
memory cells
formation of ____ allows system to react more swiftly against specific invaders in the future
memory cells
glomerular surface area available for penetration is regulated by _____
mesengial cells
lipopolysaccharide is a ______ product
microbial
kidneys must receive large amount of cardiac output to ____
monitor and control ECF
____ are cells in transit to become tissue macrophages
monocytes
____ have oval or kidney-shaped nuclei
monocytes
mononuclear agranulocytes include:
monocytes and lymphocytes
____ AKA single nucleus; cells lacking granules
mononuclear agranulocytes
macrophages reside for _____ in its resident tissue
months to years
___ refers to the motion of the mucus in the lungs due to the cilia
mucus escalator
cytotoxic T cells differ from NK cells because they ____
must recognize cell before they can lyse it
platelets have high concentrations of _____ and ____
myosin; actin
___ are lymphocyte-like, nonspecifically target cancer cells and virally infected cells
natural killer cells (NK)
bradykinin activates _____
nearby pain receptors
oncotic pressure of Bowman's capsule is _____ because _____
negligible; under normal substances there are no plasma proteins in the tubule
____: -smallest functional unit ~1 million/kidney -two components (vascular, tubular)
nephron
tissue repair in non-regenerative tissue such as _______ replaces lost cells with ____
nerve and muscle; scar tissue
of all the leukocytes, _______ are the professional phagocytes
neutrophils and monocytes
capillary pores widen due to the release of histamine, cytokines cause _______ and chemotaxins cause them to _______ and come to the infection site and begin engulfing pathogens
neutrophils and monocytes to stick to the blood vessel wall; squeeze through the pores into the tissue
adhesion molecules are necessary for _____
neutrophils to attach to capillary walls and move through pores
___ is a good vasodilator carried by Hb from the lungs to tiny vessels in the tissues
nitric oxide
in the _____ pathway, the inhibitor protein is part of NF-κB and will be cleaved to allow translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus
non-canonical
NK cells differ from cytotoxic T cells because they can _____
non-discriminately lyse virus-infected cells
NSAIDS means _____
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
examples of ____ dissolved in plasma -glucose -amino acids -lipids -vitamins
nutrients
____ is the osmotic pressure exerted by plasma proteins
oncotic pressure
Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure ____ filtration
opposes
____ means to prepare for eating
opsonins
bacteria will be marked by _____ to enhance recognition by phagocytes
opsonins
examples of _____ -PAMPs (pathogen associated molecular products) -DAMPs (sterile injury -- damage associated...)
opsonins
MHC molecules are often the reason for _______
organ rejection
glomeruli of cortical nephrons lie in the ____
outer layer of the cortex
if fumarate and succinate concentrations increase in the cell then ______ which leads to activation of the _____ pathway
oxygen levels are low and therefore cellular respiration is slowing; hypoxia inducible factor
HIF-α degradation is regulated namely by ______ but recently there is proof that the protein ____ also plays a role
oxygen levels, TAp73
which versions of NF-κB will be cleaved to active proteins?
p105/p50 and p100/p52
______ binds with hydroxylated prolines of HIF-α signaling a proteasome for HIF-α degradation
pVHL-E3-ubiquitin ligase
IgG bind to _____ increasing recognition of microbes and enhancing activity
phagocytic (neutrophils, macrophages)
macrophages help in the defense against cancer by ____ cancer cells and ____ of NK and Tc cells
phagocytosing and clearing away remains of dead victim cells
the activation of NF-κB signaling pathways ultimately leads to the _________
phosphorylation and activation of IκB Kinase (IKK) complex
_______: -glomerular capillary BP -plasma-colloid osmotic pressure -Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure
physical forces that drive glomerular filtration
the kidneys act on _____ flowing through it to produce urine
plasma
a _____ *produces antibodies* that combine with the specific type of antigen that stimulated activation of the cell
plasma cell
activated B-cell clones multiply and differentiate into _____
plasma cells or memory cells
examples of ______: -cytokine receptors -toll-like receptors
plasma membrane receptors
_____ receptors such as (____) on ____ cells initiate the activation of NF-κB signaling pathways through a _____
plasma membrane; TNF-1; hematopoietic; kinase cascade
____ compose 6 - 8% of plasma's total weight
plasma proteins
____ establish a colloid osmotic gradient between the blood and the interstitial fluid due to their presence in plasma but not in the interstitial fluid
plasma proteins
increased capillary permeability is important in the inflammation response because it allows ____
plasma proteins usually trapped in the blood to enter inflamed tissue
_____ is caused by the unequal distribution of plasma proteins across the glomerular membrane
plasma-colloid osmotic pressure
______ is what actually dissolves a clot
plasmin
____ is activated to plasmin by the Hageman factor
plasminogen
PF3 means ____
platelet factor 3
___: -thrombocytes -cell fragments -important in hemostasis
platelets
____ aka thrombocytes
platelets
_____ are cell fragments shed from megakaryocytes
platelets
PF3 is secreted by ____ and is necessary to ___
platelets; drive the clotting cascade forward (fully activate clotting factors)
_____ means is a stem cell that is capable of giving rise to many different cell types
pluripotent
______ determine how permeable the glomerulus can be at any given time
podocytes of the inner layer of the Bowman's capsule
more powerful allergic responses occur over repeated exposure to allergens due to ____
presence of memory cells formed during the sensitization period
____ are parental or precursor cells to the final cell lineages (similar to stem cells but will differentiate down a specific line)
progenitor cells
_____ will covalently link hydroxyl groups onto the proline groups of HIF-α which will signal pVHL-E3-ubiquitin ligase
prolyl-hydroxylases
4 signs of an inflammatory response
redness, swelling, heat, pain
______ mechanisms expel irritant materials from trachea and nose as a form of defense against pathogens
reflex cough and sneeze
CD4/CD25 are also known as ______
regulatory T cells
the main function of _____ is to regulate the other effector T cells
regulatory T cells
____ anemia stems from lack of production of EPO
renal
_______ failure leads to a lack of production of EPO
renal
each kidney is supplied blood by a _____ and the blood leaves via a _____
renal artery; renal vein
the outer, granular region of the kidney is known as the _______
renal cortex
blood enters the kidney through the ______ and is filtered through the _____
renal cortex; nephron
the inner, striated region of the kidney is known as the ____
renal medulla
once formed urine drains into the ______
renal pelvis
____is a hormone that is important for maintaining proper sodium levels in the body
renin
granular cells of smooth muscle of AA store ___
renin
albumin does not filter into the tubule of the kidney because it is ____
repelled by negatively charged glycoproteins in the basement layer
when bacteria enter the body through a break in the skin, ______ engulf the pathogens and secrete _____
resident macrophages; cytokines and chemotaxins
____ system has the largest surface that interacts with the outside environment
respiratory
example of exposure to a foreign antigen structurally similar to self-antigen
rheumatic fever; caused by M protein in cell wall of Strep throat bacteria that resembles protein in myosin in the heart leads to heart valve lesions
the ____ kidney is lower than the other one
right
tissue repair can be perfect if cell division replaces lost cells with ____
same kind of cells
______ in the dermis produce sebum
sebaceous glands
the ________ of platelets is important in hemostasis
secretory and contractile abilities
during the _____, exposure to the antigen causes Th cells to secrete IL-4 prodding B cells to synthesize IgE as a response
sensitization period
_____ in the dermis provide information about the external environment
sensory nerve endings
____ is a rare hereditary condition where both B and T cells are lacking "bubble boy"
severe combined immunodeficiency
RBC ______ is due to: -no nucleus, organelles -no oxidative phosphorylation -no capabilities for cell repair
short life span
glomerular capillary wall is _____layers of ____ cells
single; endothelial
most obvious external defense to microorganisms is the ___
skin
the ___ consists of 2 layers: -epidermis -dermis
skin
the loop of Henle is the cortical nephron extends ____
slightly into the medulla
most abundant electrolyte in plasma are ___
sodium and chloride
some anti-inflammatory drugs, such as Enbrel, target ________
specific cytokine receptors in the NF-κB pathway
Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) -target cell coated with antibodies -NK cells recognize ____ of the antibody which links the NK to the target cell, - NK releases _____ to lyse target cell membrane
tail portion; perforin
antibodies as opsonins: ____ portion of antigen-bound IgG binds with a receptor on a _____ and promotes _____
tail; phagocyte; phagocytosis
____ is a clot that is formed in one vessel that enters the blood stream and plugs another vessel
thromboembolism
factors that cause _______ -roughened vessel surfaces associated with atherosclerosis -imbalances in clotting-anticlotting systems -slow-moving blood -occasionally triggered by release of tissue thromboplastin into blood from large amounts of traumatized tissue
thromboembolism
in the extrinsic pathway _____ released from traumatized tissue directly activates ____
thromboplastin; factor X
______ is a hormone produced by liver that increases number of megakaryocytes and therefore the platelet production
thrombopoietin
Route of filtered substances traveling from glomerulus to Bowman's capsule
through pores of glomerular capillary way, acellular basement membrane, filtration slits of inner layer of basement membrane
the loop of Henle in the juxtamedullary nephron extends ____
through the entire depth of the medulla
T cells acquire receptors in the _____
thymus
T cells mature in the ____
thymus
the extrinsic pathway requires contact with _____
tissue factors external to the blood
____ refers to preventing the immune system from attacking "self"
tolerance
mechanisms involved in _____: -clonal deletion -clonal anergy -receptor editing -inhibition by Treg -immunological ignorance -immune privilege
tolerance
most RNA viruses are recognized by ________
toll-like receptor 3 (TLR-3) or RIG-I-Like receptors/helicases (RLRs or RLHs)
______ provide immunological protection against inhaled pathogens
tonsils and adenoids
HIF-α is a ______ that will increase the expression of VEGP, GLUT-1, EPO
transcription factor
NF-κB regulates inflammatory process by regulating ______ is tissue epithelial and stromal cells, vascular endothelial cells, and hematopoietic cells
transcriptional programs
____ is characterized by -agglutinated clumps of donor RBC plugging small vessels -accumulation of Hb in the kidneys causing acute renal failure
transfusion reaction
the reddish color of a clot is due to ____
trapped RBC in the fibrin meshwork
T/F EPO can be created recombinantly in a lab
true
T/F HIF-α is routinely found in a normal cell
true
T/F Hemoglobin is found exclusively in RBC
true
T/F NF-κB is present in all cells in the body
true
T/F NF-κB plays a role in T and B cell activation and can be essential for T/B cell viability
true
T/F RBC contain no nucleus, organelles, or ribosomes
true
T/F T cells like B cells are clonal and antigen specific
true
T/F after peak, antibody concentration decreases
true
T/F all bones of children contain red bone marrow
true
T/F all glomeruli of both types of nephrons lie in the cortex
true
T/F clotting factors are always present in the blood in inactive precursor forms
true
T/F filtered substances travel a completely extracellular (not through cells) traveling from glomerulus to Bowman's capsule
true
T/F glomerular capillary BP depends on contraction of heart and resistance to blood flow from afferent to efferent arterioles
true
T/F glomerular capillary bed has a higher BP than other capillary beds in the body
true
T/F glomerular capillary blood pressure can be regulated and therefore be used to control GFR
true
T/F inflammation is a nonspecific response to tissue injury
true
T/F inflammatory response is similar no matter what the triggering event is
true
T/F proteins in complement cascade can augment inflammatory process by: -chemotaxins -opsonins -promote vasodilation and increase vascular permeability -stimulate release of histamine -activate kinins
true
T/F the 80% of the blood that is not filtered and leaves the glomerulus can still be acted upon by secretions in the kidney
true
T/F there are multiple classes of interferon that do different things
true
T/F there exists naturally occurring antibodies in individuals against A and B antigens found on RBC
true
T/F types of nephrons are distinguished by the location of their glomerulus and length of their structure
true
T/F women are more susceptible to autoimmune diseases than men
true
TGF means
tubuloglomerular feedback
_______ mechanism of autoregulation senses changes in the salt level in the fluid flowing through the nephron's tubular component
tubuloglomerular feedback
_____: clone of cell identical to original mutated cell
tumor
TNF means ____
tumor necrosis factor
salsalate is a promising drug in _____ for _____
type II diabetes, anti-inflammation
_____: -erythrocytes -leukocytes -platelets
types of suspended specialized elements in the blood
____ is a well studied targeting molecule hooked to proteins destined for degradation
ubiquitin
Fab regions are ____ for each different antibody
unique
structure that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder -- one from each kidney (smooth muscle-walled duct)
ureter
structure that urine flows through as it exits the body from the bladder women: short men: long
urethra
____ is produced through the combination of glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion
urine
_____ the hairpin vessels formed by peritubular capsules in a juxtamedullary nephron
vasa recta
myogenic mechanism is a common property of ______
vascular smooth muscle
_____ or the immediate constriction of a cut or torn blood vessel reduces blood flow through a damaged vessel 1st step of hemostasis
vascular spasm
_____: -constriction limits blood flow through the area -opposing endothelial surfaces are pressed together become sticky and adhere sealing off vessel -temporary, minimal fix
vascular spasm
____ blood appears bluish
venous
activation of inactive clotting factors is initiated by ____
vessel damage that exposes collagen
____ is the disease producing ability of a bacteria
virulence
examples of ___ dissolved in plasma -creatinine -bilirubin -urea and other nitrogenous substances
waste products
functions of _____ in plasma -transport medium -absorbs and distributes heat generated metabolically within tissues
water
plasma is made up 90% ___
water
T cells are activated by a foreign antigen only _____
when it is on the surface of a "self" cell
main difference between RBC/WBC and platelets is that RBC/WBC are ____ and platelets are ____
whole cells; cell fragments
as we age red bone marrow is replaced by ____
yellow fatty marrow
____ is the inactive form of an enzyme
zymogen
3 classes of globulins
α,β,γ
examples of substances carried by ____ -thyroid hormone -cholesterol -iron
α/β globulin
functions of _____ -transport many water-insoluble substances -clotting factors -inactive precursor molecules
α/β globulins
smooth muscle cells of AA have ________ receptor on them
α1 adrenergic
functions of ____ -antibodies
γ globulins
____ are plasma proteins synthesized by lymphocytes (B-cells)
γ-globulins
____ has a fundamental role in mediating all the classical attributes of inflammation (rubor, calor, dolor, and tumor)
NF-κB
NF-κB connection to Type II diabetes
1. glucose entering B-cell activates A-caspase -A-caspase activate IL-1β - IL-1β is released but then activates a receptor on the B cell that stimulates production of NF-κB -NF-κB activates IL-1β--continuing cycle -NF-κB releases chemokines that cause macrophages to release IL-1β exacerbating the issue -too much inflammation bad for pancreatic B cells
___% of the blood that enters the glomerulus is not filtered and leaves via the efferent arteriole
80
Type ___ blood will produce A antigens ONLY
A
_____ are secreted by liver and *is a specific acute phase protein that is clinically used as a blood-borne marker of inflammation*
C-reactive protein (CRP)
___: -immunoglobulin -found in *secretions of digestive, respiratory, and GI tracts, milk, and tears*
IgA
__: -immunoglobulin -present on *surface of many B cells* -*function uncertain*
IgD
___: -immunoglobulin -helps protect against *parasitic worms* -antibody mediator for *common allergy responses*
IgE
examples of ______: -aspirin -ibuprofen
NSAIDS
_____: -*naturally occurring* lymphocyte-like cells -*nonspecifically destroy* virus-infected cells and cancer cells -*directly lyse cell membrane* upon 1st exposure to these cells
Natural Killer (NK) cells
Type ___ blood will produce NEITHER A or B antigens
O
Type ___ blood will produce anti-B AND anti-A antibodies
O
Type ___ is the universal donor because ___
O; the lack of antigen A and B will not trigger attack by anti-A or anti-B antibodies
Type O can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____
O; they have both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in their plasma
____ immunity: -"borrowed immunity" -results from the transfer of preformed antibodies -can provide immediate protection or bolster resistance -includes transfer of IgG and IgA antibodies from mother to fetus -admission of anti-serum i.e. after snake bite
Passive
____ anemia is caused by a defect in the stomach where it does not secrete enough intrinsic factor which is necessary to bind and absorb B₁₂ in the small intestine
Pernicious
ADP stimulates the formation of ______and ____ which limits the adherence of platelets to areas outside of the break/tear of a vessel
Prostacycline A₂ and Nitric oxide
What region defines the NF-κB family of proteins?
Rel or RHD (Rel homology domain)
canonical is mainly ____ (specific NF-κB protein) -- inflammatory pathway
RelA, p50 dimers
non-canonical is mainly ____ (specific NF-κB protein) -- cancer
RelB, p100/p52 dimers
Rh⁺ individuals can receive ___ blood
Rh⁺ or Rh⁻
_____: complete system allergic response -constriction of airways -movement of plasma into tissue (severe hypotension) -death by respiratory failure if not controlled immediately
anaphylactic shock
___ is a large complex molecule that triggers an immune response against itself when it gains entry into the body
antigen
_____: -large, foreign, unique molecule -*induces an immune response* against itself
antigen
_____ arise from loss of tolerance to self-antigens
autoimmune diseases
T/F the antigen-binding sites on each side of an antibody can bind to different antigen, so one Ig can bind 2 types of antigens
false
T/F the classical and alternate complement pathways lead to different final steps
false
_____ is a tuft of capillaries that filters a *protein-free* plasma into a tubular component (vascular component)
glomerulus
one afferent arteriole delivers blood to the ____ (vascular component)
glomerulus of one nephron
______: -suppress almost all aspects of inflammatory process -reduce body's ability to resist infection *good for treating asthma, poison ivy*
glucocorticoids
____ is a type of white blood cell that is filled with microscopic granules, little sacs containing enzymes that digest microorganisms
granulocyte
in addition to perforin, Killer T cells contain ______ similar to caspase B
granzymes
in general, the more complex a molecule is, the _____ its antigenicity
greater
cytokines AKA
growth factors
GALT means
gut associated lymphoid tissue
larger airborne particles are filtered out the inhaled airs by _____
hairs at the beginning of the nasal package
____ is released by water in the plasma from the body as the blood travels close to the surface of the skin
heat
____ represents the percentage of RBC volume in total blood volume
hematocrit
____ is the formation and development of RBC and WBC from stem cells
hematopoiesis
____ portion of hemoglobin is an iron-containing nonprotein group
heme
____ gives blood its color because it is a pigment
hemoglobin
anemia can be caused by a deficiency in _____ content of RBC
hemoglobin
____ anemia is losing tons of blood by bleeding
hemorrhagic
___ is the stopping of bleeding from an injured vessel
hemostasis
______ prevents blood loss from a broken vessel
hemostasis
_____: -anti-coagulant -helps remove fat particles from the blood after a meal
heparin
if GFR is too high, the salt content will be ____ in the tubule and the macula densa will release ______ causing the AA to ____
high; ATP and adenosine; constrict
the concentration of water in the Bowman's capsule is ____ than in the glomerulus
higher
examples of _____: -hay fever -asthma -hives
immediate hypersensitivity
___ involves overexuberant antibody responses that "spill over" and damage normal tissue
immune complex disease
_____ are due to the abnormal functioning of the immune system
immune disease
transcriptional programs differ depending on the ______ and on the ______ that is mediating the response
inducing stimulus; cell type
ultimate goal of ____ is to bring phagocytes and plasma proteins to invaded or injured area
inflammation
NF-κB plays an important in ____
inflammation and lymphopoiesis
things that ______: -fumarate -succinate -ROS -NO -PHI -Fe chelators -CoCl₂
inhibit prolyl-hydroxylases
_____: (mechanism of tolerance) inhibition throughout life of some lymphocyte clones specific for the body's own tissues
inhibition by Treg cells
IκB is a ______ of the NF-κB heterodimer
inhibitor protein
______: -part of the glomerular membrane -consists of *podocytes* that encircle the glomerulus tuft
inner layer of Bowman's capsule
glomeruli of juxtamedullary nephrons lie in the _____
inner layer of the cortex
____ inhibits multiplication of cancer cells and increases the killing ability of the immune cells
interferon
____ family of proteins that defend against non-specific viral infections
interferons
____ pathway of the clotting cascade involves seven separate steps
intrinsic
TGF mechanism involves the ______
juxtaglomerular apparatus
____ is a combination of vascular and tubular components lying next to the glomerulus that is *important for regulating kidney function* (production of renin, relaxation and constriction)
juxtaglomerular apparatus
desert species have a higher percentage of ____ nephrons due to their need to have a higher urine concentrating ability
juxtamedullary nephrons
____ stem cell can differentiate into: -megakaryocytes -granulocyte precursors -erythrocyte precursors -monocyte precursors
myeloid
____ mechanism of autoregulation responds to changes in pressure within the nephron's vascular component
myogenic
antibodies prevent harmful chemicals from interacting with susceptible cells by _____ (acts as a sink, binds it all up)
neutralization
_____ are: -always the first cells on the scene of a bacterial cells -one of 2 phagocytic cells in immune system -release cytokines -upregulated by hematopoiesis during a bacterial infection
neutrophils
granules of ____ are neutral, show no dye preference
neutrophils
high amount of which leukocytes is indicative of a bacterial infection?
neutrophils
polymorphonuclear granulocytes include:
neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
T/F cortical nephrons have extensive peritubular capillaries that entwine around the loop of Henle
true
T/F different species have different urine concentrating abilities
true
T/F endocrine glands secrete hormones into the plasma
true
T/F fetal cells can be found in the mother's body after several years AND can lead to autoimmune diseases
true
upregulation of adhesion molecules and chemokines leads to the recruitment and activation of effector cells such as ____
neutrophils, macrophages, and other WBC
_____ are the first phagocytes to arrive on the scene, ____ arrive 8-12 hours later maturing to ___ after another 8-12 hours
neutrophils; monocytes; macrophages
_____ is secreted by macrophages and *is toxic to nearby microorganisms*
nitric oxide
HIF-α is destined for degradation under ____ conditions
normoxia
T/F glomerular filtration is an indiscriminate process
true
____ anemia is a dietary deficiency of some component required for erythropoiesis i.e. not enough iron consumed so Hb synthesis suffers
nutritional
under normal circumstances, ______ do not vary much in determining the GFR
oncotic and Bowman's hydrostatic pressures
Plasma-colloid osmotic pressure ____ filtration
opposes
RBC are unable to produce ATP through ______ but do produce ATP through use of _____
oxidative phosphorylation; glycolytic enzymes
the molecules released by the macula densa act as ____ on the AA
paracrines
T/F leukocytes are generally larger than erythrocytes
true
T/F leukocytes vary in structure, function, and number
true
T/F many cancers like to have a inflammatory environment around them
true
T/F mast cells can have different IgE antibodies specific for different allergens bound to its membrane at one time, making it more prone to degranulation
true
issues with _____ - blood is 5-10x more viscous so it flows more slowly -increase in blood pressure
polycythemia
T/F monocytes are released as immature cells from the bone marrow into the blood
true
T/F oncotic and Bowman's hydrostatic pressures are not regulated
true
T/F plasma proteins are rarely found outside the plasma
true
T/F plasma proteins assist in the ability of the blood to act as a buffer
true
T/F platelets may have organelles and cytosolic enzymes
true
T/F platelets never leave the blood
true
______ AKA many-shaped nucleus (nucleus is pinched, looks like many nuclei); granule containing cells
polymorphonuclear granulocytes
examples of ______ -bilirubin -bile salts -penicillin
poorly plasma-soluble substance
____ polycythemia is caused by tumor like condition of the bone marrow which causes erythropoiesis to proceed at an uncontrolled rate
primary
general types of polycythemia include ___
primary and secondary
IL-1β is a ________
pro-inflammatory cytokine
____ is the garbage disposal of the cell
proteasome
the function of the basement membrane is to _____
provide structure and discourage filtration of small plasma proteins
_____ tubule exhibits uncontrolled reabsorption and secretion of selected substances
proximal
approximately ____ lymphocytes
2 trillion
___% of blood that enters the glomerulus and is filtered into the tubule
20
kidneys receive ____ % of the cardiac output
20-25
____ stem cells can differentiate into: -lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues
lymphoid
_____ tissue is tissue that produce, store, or process lymphocytes
lymphoid
___ is characterized by too many circulating RBCs
polycythemia
____ is characterized by an elevated (high) hematocrit
polycythemia
____ is an oily substance that softens and waterproofs the skin
sebum
anatomical features that contribute to RBC ability to carry O₂
-biconcave discs -flexible membranes -contain hemoglobin
T/F T lymphocytes directly bind to the target cell
true
T/F TNF is a pro-inflammatory cytokine
true
types of T cells
-CD8 -CD4 -CD4/CD25
groups of plasma proteins
-albumins -globulins -fibrinogen
body must lose ___ liters a day to get ride of biological waste (issue for dehydration)
.5
on average, T cells kill ___ cancer cells per day
1
there are ___ heme groups in 1 globin
1
monocytes circulate for ____ in the blood
1 day
T/F albumin can fit through pores in the glomerulus
true
platelets remain functional on average for ____
10 days
Type A can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____
A or O; they have anti-B antibodies
Type AB can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____
A, B, AB, or O; they have neither anti-A or anti-B antibodies
Type ___ blood will produce A AND B antigens
AB
Type ___ blood will produce B antigens ONLY
B
Type ___ blood will produce anti-A antibodies ONLY
B
BCR means
B cell receptors
most_____ differentiate into active plasma cells
B cells
____ differentiate into plasma cells that secrete antibodies
B lymphocytes (B cells)
Type B can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____
B or O; they have anti-A antibodies
complement system cascade of events: __ is activated → activates ___ → activates ___ → activates ___ → activates ___
C1; C4; C2; C3; C5
components ___ through ___ assemble into the MACs
C5; C9
____ cells are mostly helper T cells
CD4
HIV infects and destroys _____
CD4 cells
cellular stresses that can activate NF-κB pathways include - -
DNA damage; ROS
B₁₂ is necessary in the body for _______
DNA synthesis of rapidly growing cells in the body
B₁₂-deficiency causes anemia because ____
DNA synthesis stalls which stalls hemato- and erythropoiesis
____ is a cancer drug that is a RNA antagonist specifically bind and inhibits the translation of HIF-α
ENZ-2968
Thrombin cleaves _____ forming _____
Fibrinogen, Fibrin
when calculating GFR, use the equation
GFR = K_f (net filtration rate)
HIF-α increases the expression of the gene for ___, a membrane protein that allows glucose into the cell (increase leads to increase in cellular respiration)
GLUT-1
_____ are APCs to Treg cells
Granstein
____ is a cell type of the epidermis that suppresses skin-activated immune response
Granstein cells
under low oxygen conditions, HIF-α enters nucleus and binds with ____
HIF-β
Factor XII is also known as the _____ factor
Hageman
carbon monoxide poisoning occurs primarily because ___
Hb has a higher affinity for CO than O₂
____ is the reason why urine concentrations can vary
Juxtamedullary nephron and the vasa recta
_____ takes into account the surface area and permeability of the glomerulus when calculating GFR
K_f
______ are lymphocytes that release chemicals to destroy targeted cells
Killer T cells
fumarate and succinate are intermediates of the ____
Kreb's Cycle
_____ are APCs to Th cells
Langerhans
____ is a group of 3 leukotrienes that act on smooth muscle especially small airways causing contraction
SRS-A
TCR means
T cell receptors
____ directly destroy virus-laden and mutant cells by releasing chemicals that punch holes in the victim cells
T cells
_____ carry out cell-mediated immunity
T lymphocytes
_____ are responsible for cell-mediated immunity (virus laden or cancer cells)
T lymphocytes (T cells)
____ are protein antigens that do not directly stimulate the production of antibodies without the help of a Th cell
T-dependent antigens
____ are polysaccharide antigens that can B cells can bind with and be directly stimulated to produce antibodies without any help from a T-cell
T-independent antigens
delayed allergic reactions involve __ cells and are elicited by _____
T; cell-mediated immunity against the allergen
T/F antibodies can physically hinder antigens
true
____ is the random combining of a couple of hundred genes to creates the immense diversity in BCRs
VDJ
a clot is slowly dissolved by ____
activated plasmin that has been trapped in the fibrin meshwork
____ immunity: -"self-generated" -results from exposure to an antigen
active
one of the most lethal consequences of mismatched transfusions
acute kidney failure
____ are secreted by liver upon stimulation by LEM and *play role in inflammatory process, tissue repair, and immune cell activities*
acute phase proteins
classes of ______ immunity -antibody-mediated or humoral immunity -cell-mediated immunity
adaptive
____ immunity -*specifically targets* foreign material to which body has already been exposed -*requires time* -ultimate weapon against most pathogens -mediated by B and T cells -formation of memory cells
adaptive or acquired
___ are sticky cell surface molecules that facilitate intercellular binding and communication.
adhesion molecules
B cells mature in the _____
bone marrow
in addition to genes for chemokines and cytokines, NF-κB also regulates genes whose products are involved in ____
cell survival, metabolism, cell cycle, etc
_____ immunity involves the production of *activated T Lymphocytes* that directly attack unwanted (cancer or virus-laden) cells
cell-mediated
Caspases are essential in ______
cellular death by apoptosis
____ released at the site of damage attract other phagocytes to the scene
chemotaxins
_____: -*nonspecific response* -primary mechanism *activated by antibodies* to kill foreign cells -*activated by exposure to carbohydrate chains* present on surface of microbes but not on human cells
complement system
the _____ is composed of plasma proteins that are produced in the liver and circulate in inactive form
complement system
albumin in the urine is indicative of ____
damage to the glomerular membrane of the kidney
Bowman's capsule pressure could rise from a kidney obstruction (kidney stone, enlarged prostate) causing the GFR to _____
decrease
pathologically, if the plasma protein concentration increases due to low plasma (severe diarrhea), then the GFR would ____
decrease
_____ is a cellular process that releases antimicrobial cytotoxic molecules from secretory vesicles called granules found inside some cells.
degranulation
cytokines released by macrophages can stimulate _______ resulting in the release of _____
degranulation of mast cells; histamine
___ tubule and ______ exhibit variable, controlled reabsorption of Na⁺ and water, secretion of K⁺ and H⁺ occurs, and fluid leaving is urine and enters the renal pelvis
distal; collecting duct
pain of inflammation is due to _____ on afferent neurons
effect of chemicals released by macrophages and pressure of swelling
____ carry blood away from the glomerulus (vascular component), subdivides into a second set of capillaries
efferent arteriole
examples of ____ dissolved in plasma -Na⁺ -K⁺ -HCO₃⁻ -Cl⁻ -Ca²⁺
electrolytes
_____ is caused by the antibodies of a Rh⁻ mother attacking the RBC of a Rh⁺ fetus and the bone marrow of the fetus is unable to keep up the pace of RBC production and releases immature precursors of RBC
erythroblastosis fetalis
____: -red blood cells -important in O₂ transport
erythrocytes
glomerular capillary BP ____ filtration
favors
large holes in glomerular capillary wall are also known as ____
fenestrations
_______ entering the tissue from the blood helps wall off the inflamed area
fibrin and clotting factors
2 important inhibitors of prolyl-hydroxylases
fumarate and succinate
steps in the control of erythropoiesis: ____ detect ___ O₂-carrying capacity of blood leading to a release of ____ by the ____ which stimulates erythropoiesis in the _____ additional created RBC ____ O₂ carrying capacity of the blood which causes the ____
kidneys decreases erythropoietin (EPO) kidneys red marrow increases cessation of EPO release by kidneys
neutrophils can phagocytize _____ bacteria than macrophages
less
____ is a cell found in connective tissue that contains numerous basophilic granules and releases substances such as heparin and histamine in response to injury or inflammation of bodily tissues.
mast cell
IgE binds to _____ to induce degranulation
mast cells and basophils
the renal pelvis is located at the _______ of the kidney
medial inner core
_____ is a large bone marrow cell with a lobulated nucleus responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes
megakaryocyte
____ produce melanin which protects the skin by absorbing harmful UV radiations; cell type of the epidermis
melanocytes
____: -embeds itself in surface of nearby microbes -resulting holes make membranes leaky -microbe cell swells and bursts
membrane attack complex (MAC)
MAC means ____
membrane attack complexes
cytokines can be either ____ or ____
membrane-bound or diffusible
example of carbohydrate chain on microbe surface that will activate complement system
peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls
NK directly lyse cell membranes using _____
perforin
_____ supply the renal tissue; involved in exchanges with the fluid in the tubular lumen (vascular component), will join into venules which transport blood into the vein
peritubular capillaries
______ are the blood containers that surround the tubular part of the nephron
peritubular capillaries
_____ functions as a "cleanup crew" that removes worn-out cells and tissue debris
phagocytes
role of ______: -isolate, destroy, or inactive invaders -remove debris from injured area -prepare for subsequent healing and repair
phagocytes
___ is the liquid portion of the blood
plasma
_____: (mechanism of tolerance) B cell's with receptors for self antigens change the receptor to non-self versions to prevent death of the B cell, "rehabilitated B cell"
receptor editing
in the thymus T cells undergo the process of positive/negative selection which is the process of educating T cells to _______
recognize foreign antigens only in the presence of self antigens
_____ can be found in adults in the: -upper ends of long limb bones -sternum -ribs -pelvis
red bone marrow
hematopoietic stem cells reside in the ____
red bone marrow
_____ polycythemia AKA relative polycythemia
secondary
_____ occurs normally in people living at high altitudes, chronic lung disease, and those with cardiac failure
secondary polycythemia
____ polycythemia includes ___-induced adaptive mechanism to improve blood's _____ in response to _____ to the tissue
secondary; EPO; O₂-carrying capacity; prolonged reduced oxygen delivery
particulate debris is entrapped by _____ and is removed by ____
secretion of sticky mucus; sweeping action of cilia
____ removes most of the old RBC from circulation
spleen
____ is the balance between transcapillary hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure
starling forces
the blood pressure of the glomerulus is regulated by _____
starling forces
_____: -vascular spasm -formation of platelet plug -blood coagulation
steps of hemostasis
cells in bone marrow known as ____ support the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic cells
stromal cell
_____ influence differentiation of hematopoietic cells by providing a microenvironment consisting of: -cellular matrix -cytokines
stromal cells
drugs that _______: -NSAIDS -glucocorticoids
suppress the inflammatory process
_______ gland secretes hormones onto the kidney regulating the filtration of key electrolytes (mainly Na)
supra-renal (adrenal?)
_____ in the dermis produce sweat which helps cool the body
sweat glands
platelets are released when needed by ____
sympathetically-induced splenic contractions
antibody subclass is determined by the ___
tail (Fc region)
flexible membrane of RBC is necessary to deliver O₂ to tissues because ---
the RBC can distort itself allowing it to travel through narrow capillaries without rupturing in the process
all additional immunological defenses are found at locations where ______
the body contacts the external environment
______ is the abnormal intravascular clot attached to a vessel wall
thrombus
T/F skin has T cells
true
T/F untreated cancer is eventually fatal
true
the activation of either pathway of NF-κB depends on ______ and in turn ____
what type of receptor gets activated; what genes are up-regulated
Rel homology domain (RHD) is important for - - -
-DNA binding -dimerization -nuclear localization signal
Hemoglobin can carry (4 things) in addition to O₂
-CO₂ -H⁺ -CO (carbon monoxide) -NO (nitric oxide)
____ regulates the inflammatory program (too much leads to inflammatory diseases)
NF-κB
_______ is responsible for innate immunity but also important in the development and progression of inflammatory diseases i.e. -cancer -autoimmune -RA -IBS -atherosclerosis -Type II diabetes
NF-κB induced inflammation
RLRs or RLHs upregulate ______ and ____
NF-κB; interferon regulating factor 3 (IRF-3)
calculation of net filtration rate (NFR) uses the equation
NFR = Glomerular filtration pressure - Bowman's hydrostatic pressure - oncotic pressure in the glomerulus
the first line of defense against cancer is ______ because they *do not require prior exposure and activation* to be able to launch an attack
NK cells
HIF-α increases the expression of the gene for ___, a protein that is important in angiogenesis
VEGF
different antibodies are produced from a couple of hundred genes through the _________
Variable Diverse Joining recombination (VDJ)
