A&P II Exam 1

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______ are T cells that: -modulate activities of other immune cells -secrete chemicals that amplify the activity of other immune cells

CD4 cells

things secreted by ______: -B-cell growth factor -T-cell growth factor (IL-2) -macrophage-migration inhibition factor

CD4 cells

Class II MHC cells are recognized by _____

CD4 helper cells co-receptor

______ is an important population of Th cells that express a transcription factor known as foxo p3

CD4/CD25

____ cells are cytotoxic or killer Tcells

CD8

______ are T cells that destroy host cells harboring anything foreign (virus, cancer)

CD8 cells

Class 1 MHC cells are only recognized by ____ T cells through their ____

CD8; co-receptor

Active Factor XI with _______ activates _____

Ca²⁺ and Factor IV; Factor IX

Thromboplastin (Factor III) for damaged tissues with _____ activates _____

Ca²⁺ and Factor VII; Factor X

Active Factor IX with _____ activates____

Ca²⁺, Factor VIII, PF3; Factor X

_____ MHC self-antigens are found on the surface of all cells

Class 1

HIF-α increases the expression of the gene for ___, a glycoprotein and cytokine that will induce erythropoiesis

EPO

Active Factor X with ____ activates ______

Factor V, Ca²⁺, and PF3; prothrombin to thrombin

Hageman Factor activates ____

Factor XI

Thrombin activates _____ which stabilizes the loose fibrin meshwork of a clot

Factor XIII

____ antibodies are the least plentiful immunoglobulin

IgE

___: -immunoglobulin -*most abundant* Ig in blood -produced in large amounts following *antigen re-exposure*

IgG

antibodies, especially ____, act as opsonins

IgG

___: -immunoglobulin -serves as the receptor for antigen attachment -*secreted in early stages of plasma cell response* -*B cells normally coated with this*

IgM

____ is the most UV sensitive cell of the skin

Langerhans

____ a cell type of the epidermis that functions in specific immunity by presenting antigens to Th cells

Langerhans cells

____ are the APCs of the skin

Langerhans; Granstein

____ *establishes an osmotic gradient* in the renal medulla that is *important in the kidney's ability to produce urine of varying concentrations*

Loop of Henle (of long-looped nephrons)

Ig __ and Ig __ are the main subclasses that produce immune responses

M; G

____ resemble large, doughnut-shaped protein complexes created by the complement system

MACs

one of the main self antigens recognized that can lead to autoimmune diseases is _____

MHC molecules

_____ is a collection of interleukins, specificially aisle 4, 5, and 6

B-cell growth factor;

immediate allergic reactions involve ___ cells and are elicited by ____

B; antibody interactions with an allergen

cancer cells thwart detection by...

-creating blocking antibodies -using a B cell guard -inducing apoptosis in bound Tc cells -promoting Tregs to the area to control Tc cells

the biconcave disc shape of a RBC increases O₂ diffusion into and throughout the RBC because...

-large surface area -thinness of the cell

differences in filtration at regular capillary beds and the glomerular capillary bed

-more permeable -filtration occurs along the entire length

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils once released into the blood will remain for approx. _____ or less before entering tissues

1 day

the nephron consists of _____ cell layers thick

1 endothelial

steps to RBC from Hematopoietic stem cell 1) H stem cell to myeloid stem cell using _____ 2) M stem cell to erythroid progenitor using ____ 3) erythroid progenitor to erythrocyte (RBC) using ______

1) GM-CSF, IL₃ 2) IL₃, GM-CSF, EPO 3) EPO

although 90x more is filtered, only ____ liters of urine are produced and released per day

1-2

the net filtration pressure in the glomerular capillary bed is approximately ____ mmHg, ____ filtration

10 mmHg; favors

macrophages can phagocytize _____ bacteria

100's

lymphocytes live from _____

100-300 days

total blood flow through the kidneys averages ____ mL per minute

1140

RBC survive about ____

120 days

normal GFR is ______ ml/min

120-125

Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure is approximately ___ mmHg

15

combined the kidneys filter ______ liters (__ gallons) of plasma per day

180-190 (50)

B cell plasma membrane receptors have _____ antigen receptor sites

2 identical

RBC must be replaced at a rate of ____ per second

2-3 million

total plasma in body ____ liters

2.75

there are approximately ___ erythrocyte antigen systems in humans excluding ABO and Rh

23

1 RBC contain ____ molecules of Hb and therefore can carry ___ molecules of O₂

250 million, 1 billion

an antibody is comprised of ____ long, heavy chains, ___ short, light chains, held together by _____

2; 2; disulfide bonds

Fluid filtered from the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule passes through _____

3 layers of glomerulus membrane

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils once entering the tissues will remain for _____ unless it dies sooner in the line of duty

3-4 days

hematocrit associated with anemia is ___%

30

the opposing oncotic pressure of the glomerulus is normally ___ mmHg

30

NF-κB can upregulate approximately ____ genes during an inflammatory response

380

blood consists of __ types of specialized elements suspended in ___

3; plasma

there are __ heme groups in 1 hemoglobin

4

normal hematocrit is ___%

45

Average volume of blood in women is ___L

5

NF-κB is a member of ___ different proteins

5

1 mL of blood contains ____ RBCs

5 billion

clinically: 1 mm³ of blood contains ______ RBCs

5 million

neutrophils can phagocytize ____ bacteria before dying from accumulation of toxic by-products from foreign particle degradation or inadvertent release of lysosomal chemicals into the cytosol

5-25

plasma cells live for ___

5-7 days

Average volume of blood in men is ___ L

5.5

the average glomerular capillary BP is ____ mmHg

55

hematocrit associated with polycythemia is ___%

70

Blood represents about ____% of total body weight

8

Type ___ blood will produce anti-B antibodies ONLY

A

myogenic mechanism basically

AAP↑, afferent arteriole constricts, lowering amount of fluid allowed into glomerulus AAP↓, afferent arteriole expands, blood rushes into glomerulus... either way glomerular capillary BP remains the same, so GFR remains constant

Type ___ blood will produce NEITHER anti-A or anti-B antibodies

AB

Type ___ is the universal recipient because ____

AB; lacking anti-A or anti-B antibodies in their plasma, antigen A or antigen B will not set off an immune response

during formation of a platelet plug, platelets release ____ which causes surface of nearby circulating platelets to become ____ and adhere to the first layer of aggregated platelets

ADP; sticky

____ collects the glomerular filtrate, part of the tubular component that surrounds the glomerulus

Bowman's capsule

Rh⁻ individuals can receive ___ blood

Rh⁻

Rh factor is of significant importance when a ____ mother has a ___ fetus

Rh⁻; Rh⁺

during the first exposure to an allergen that will elicit immediate hypersensitivity, ____ cells secrete ____ prodding __ cells to synthesize ___ this is known as the _____

Th; IL-4; B; IgE; sensitization period

activation of Factor ____ by _____ begins the extrinsic pathway

X, Thromboplastin

activation of Factor _____ by exposed collagen begins the intrinsic pathway

XII

antibodies resemble a ___ shape

Y

T cell plasma membrane receptors have _____ antigen receptor sites

a single

To turn off a T cell, the T cell must interact with _____

a single signal from a self antigen

activation of NF-κB results in the upregulation of _______ and _____ by vascular endothelial cells within the tissue

adhesion molecules; chemokines

extrinsic control of GFR is mediated by sympathetic nervous system input to ____

afferent arterioles

once the renal artery enters the kidney, it subdivides to form ____

afferent arterioles

____ is antibody mediated hindrance of antigens seen in mixing of incompatible blood types

agglutination

____ is the clumping of RBC

agglutination

antibody interaction with an RBC-bound antigen may result in ____ or ____

agglutination or hemolysis

antibodies can physically hinder antigens by ____ and _____ (multiple antibody molecules *cross-link* numerous antigen molecules into chains)

agglutination; precipitation

___ is the most abundant plasma protein

albumin

____ is the smallest of the plasma proteins

albumin

_____ are plasma proteins synthesized by the liver

albumin, α/β globulins, fibrinogens

____ contribute the most to colloid osmotic pressure

albumins

function of ____ -establish colloid osmotic pressure -nonspecifically bind poorly soluble substance in plasma

albumins

in allergic responses, the offending agent is known as a _____

allergen

categories of ______: -immediate hypersensitivity -delayed hypersensitivity

allergic responses

by mounting inappropriate immune responses the immune system can lead to ____

allergies and autoimmune diseases

____ is the acquisition of an inappropriate specific immune reactivity (HYPERSENSITIVITY) to a normally HARMLESS environmental substance

allergy

inside of the alveoli are an abundance of phagocytic specialists called _____

alveolar macrophages

____ is characterized by low hematocrit

anemia

______ refers to below normal O₂ carrying capacity of the blood

anemia

types of ______ -nutritional -pernicious -aplastic -renal -hemorrhagic -hemolytic

anemia

____ means new blood growth

angiogenesis

___ are the most powerful activators of the complement system

antibodies

_____ binds with specific antigens against which it is produced and leads to the antigen's destruction

antibodies

most important opsonins are ____

antibodies

the classical complement pathway is activated by ___

antibodies

ways that _______: -activate complement system -enhancing phagocytosis (acts as opsonins) -stimulating NK cells

antibodies augment innate immunity

immunoglobulins are also known as ___

antibodies or γ globulins

during initial contact with microbial antigen, _________ is delayed and _____ are formed

antibody response; plasma cells

_______ immunity involves production of *antibodies by B lymphocyte* derivatives or *plasma cells*

antibody-mediated or humoral

The complement system is activated by antibodies by ______

antigen binds with antibody, receptors on tail of antibody bind with and activate C1, activates complement cascade

APC means

antigen presenting cell

examples of ____: -macrophages -B cells -dendritic cells

antigen presenting cells (APCs)

Fab means ____

antigen-binding fragments

Identical _____ are found at the tip of each arm of an antibody

antigen-binding fragments (Fab)

_____ is the capacity of a chemical structure (either an antigen or Hapten) to bind specifically with a group of certain products that have adaptive immunity

antigenicity

____ stimulate B cells to convert into plasma cells that produce antibodies

antigens

NF-κB is also crucial for the production of ______ and for the _____

antimicrobial effector molecules; survival of WBC

____ anemia is the failure of the bone marrow to produce enough RBC

aplastic

the layers of the kidney is formed by the _____

arrangement of nephrons

____ blood appears reddish

arterial

the GFR marker inulin can be found in ____

artichokes

most important function of antibodies is to _____

augment the innate immune system already initiated

____ is where the immune system turns against one of the body's own tissues

autoimmune disease

example of causes of ______: -exposure of normally inaccessible self-antigens (i.e. Hashimoto's) -normal self-antigens that have been modified by drugs, environmental chemicals, viruses, genetic mutations -exposure to a foreign antigen structurally similar to self-antigen -related to pregnancy

autoimmune diseases

_____ of GFR includes: -myogenic mechanism -tubuloglomerular feedback

autoregulation

______ mechanism of controlling GFR is aimed at *preventing spontaneous changes in GFR*

autoregulation

GFR is controlled via _____

autoregulation and extrinsic sympathetic control

kidneys are located in the _____

back of the abdominal cavity

___ non-nucleated, single-celled microorganisms that primarily cause tissue damage and cause disease by releasing enzymes or toxins

bacteria

immune complex disease can occur in ________ infections

bacterial, viral, or parasitic

______ -part of the glomerular membrane -acellular gelatinous layer (5-7x thicker than any other) -composed of collagen and glycoproteins

basement membrane

____ are the least numerous and most poorly understood leukocyte

basophils

_____: -synthesize and store histamine -produce heparin

basophils

granules of ____ have an affinity for a basic blue dye

basophils

tail portions of IgE bind to _____ during an allergic response which induces degranulation and the release of ____

basophils and mast cells; histamine

some B cells ______

become dormant memory cells

____ tumor does not infiltrate the surrounding tissues

benign

what enhances the diffusion of O₂ across the RBC membrane?

biconcave disc leads to large surface area

what enables O₂ to diffuse rapidly between the exterior and innermost regions of the RBC?

biconcave disc shape creates a thin cell

Mechanism of Killing by Killer T cells 1) Killer cell _____ 2) _____-containing granules fuse with membrane and are released into the _______ 3) exposure to ____ cause conformational change in perforin 4) Remodeled perforin ___________ into target membrane where they group together to form _____ 5) pores admit ______ to cause target cell to burst

binds target; perforin; intercellular space; Ca²⁺; pores; salt and water

structure that temporarily stores urine (hollow, distensible, smooth muscle-walled sac)

bladder

_____ is the transformation of blood from liquid into a solid gel

blood coagulation

about 1/3 of platelets are stored in _____

blood filled spaces in the spleen

_____ of the dermis: -nourish the skin -play role in temperature regulation

blood vessels

lymphocytes recycle continually (monitoring) between ______

blood, lymph, and lymphoid tissues

causes of aplastic anemia include ____

bone cancer, radiation treatment, exposure to toxic chemicals such as benzene

Erythropoiesis occurs in ____

bone marrow

hematopoiesis occurs in ____

bone marrow

99% of oxygen in the blood is _____

bound to hemoglobin

most genetic mutations do not lead to cancer because cancer is the ______

build up of multiple mutations inside of a cell with given attributes and not all lead to loss of control of the cell cycle

NF-κB can affect all of the hallmarks of ______

cancer

in the ____ pathway, the inhibitor protein is a separate protein (i.e. IκB)

canonical

2 arms of NF-κB are known as _____

canonical and non-canonical

the alternate complement pathway is activated by ____

carbohydrate chain on microbe surface

RBC contain ______ which allows the conversion of CO₂ to HCO₃⁻

carbonic anhydrase

baroreceptors are located around the ____

carotid artery

primary role of hemoglobin is to ____

carry O₂

Hb plays a role in blood pH buffering system by ____

carrying H⁺ portion of ionized carbonic acid

____ are a family of small cytokines, or signaling proteins secreted by cells. Their name is derived from their ability to induce directed chemotaxis in nearby responsive cells; they are chemotactic cytokines.

chemokines

inhibitor of cilia and alveolar macrophages in lungs

cigarette smoke

B and T cells spend the majority of their time ____

circulating between blood and lymphoid organs, concentrated in lymphoid organs

____: (mechanism of tolerance) the idea that a T cell must receive two specific simultaneous signals to be turned "on"

clonal anergy

____: (mechanism of tolerance) triggering of apoptosis of immature cells that will react with the body's own proteins, occurs in the thymus

clonal deletion

_____ is the idea that an individual contains >100 million preformed B cells; and once the BCR comes in contact with an antigen it recognizes, this antigen 'selects' this B cell stimulating 'cloning' of it

clonal selection theory

_____ reinforces platelet plug and converts blood in the vicinity of vessel injury into a nonflowing gel

clot formation

_____ is a series of steps involving 12 plasma clotting factors that lead to final conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin

clotting cascade (clot formation)

fibrinogen is important in the final steps of the ____

clotting process

______ helps maintain plasma volume

colloid osmotic pressure created by plasma proteins

______ created by _____is the primary force preventing excessive loss of plasma from the capillaries

colloid osmotic pressure; plasma proteins

_____ is -a cytokine - part of a family of acidic glycoproteins -important in the monocyte/macrophage lineage

colony-stim factors (CSF)

leukocytes are ____ because ___

colorless; lack Hb

mast cells are most plentiful in regions that ____

come in contact with the external environment

To activate a T cell, one signal comes from _____ and one from ______, afterwards the T cell can interact with any cell bearing the _____ even without the cosignal

compatible antigen; cosignal molecule, B7, on APC membrane; antigen

____ is a series of zymogens that when activated will cause a cascade to destruct foreign cells by attacking their plasma membrane (usually bacteria)

complement system

MACs and proteins in complement cascade do not attack host cells and tissues because ____

confined to surface of microbe because they are unstable and quickly degrade

Tail regions (____ region) are ____ within each subclass

constant; identical

myogenic mechanism includes ____ in response to stretch and ____ in response to relaxation

constricts; dilates

one possible outcome of immune complex disease

continuous activation of complement system, leading to attack of host cells

the predominant type (80%) of nephron is the _____

cortical

peak of antibody response is reached in a _____ by primary response

couple of weeks

GFR can be determined by markers such as ____

creatinine and inulin

____ are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5-20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling. They are released by cells and affect the behavior of other cells, and sometimes the releasing cell itself.

cytokines

common ______ include: -colony-stim factors (CSF) -erythropoietin (EPO) -several interleukins (IL)

cytokines

neutrophils and macrophages secrete ____ to help isolate, destroy, or inactivate invaders by secreting

cytokines

stromal cells secrete a lot of ____

cytokines

NF-κB in the nucleus binds promoter regions of genes of many cellular processes but especially for increased expression of ____

cytokines and chemokines

NK cells are very similar to _____

cytotoxic T cells

_____ kill cancer cells by secreting perforin and toxic chemicals

cytotoxic T cells and NK cells

Upon _____ , perforin inserts itself into the target cell's ______, forming a _____.

degranulation; plasma membrane; pore

relative polycythemia is associated with a high hematocrit but is typically due to ____

dehydration, resulting low levels of plasma

typically contact allergies are ____ hypersensitivity

delayed

____: allergic response does not generally show until a day or so following exposure

delayed hypersensitivity

Class II MHC cells are found on _____

dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells (APC cells)

___ supply the dermis and epidermis and play a major role in *temperature regulation*

dermal blood vessels

___ is the inner, vascular, connective tissue layer of the skin

dermis

____ is the passage of blood cells through the intact walls of the capillaries, typically accompanying inflammation.

diapedesis

defenses of the _____ system against pathogens: -antimicrobial salivary enzyme -destructive gastric secretions -Gut-associated lymphoid tissue -harmless resident colonic secretions (normal flora)

digestive

functions of ____ in plasma -membrane excitability -osmotic distribution of fluid between ECF and ICF -buffer pH changes

electrolytes

____ are freely floating clots in the blood

emboli

_______: -deregulating cellular energetics -avoiding immune destruction

emerging hallmarks of cancer

_____: -genome instability and mutation -tumor-promoting inflammation

enabling characteristics of cancer

______ are secreted by macrophages and *induce development of fever and augment phagocytosis*

endogenous pyrogen (EP)

plasma cells have an over abundance of the organelle, _____

endoplasmic reticulum

Steps of helper T cell activation: -dendritic cell engulfs a bacterium creating a ____ -the bacterium is broken down by _____ to produce _______ - new _____ molecules bind with the foreign antigen peptides - MHC proteins embeds itself into the membrane with the antigen facing the ECF, the dendritic cells is now an _____ and may activate T cells -once a T cell binds with the Antigen-MHC complex the dendritic cell releases _____ to fully activate the T cell

endosome; lysosomes; antigen peptides; MHC; APC; IL-1

organelles and cytosolic enzymes in platelets are used to produce ____

energy and secretory proteins

once it reaches its tissue destination, monocytes _____

enlarge and differentiate into macrophages

red dye for granules is named ____

eosin

_____ is an *off-switch* to the allergic response by *releasing enzymes that inactive histamine and SRS-A*

eosinophil chemotactic factor

_____: -associated with allergies -mount immune response against parasitic infections

eosinophils

granules of ____ have an affinity for red dye

eosinophils

___ is the outer, keratinized layer of the skin

epidermis

cells of the ____: -melanocytes -keratinocytes -Langerhans -Granstein

epidermis

anemia can be caused by an excessive loss of _____

erythrocytes

____ is the process by which bone marrow generates new RBC

erythropoiesis

anemia can be caused by a decreased rate of ____

erythropoiesis

___ can be used to produce RBC in patients: -with kidney failure -undergoing chemotherapy -with anemia

erythropoietin (EPO)

____ is -a cytokine -glycoprotein -drives the erythropoiesis

erythropoietin (EPO)

during formation of a platelet plug, platelets aggregate on contact with ______ in damaged wall of the vessel

exposed collagen

____ pathway of the clotting cascade requires only four steps

extrinsic

the intrinsic pathway of the clotting cascade is set off when _______ is activated by ______

factor XII (Hageman); contact with exposed collagen

B cells can inhibit cancer cell death by _____

failing to activate the complement system after forming antibodies against it, and the antigen-antibody complex prevents Tc cells from recognizing it.

T/F ABO and Rh are the only erythrocyte antigen systems in humans

false

T/F Bowman's hydrostatic pressure can be regulated and therefore be used to control GFR

false

T/F HIF-α degradation is strictly regulated by oxygen levels

false

T/F Hemoglobin binds preferentially to O₂ over CO

false

T/F Hemoglobin can only combine/carry O₂

false

T/F IgE antibodies freely circulate in the blood during an allergic response

false

T/F NF-κB is a single protein

false

T/F NK cells are part of acquired immunity

false

T/F ONLY T cells (not B cells) have surface receptors for binding with one particular type of possible antigens

false

T/F Plasmin is a fast-acting enzyme

false

T/F RBC can propagate through cell division

false

T/F RBC produce no ATP

false

T/F T lymphocytes secrete antibodies

false

T/F a person with a severe allergy for peanuts could die from the first exposure to it

false

T/F agglutination is one of the main ways antibodies function

false

T/F albumins are more specific in binding insoluble substances than globulins

false

T/F all blood that enters the glomerulus is filtered

false

T/F all bones of adults contain red bone marrow

false

T/F all nephrons are the same

false

T/F all plasma proteins are synthesized by the liver

false

T/F an original antibody specific to an antigen is made once the body encounters the antigen

false

T/F antibodies can directly destroy cells they bind to

false

T/F each antibody has a different gene

false

T/F each collecting duct serves only one nephron

false

T/F erythrocytes vary in structure, function, and number

false

T/F juxtamedullary nephrons have extensive peritubular capillaries that entwine around the loop of Henle

false

T/F leukocytes contain hemoglobin

false

T/F more RBC correlates with higher O₂-carrying capacity

false

T/F most antigens are T-independent antigens

false

T/F most genetic mutations lead to cancer

false

T/F oncotic pressure in the glomerulus can be regulated and therefore be used to control GFR

false

T/F oxygen is very soluble in plasma

false

T/F platelets have nuclei

false

T/F platelets will typically adhere to smooth endothelial surfaces at random

false

T/F red bone marrow only produces erythrocytes

false

T/F the complement system kills microbes by phagocytizing them

false

T/F the nephron lies strictly in the striated region of the kidney

false

T/F there are symptoms of an allergic response during the sensitization period

false

T/F there exists naturally occurring antibodies in individuals against Rh factors found on RBC

false

T/F tubular processes are indiscriminate processes

false

T/F yellow bone marrow is capable of erythropoiesis

false

___ is the plasma protein that is a key factor in blood clotting

fibrinogen

____ is the inactive precursor of the fibrin meshwork of a clot

fibrinogen

ultimate consequence of intrinsic clotting pathway is the activation of ____ into ____

fibrinogen→ fibrin

Inulin is a perfect marker for GFR because it is only ______

filtered, not protein bound, and not reabsorbed

the podocytes of the inner layer of the Bowman's capsule provide ________ or a pathway for fluid leaving the glomerular capillaries to enter the lumen of Bowman's capsule

filtration slits

antigen-antibody complexes normally form in response to _______ and are removed by _____

foreign invasion; phagocytic cells

smooth muscle cells in the wall of the AA in the juxtaglomerular apparatus are specialized to ____

form granules (granular cells)

the peritubular capillaries surrounding a juxtamedullary nephron _____

form hairpin vessels that run in close association with the loop of Henle

old RBC are removed from circulation in the spleen because the old RBC are _____

fragile and less flexible so they rupture as they travel through the narrow, winding capillary networks of the spleen

when antibodies enter blood they are known as ______

gamma globulins or immunoglobulins (Ig)

imbalances in the clotting-anticlotting systems can be due to a _____

genetic mutation

defenses of the ____ system against pathogens: -destructive acidic and particle-entrapping mucus secretions

genitourinary

____ portion of hemoglobin is a protein composed of 4 highly folded polypeptide chains

globin

hemoglobin consists of 2 parts:

globin and heme

plasma proteins that play a role in the immune system

globulins

the _____ capillary wall is more permeable to water and solutes than any other capillary wall in the body (100x) due to the large number of pores

glomerular

____ is the hydrostatic pressure exerted by the blood within the glomerular capillaries

glomerular capillary blood pressure

______ is the major force that causes glomerular filtration

glomerular capilllary blood pressure

GFR means ______

glomerular filtration rate

_____ depends on: -net filtration pressure (~10 mmHg) -glomerular SA available for penetration -glomerular membrane permeability

glomerular filtration rate

______ consists of: -glomerular capillary wall -basement membrane -inner layer of Bowman's capsule

glomerular membrane

_____ is pathophysiological event when immune complexes get clogged in the capillary beds of the kidneys, impeding kidney filtration of the blood

glomerulonephritis

_______: -resisting cell death -sustaining proliferative signaling -evading growth suppressors -activating invasion and metastasis -enabling replicative immortality -inducing angiogenesis

hallmarks of cancer

most important anatomical feature that allows RBC to carry O₂

has hemoglobin

______ generate -erythrocytes, -granulocytes, -monocytes, -mast cells, -lymphocytes, and -megakaryocytes

hematopoietic stem cells

the NF-κB in _______ and occasionally _____ initiate the inflammatory response

hematopoietic; epithelial cells

____ anemia is losing RBC caused by bursting of the RBC

hemolytic

____ is excessive bleeding caused by deficiency of one of the factors in the clotting cascade

hemophilia

____ increase permeability of the capillaries to the WBC so that the WBC can fight the infection in the tissue

histamine

swelling that accompanies inflammation is due to ____

histamine-induced vascular changes

aspirin inhibits the release of _____ and ___

histamine; prostaglandins

____ is secreted by mast cells and *induces local vasodilation and increases capillary permeability*

histamines

_____ is the pressure of fluid at rest

hydrostatic pressure

HIF-α will enter the nucleus to bind with HIF-β under ____ conditions

hypoxia

_____ pathway drives new blood growth into solid tumors

hypoxia inducible factor

the _____ pathway is used for the production of EPO and is often turned on in solid tumor

hypoxia inducible factor

_____: allergic response appears within *20 min* after exposure of a sensitized person

immediate hypersensitivity

chemical mediators of ______: -histamine -slow-reactive substance of anaphylaxis (SRS-A) -eosinophil chemotactic factor

immediate hypersensitivity

____ occurs when *overzealous antigen-antibody response* causes damage to normal and invading foreign cells -- too many complexes, phagocytes can't clear away

immune complex disease

general ways to get a _______: -immunodeficiency diseases -inappropriate immune attack

immune disease

_____: (mechanism of tolerance) tissues that escape attack even when transplanted into an unrelated individual (i.e. testes and the eye) contain a specific molecules that triggers apoptosis in approaching lymphocytes

immune privilege

_____ is the process by which T cells recognize and destroy newly arisen, potentially cancerous tumor cells

immune surveillance

___ is made up of leukocytes, their derivatives, and variety of plasma proteins

immune system

_____ recognizes and destroys (neutralizes) materials within the body that are foreign to "normal self" includes outsiders or abnormal cells

immune system

functions of ______ -defends against invading pathogens -ID and destroy cancer cells that arise in the body -functions as a "cleanup crew" that removes worn-out cells and tissue debris

immune system

____ is the body's ability to resist or eliminate potentially harmful foreign materials or abnormal cells

immunity

examples of ______: -severe combined _ -AIDS (too little immune response)

immunodeficiency disease

antigenicity AKA ____

immunogenicity

_____: (mechanism of tolerance) AKA antigen sequestering. self-molecules are hidden from immune system because they typically remain inside a cell

immunological ignorance

calculating GFR is difficult due to the ____

inability to determine K_f

examples of _______: -autoimmune disease -immune complex disease -allergies (too much or mistargeted immune response)

inappropriate immune attacks

pathologically, if the plasma protein concentration of the blood decreased (i.e. burn patients), then the GFR would _____

increase

quick adjustment of BP, BP drops it is detected by baroreceptor reflexes, ____ sympathetic activity, ____ cardiac output and total peripheral resistance, ____ arterial blood pressure

increase; increase; increase

long term adjustment of consistent low BP, it is detected by baroreceptor reflexes, ____ sympathetic activity, ____ AA, _____ GFR, _____ urine volume, ____ conservation of fluid and salt, ____ arterial blood pressure

increases; constricts; decreases; decreases; increases; increases

_____ immunity -*nonspecific* -work *immediately* -*nonselectively* defend -1st line of defense -*rapid* but limited responses -activity of Neutrophils, macrophages, several plasma proteins

innate

Defenses of ____: -inflammation -interferon -natural killer cells (NK) -complement system

innate immunity

_____: -transiently *inhibits multiplication of viruses* in most cells -*triggers the production of virus-blocking enzymes* by potential host cells -*released nonspecifically from any cell infected by a virus* -provides *general, rapid defense* until slower, more specific defense begins -enhances macrophage phagocytic activity, stimulate production of antibodies, boosts the power of NK cells -exerts anticancer effect

interferon

____ is secreted by macrophages and *major pro-inflammatory cytokine that enhances proliferation and differentiation of B and T lymphocytes*

interleukin 1 (IL-1)

B cells with antigen binds with Th cell leading to secretion of _____ by ____, leading to ____

interleukins; Th cells; differentiation of B cell into plasma cells and subsequent cloning

APC cells secrete ____ to fully activate CD4 cells meaning that they secrete _____ which leads to _____

interleukins; cytokines; cloning of the Th cell

_____ secreted by the _____; are necessary to bind and absorb B₁₂ in the small intestine

intrinsic factors; stomach

if albumin does enter the tubule, then ____

it is broken down into amino acids

the release of B-cell growth factor by CD4 T cells is important because ______

it leads to antibody production in T-dependent B cells

____ is the specialized combination of tubular and vascular cells where the tubule passes through the angle formed by AA and EA as they join the glomerulus

juxtaglomerular apparatus

_____ monitors and controls: -arterial pressure -sodium content -balance between AA and EA -responsible for renin mechanism

juxtaglomerular apparatus

_____ is secreted by neutrophils and *converts specific plasma proteins precursors produced by liver into activated kinins*

kallikrein

the ____ layer of the epidermis is *airtight, fairly waterproof, and impervious to most substances*

keratinized

_____ produce keratin that forms outer protective layer of the skin; cell type of the epidermis

keratinocytes

functions of _____: -discourage bacteria and other harmful environmental agents from entering the body -prevents loss of water and other valuable body substances -secrete interleukin-1

keratinocytes

functions of ____: -maintaining water balance in the body -maintaining proper osmolarity, concentration of ECF ions, and proper plasma volume -helping maintain proper acid-base balance -excreting bodily metabolic waste products and foreign substances -producing EPO and renin -converting Vit D into its active form

kidneys

the urine forming organs are the ____

kidneys

___ is any of various structurally related polypeptides, such as bradykinin and kallikrein. They *act locally to induce vasodilation and contraction of smooth muscle*

kinin

_____ is secreted by neutrophils and *is a protein that binds with iron, thereby making iron unavailable for use by invading bacteria*

lactoferrin

the high glomerular capillary BP is due to the _____

larger diameter of the afferent arteriole than the efferent arteriole leads to blood damming

_____ are secreted by macrophages and *decreases the plasma concentration of iron by altering iron metabolism within the liver, spleen, and other tissues; also stimulates synthesis and release of neutrophils by the bone marrow*

leukocyte endogenous mediator (LEM)

___: -white blood cells -immune system's mobile defense

leukocytes

____ is the immune system's mobile defense

leukocytes

LPS means _____

lipopolysaccharide

during an inflammatory response, accumulation of leaked plasma proteins into the tissue raises the _______

local interstitial fluid - colloid osmotic pressure

release of histamine by mast cells leads to ______ and _____

local vasodilation; increased capillary permeability (capillary pores widen)

increase in local interstitial fluid-colloid osmotic pressure and the elevated capillary blood pressure due to increased blood flow during an inflammatory response leads to ____

localized edema

extrinsic sympathetic control of GFR is aimed at ______

long term regulation of ABP

if GFR is too low, the salt content will be ____ in the tubule and the macula densa will release ______ causing the AA to ____

low; NO; dilate

women have a ____ GFR than men

lower (85%)

erythrocytes are larger than which leukocyte?

lymphocyte

_____ are the smallest of the leukocytes

lymphocytes

_____ provide immune defenses against targets for which they are specifically programmed

lymphocytes

_____ usually have large spherical nuclei that occupy most of the cell

lymphocytes

_____are cells used in immune responses including production of antibodies

lymphocytes

GALT allows ____

lymphocytes to be close to the GI tract for any pathogens that breach the GI lining

______ tissues include: -bone marrow -lymph nodes -spleen -thymus -tonsils -adenoids -appendix -Peyer's patches (GALT)

lymphoid

hematopoietic stem cells differentiate along 2 pathways becoming either _____ or ____ stem cell

lymphoid or myeloid

complement cells kill microbial cells by ____

lysis from osmotic pressure

Platelets are removed from circulation by ____ in the ____

macrophages; spleen and liver

_____ detects changes in the salt level of the fluid flowing past them in the tubule

macula densa

specialized tubular cells in the juxtaglomerular apparatus are known as _____

macula densa

under normal oxygen conditions, HIF-α is _____

made and destroyed

the high resistance of the efferent arteriole helps ______ and results in _____

maintain pressure throughout the glomerulus; fluid being pushed into the Bowman's capsule

self-antigens as known as ______

major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules

MHC means

major histocompatibility complex molecules

hemolytic anemia is often seen in ____

malaria and SCA

______ tumor: - invansive and cancerous -cells tends to metastasize -may spread throughout the body and cannot be removed surgically

malignant

complement system ultimate goal is to form ________ that _____

membrane attack complexes (MAC); punch holes in victim cell membranes

____: -small percentage of B lymphocytes -remain dormant -upon re-exposure to same antigen, more ready for immediate action than original lymphocytes -*mediates a quicker, more potent, and longer-lasting secondary response*

memory cells

formation of ____ allows system to react more swiftly against specific invaders in the future

memory cells

glomerular surface area available for penetration is regulated by _____

mesengial cells

lipopolysaccharide is a ______ product

microbial

kidneys must receive large amount of cardiac output to ____

monitor and control ECF

____ are cells in transit to become tissue macrophages

monocytes

____ have oval or kidney-shaped nuclei

monocytes

mononuclear agranulocytes include:

monocytes and lymphocytes

____ AKA single nucleus; cells lacking granules

mononuclear agranulocytes

macrophages reside for _____ in its resident tissue

months to years

___ refers to the motion of the mucus in the lungs due to the cilia

mucus escalator

cytotoxic T cells differ from NK cells because they ____

must recognize cell before they can lyse it

platelets have high concentrations of _____ and ____

myosin; actin

___ are lymphocyte-like, nonspecifically target cancer cells and virally infected cells

natural killer cells (NK)

bradykinin activates _____

nearby pain receptors

oncotic pressure of Bowman's capsule is _____ because _____

negligible; under normal substances there are no plasma proteins in the tubule

____: -smallest functional unit ~1 million/kidney -two components (vascular, tubular)

nephron

tissue repair in non-regenerative tissue such as _______ replaces lost cells with ____

nerve and muscle; scar tissue

of all the leukocytes, _______ are the professional phagocytes

neutrophils and monocytes

capillary pores widen due to the release of histamine, cytokines cause _______ and chemotaxins cause them to _______ and come to the infection site and begin engulfing pathogens

neutrophils and monocytes to stick to the blood vessel wall; squeeze through the pores into the tissue

adhesion molecules are necessary for _____

neutrophils to attach to capillary walls and move through pores

___ is a good vasodilator carried by Hb from the lungs to tiny vessels in the tissues

nitric oxide

in the _____ pathway, the inhibitor protein is part of NF-κB and will be cleaved to allow translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus

non-canonical

NK cells differ from cytotoxic T cells because they can _____

non-discriminately lyse virus-infected cells

NSAIDS means _____

nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs

examples of ____ dissolved in plasma -glucose -amino acids -lipids -vitamins

nutrients

____ is the osmotic pressure exerted by plasma proteins

oncotic pressure

Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure ____ filtration

opposes

____ means to prepare for eating

opsonins

bacteria will be marked by _____ to enhance recognition by phagocytes

opsonins

examples of _____ -PAMPs (pathogen associated molecular products) -DAMPs (sterile injury -- damage associated...)

opsonins

MHC molecules are often the reason for _______

organ rejection

glomeruli of cortical nephrons lie in the ____

outer layer of the cortex

if fumarate and succinate concentrations increase in the cell then ______ which leads to activation of the _____ pathway

oxygen levels are low and therefore cellular respiration is slowing; hypoxia inducible factor

HIF-α degradation is regulated namely by ______ but recently there is proof that the protein ____ also plays a role

oxygen levels, TAp73

which versions of NF-κB will be cleaved to active proteins?

p105/p50 and p100/p52

______ binds with hydroxylated prolines of HIF-α signaling a proteasome for HIF-α degradation

pVHL-E3-ubiquitin ligase

IgG bind to _____ increasing recognition of microbes and enhancing activity

phagocytic (neutrophils, macrophages)

macrophages help in the defense against cancer by ____ cancer cells and ____ of NK and Tc cells

phagocytosing and clearing away remains of dead victim cells

the activation of NF-κB signaling pathways ultimately leads to the _________

phosphorylation and activation of IκB Kinase (IKK) complex

_______: -glomerular capillary BP -plasma-colloid osmotic pressure -Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure

physical forces that drive glomerular filtration

the kidneys act on _____ flowing through it to produce urine

plasma

a _____ *produces antibodies* that combine with the specific type of antigen that stimulated activation of the cell

plasma cell

activated B-cell clones multiply and differentiate into _____

plasma cells or memory cells

examples of ______: -cytokine receptors -toll-like receptors

plasma membrane receptors

_____ receptors such as (____) on ____ cells initiate the activation of NF-κB signaling pathways through a _____

plasma membrane; TNF-1; hematopoietic; kinase cascade

____ compose 6 - 8% of plasma's total weight

plasma proteins

____ establish a colloid osmotic gradient between the blood and the interstitial fluid due to their presence in plasma but not in the interstitial fluid

plasma proteins

increased capillary permeability is important in the inflammation response because it allows ____

plasma proteins usually trapped in the blood to enter inflamed tissue

_____ is caused by the unequal distribution of plasma proteins across the glomerular membrane

plasma-colloid osmotic pressure

______ is what actually dissolves a clot

plasmin

____ is activated to plasmin by the Hageman factor

plasminogen

PF3 means ____

platelet factor 3

___: -thrombocytes -cell fragments -important in hemostasis

platelets

____ aka thrombocytes

platelets

_____ are cell fragments shed from megakaryocytes

platelets

PF3 is secreted by ____ and is necessary to ___

platelets; drive the clotting cascade forward (fully activate clotting factors)

_____ means is a stem cell that is capable of giving rise to many different cell types

pluripotent

______ determine how permeable the glomerulus can be at any given time

podocytes of the inner layer of the Bowman's capsule

more powerful allergic responses occur over repeated exposure to allergens due to ____

presence of memory cells formed during the sensitization period

____ are parental or precursor cells to the final cell lineages (similar to stem cells but will differentiate down a specific line)

progenitor cells

_____ will covalently link hydroxyl groups onto the proline groups of HIF-α which will signal pVHL-E3-ubiquitin ligase

prolyl-hydroxylases

4 signs of an inflammatory response

redness, swelling, heat, pain

______ mechanisms expel irritant materials from trachea and nose as a form of defense against pathogens

reflex cough and sneeze

CD4/CD25 are also known as ______

regulatory T cells

the main function of _____ is to regulate the other effector T cells

regulatory T cells

____ anemia stems from lack of production of EPO

renal

_______ failure leads to a lack of production of EPO

renal

each kidney is supplied blood by a _____ and the blood leaves via a _____

renal artery; renal vein

the outer, granular region of the kidney is known as the _______

renal cortex

blood enters the kidney through the ______ and is filtered through the _____

renal cortex; nephron

the inner, striated region of the kidney is known as the ____

renal medulla

once formed urine drains into the ______

renal pelvis

____is a hormone that is important for maintaining proper sodium levels in the body

renin

granular cells of smooth muscle of AA store ___

renin

albumin does not filter into the tubule of the kidney because it is ____

repelled by negatively charged glycoproteins in the basement layer

when bacteria enter the body through a break in the skin, ______ engulf the pathogens and secrete _____

resident macrophages; cytokines and chemotaxins

____ system has the largest surface that interacts with the outside environment

respiratory

example of exposure to a foreign antigen structurally similar to self-antigen

rheumatic fever; caused by M protein in cell wall of Strep throat bacteria that resembles protein in myosin in the heart leads to heart valve lesions

the ____ kidney is lower than the other one

right

tissue repair can be perfect if cell division replaces lost cells with ____

same kind of cells

______ in the dermis produce sebum

sebaceous glands

the ________ of platelets is important in hemostasis

secretory and contractile abilities

during the _____, exposure to the antigen causes Th cells to secrete IL-4 prodding B cells to synthesize IgE as a response

sensitization period

_____ in the dermis provide information about the external environment

sensory nerve endings

____ is a rare hereditary condition where both B and T cells are lacking "bubble boy"

severe combined immunodeficiency

RBC ______ is due to: -no nucleus, organelles -no oxidative phosphorylation -no capabilities for cell repair

short life span

glomerular capillary wall is _____layers of ____ cells

single; endothelial

most obvious external defense to microorganisms is the ___

skin

the ___ consists of 2 layers: -epidermis -dermis

skin

the loop of Henle is the cortical nephron extends ____

slightly into the medulla

most abundant electrolyte in plasma are ___

sodium and chloride

some anti-inflammatory drugs, such as Enbrel, target ________

specific cytokine receptors in the NF-κB pathway

Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) -target cell coated with antibodies -NK cells recognize ____ of the antibody which links the NK to the target cell, - NK releases _____ to lyse target cell membrane

tail portion; perforin

antibodies as opsonins: ____ portion of antigen-bound IgG binds with a receptor on a _____ and promotes _____

tail; phagocyte; phagocytosis

____ is a clot that is formed in one vessel that enters the blood stream and plugs another vessel

thromboembolism

factors that cause _______ -roughened vessel surfaces associated with atherosclerosis -imbalances in clotting-anticlotting systems -slow-moving blood -occasionally triggered by release of tissue thromboplastin into blood from large amounts of traumatized tissue

thromboembolism

in the extrinsic pathway _____ released from traumatized tissue directly activates ____

thromboplastin; factor X

______ is a hormone produced by liver that increases number of megakaryocytes and therefore the platelet production

thrombopoietin

Route of filtered substances traveling from glomerulus to Bowman's capsule

through pores of glomerular capillary way, acellular basement membrane, filtration slits of inner layer of basement membrane

the loop of Henle in the juxtamedullary nephron extends ____

through the entire depth of the medulla

T cells acquire receptors in the _____

thymus

T cells mature in the ____

thymus

the extrinsic pathway requires contact with _____

tissue factors external to the blood

____ refers to preventing the immune system from attacking "self"

tolerance

mechanisms involved in _____: -clonal deletion -clonal anergy -receptor editing -inhibition by Treg -immunological ignorance -immune privilege

tolerance

most RNA viruses are recognized by ________

toll-like receptor 3 (TLR-3) or RIG-I-Like receptors/helicases (RLRs or RLHs)

______ provide immunological protection against inhaled pathogens

tonsils and adenoids

HIF-α is a ______ that will increase the expression of VEGP, GLUT-1, EPO

transcription factor

NF-κB regulates inflammatory process by regulating ______ is tissue epithelial and stromal cells, vascular endothelial cells, and hematopoietic cells

transcriptional programs

____ is characterized by -agglutinated clumps of donor RBC plugging small vessels -accumulation of Hb in the kidneys causing acute renal failure

transfusion reaction

the reddish color of a clot is due to ____

trapped RBC in the fibrin meshwork

T/F EPO can be created recombinantly in a lab

true

T/F HIF-α is routinely found in a normal cell

true

T/F Hemoglobin is found exclusively in RBC

true

T/F NF-κB is present in all cells in the body

true

T/F NF-κB plays a role in T and B cell activation and can be essential for T/B cell viability

true

T/F RBC contain no nucleus, organelles, or ribosomes

true

T/F T cells like B cells are clonal and antigen specific

true

T/F after peak, antibody concentration decreases

true

T/F all bones of children contain red bone marrow

true

T/F all glomeruli of both types of nephrons lie in the cortex

true

T/F clotting factors are always present in the blood in inactive precursor forms

true

T/F filtered substances travel a completely extracellular (not through cells) traveling from glomerulus to Bowman's capsule

true

T/F glomerular capillary BP depends on contraction of heart and resistance to blood flow from afferent to efferent arterioles

true

T/F glomerular capillary bed has a higher BP than other capillary beds in the body

true

T/F glomerular capillary blood pressure can be regulated and therefore be used to control GFR

true

T/F inflammation is a nonspecific response to tissue injury

true

T/F inflammatory response is similar no matter what the triggering event is

true

T/F proteins in complement cascade can augment inflammatory process by: -chemotaxins -opsonins -promote vasodilation and increase vascular permeability -stimulate release of histamine -activate kinins

true

T/F the 80% of the blood that is not filtered and leaves the glomerulus can still be acted upon by secretions in the kidney

true

T/F there are multiple classes of interferon that do different things

true

T/F there exists naturally occurring antibodies in individuals against A and B antigens found on RBC

true

T/F types of nephrons are distinguished by the location of their glomerulus and length of their structure

true

T/F women are more susceptible to autoimmune diseases than men

true

TGF means

tubuloglomerular feedback

_______ mechanism of autoregulation senses changes in the salt level in the fluid flowing through the nephron's tubular component

tubuloglomerular feedback

_____: clone of cell identical to original mutated cell

tumor

TNF means ____

tumor necrosis factor

salsalate is a promising drug in _____ for _____

type II diabetes, anti-inflammation

_____: -erythrocytes -leukocytes -platelets

types of suspended specialized elements in the blood

____ is a well studied targeting molecule hooked to proteins destined for degradation

ubiquitin

Fab regions are ____ for each different antibody

unique

structure that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder -- one from each kidney (smooth muscle-walled duct)

ureter

structure that urine flows through as it exits the body from the bladder women: short men: long

urethra

____ is produced through the combination of glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion

urine

_____ the hairpin vessels formed by peritubular capsules in a juxtamedullary nephron

vasa recta

myogenic mechanism is a common property of ______

vascular smooth muscle

_____ or the immediate constriction of a cut or torn blood vessel reduces blood flow through a damaged vessel 1st step of hemostasis

vascular spasm

_____: -constriction limits blood flow through the area -opposing endothelial surfaces are pressed together become sticky and adhere sealing off vessel -temporary, minimal fix

vascular spasm

____ blood appears bluish

venous

activation of inactive clotting factors is initiated by ____

vessel damage that exposes collagen

____ is the disease producing ability of a bacteria

virulence

examples of ___ dissolved in plasma -creatinine -bilirubin -urea and other nitrogenous substances

waste products

functions of _____ in plasma -transport medium -absorbs and distributes heat generated metabolically within tissues

water

plasma is made up 90% ___

water

T cells are activated by a foreign antigen only _____

when it is on the surface of a "self" cell

main difference between RBC/WBC and platelets is that RBC/WBC are ____ and platelets are ____

whole cells; cell fragments

as we age red bone marrow is replaced by ____

yellow fatty marrow

____ is the inactive form of an enzyme

zymogen

3 classes of globulins

α,β,γ

examples of substances carried by ____ -thyroid hormone -cholesterol -iron

α/β globulin

functions of _____ -transport many water-insoluble substances -clotting factors -inactive precursor molecules

α/β globulins

smooth muscle cells of AA have ________ receptor on them

α1 adrenergic

functions of ____ -antibodies

γ globulins

____ are plasma proteins synthesized by lymphocytes (B-cells)

γ-globulins

____ has a fundamental role in mediating all the classical attributes of inflammation (rubor, calor, dolor, and tumor)

NF-κB

NF-κB connection to Type II diabetes

1. glucose entering B-cell activates A-caspase -A-caspase activate IL-1β - IL-1β is released but then activates a receptor on the B cell that stimulates production of NF-κB -NF-κB activates IL-1β--continuing cycle -NF-κB releases chemokines that cause macrophages to release IL-1β exacerbating the issue -too much inflammation bad for pancreatic B cells

___% of the blood that enters the glomerulus is not filtered and leaves via the efferent arteriole

80

Type ___ blood will produce A antigens ONLY

A

_____ are secreted by liver and *is a specific acute phase protein that is clinically used as a blood-borne marker of inflammation*

C-reactive protein (CRP)

___: -immunoglobulin -found in *secretions of digestive, respiratory, and GI tracts, milk, and tears*

IgA

__: -immunoglobulin -present on *surface of many B cells* -*function uncertain*

IgD

___: -immunoglobulin -helps protect against *parasitic worms* -antibody mediator for *common allergy responses*

IgE

examples of ______: -aspirin -ibuprofen

NSAIDS

_____: -*naturally occurring* lymphocyte-like cells -*nonspecifically destroy* virus-infected cells and cancer cells -*directly lyse cell membrane* upon 1st exposure to these cells

Natural Killer (NK) cells

Type ___ blood will produce NEITHER A or B antigens

O

Type ___ blood will produce anti-B AND anti-A antibodies

O

Type ___ is the universal donor because ___

O; the lack of antigen A and B will not trigger attack by anti-A or anti-B antibodies

Type O can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____

O; they have both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in their plasma

____ immunity: -"borrowed immunity" -results from the transfer of preformed antibodies -can provide immediate protection or bolster resistance -includes transfer of IgG and IgA antibodies from mother to fetus -admission of anti-serum i.e. after snake bite

Passive

____ anemia is caused by a defect in the stomach where it does not secrete enough intrinsic factor which is necessary to bind and absorb B₁₂ in the small intestine

Pernicious

ADP stimulates the formation of ______and ____ which limits the adherence of platelets to areas outside of the break/tear of a vessel

Prostacycline A₂ and Nitric oxide

What region defines the NF-κB family of proteins?

Rel or RHD (Rel homology domain)

canonical is mainly ____ (specific NF-κB protein) -- inflammatory pathway

RelA, p50 dimers

non-canonical is mainly ____ (specific NF-κB protein) -- cancer

RelB, p100/p52 dimers

Rh⁺ individuals can receive ___ blood

Rh⁺ or Rh⁻

_____: complete system allergic response -constriction of airways -movement of plasma into tissue (severe hypotension) -death by respiratory failure if not controlled immediately

anaphylactic shock

___ is a large complex molecule that triggers an immune response against itself when it gains entry into the body

antigen

_____: -large, foreign, unique molecule -*induces an immune response* against itself

antigen

_____ arise from loss of tolerance to self-antigens

autoimmune diseases

T/F the antigen-binding sites on each side of an antibody can bind to different antigen, so one Ig can bind 2 types of antigens

false

T/F the classical and alternate complement pathways lead to different final steps

false

_____ is a tuft of capillaries that filters a *protein-free* plasma into a tubular component (vascular component)

glomerulus

one afferent arteriole delivers blood to the ____ (vascular component)

glomerulus of one nephron

______: -suppress almost all aspects of inflammatory process -reduce body's ability to resist infection *good for treating asthma, poison ivy*

glucocorticoids

____ is a type of white blood cell that is filled with microscopic granules, little sacs containing enzymes that digest microorganisms

granulocyte

in addition to perforin, Killer T cells contain ______ similar to caspase B

granzymes

in general, the more complex a molecule is, the _____ its antigenicity

greater

cytokines AKA

growth factors

GALT means

gut associated lymphoid tissue

larger airborne particles are filtered out the inhaled airs by _____

hairs at the beginning of the nasal package

____ is released by water in the plasma from the body as the blood travels close to the surface of the skin

heat

____ represents the percentage of RBC volume in total blood volume

hematocrit

____ is the formation and development of RBC and WBC from stem cells

hematopoiesis

____ portion of hemoglobin is an iron-containing nonprotein group

heme

____ gives blood its color because it is a pigment

hemoglobin

anemia can be caused by a deficiency in _____ content of RBC

hemoglobin

____ anemia is losing tons of blood by bleeding

hemorrhagic

___ is the stopping of bleeding from an injured vessel

hemostasis

______ prevents blood loss from a broken vessel

hemostasis

_____: -anti-coagulant -helps remove fat particles from the blood after a meal

heparin

if GFR is too high, the salt content will be ____ in the tubule and the macula densa will release ______ causing the AA to ____

high; ATP and adenosine; constrict

the concentration of water in the Bowman's capsule is ____ than in the glomerulus

higher

examples of _____: -hay fever -asthma -hives

immediate hypersensitivity

___ involves overexuberant antibody responses that "spill over" and damage normal tissue

immune complex disease

_____ are due to the abnormal functioning of the immune system

immune disease

transcriptional programs differ depending on the ______ and on the ______ that is mediating the response

inducing stimulus; cell type

ultimate goal of ____ is to bring phagocytes and plasma proteins to invaded or injured area

inflammation

NF-κB plays an important in ____

inflammation and lymphopoiesis

things that ______: -fumarate -succinate -ROS -NO -PHI -Fe chelators -CoCl₂

inhibit prolyl-hydroxylases

_____: (mechanism of tolerance) inhibition throughout life of some lymphocyte clones specific for the body's own tissues

inhibition by Treg cells

IκB is a ______ of the NF-κB heterodimer

inhibitor protein

______: -part of the glomerular membrane -consists of *podocytes* that encircle the glomerulus tuft

inner layer of Bowman's capsule

glomeruli of juxtamedullary nephrons lie in the _____

inner layer of the cortex

____ inhibits multiplication of cancer cells and increases the killing ability of the immune cells

interferon

____ family of proteins that defend against non-specific viral infections

interferons

____ pathway of the clotting cascade involves seven separate steps

intrinsic

TGF mechanism involves the ______

juxtaglomerular apparatus

____ is a combination of vascular and tubular components lying next to the glomerulus that is *important for regulating kidney function* (production of renin, relaxation and constriction)

juxtaglomerular apparatus

desert species have a higher percentage of ____ nephrons due to their need to have a higher urine concentrating ability

juxtamedullary nephrons

____ stem cell can differentiate into: -megakaryocytes -granulocyte precursors -erythrocyte precursors -monocyte precursors

myeloid

____ mechanism of autoregulation responds to changes in pressure within the nephron's vascular component

myogenic

antibodies prevent harmful chemicals from interacting with susceptible cells by _____ (acts as a sink, binds it all up)

neutralization

_____ are: -always the first cells on the scene of a bacterial cells -one of 2 phagocytic cells in immune system -release cytokines -upregulated by hematopoiesis during a bacterial infection

neutrophils

granules of ____ are neutral, show no dye preference

neutrophils

high amount of which leukocytes is indicative of a bacterial infection?

neutrophils

polymorphonuclear granulocytes include:

neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils

T/F cortical nephrons have extensive peritubular capillaries that entwine around the loop of Henle

true

T/F different species have different urine concentrating abilities

true

T/F endocrine glands secrete hormones into the plasma

true

T/F fetal cells can be found in the mother's body after several years AND can lead to autoimmune diseases

true

upregulation of adhesion molecules and chemokines leads to the recruitment and activation of effector cells such as ____

neutrophils, macrophages, and other WBC

_____ are the first phagocytes to arrive on the scene, ____ arrive 8-12 hours later maturing to ___ after another 8-12 hours

neutrophils; monocytes; macrophages

_____ is secreted by macrophages and *is toxic to nearby microorganisms*

nitric oxide

HIF-α is destined for degradation under ____ conditions

normoxia

T/F glomerular filtration is an indiscriminate process

true

____ anemia is a dietary deficiency of some component required for erythropoiesis i.e. not enough iron consumed so Hb synthesis suffers

nutritional

under normal circumstances, ______ do not vary much in determining the GFR

oncotic and Bowman's hydrostatic pressures

Plasma-colloid osmotic pressure ____ filtration

opposes

RBC are unable to produce ATP through ______ but do produce ATP through use of _____

oxidative phosphorylation; glycolytic enzymes

the molecules released by the macula densa act as ____ on the AA

paracrines

T/F leukocytes are generally larger than erythrocytes

true

T/F leukocytes vary in structure, function, and number

true

T/F many cancers like to have a inflammatory environment around them

true

T/F mast cells can have different IgE antibodies specific for different allergens bound to its membrane at one time, making it more prone to degranulation

true

issues with _____ - blood is 5-10x more viscous so it flows more slowly -increase in blood pressure

polycythemia

T/F monocytes are released as immature cells from the bone marrow into the blood

true

T/F oncotic and Bowman's hydrostatic pressures are not regulated

true

T/F plasma proteins are rarely found outside the plasma

true

T/F plasma proteins assist in the ability of the blood to act as a buffer

true

T/F platelets may have organelles and cytosolic enzymes

true

T/F platelets never leave the blood

true

______ AKA many-shaped nucleus (nucleus is pinched, looks like many nuclei); granule containing cells

polymorphonuclear granulocytes

examples of ______ -bilirubin -bile salts -penicillin

poorly plasma-soluble substance

____ polycythemia is caused by tumor like condition of the bone marrow which causes erythropoiesis to proceed at an uncontrolled rate

primary

general types of polycythemia include ___

primary and secondary

IL-1β is a ________

pro-inflammatory cytokine

____ is the garbage disposal of the cell

proteasome

the function of the basement membrane is to _____

provide structure and discourage filtration of small plasma proteins

_____ tubule exhibits uncontrolled reabsorption and secretion of selected substances

proximal

approximately ____ lymphocytes

2 trillion

___% of blood that enters the glomerulus and is filtered into the tubule

20

kidneys receive ____ % of the cardiac output

20-25

____ stem cells can differentiate into: -lymphocytes in lymphoid tissues

lymphoid

_____ tissue is tissue that produce, store, or process lymphocytes

lymphoid

___ is characterized by too many circulating RBCs

polycythemia

____ is characterized by an elevated (high) hematocrit

polycythemia

____ is an oily substance that softens and waterproofs the skin

sebum

anatomical features that contribute to RBC ability to carry O₂

-biconcave discs -flexible membranes -contain hemoglobin

T/F T lymphocytes directly bind to the target cell

true

T/F TNF is a pro-inflammatory cytokine

true

types of T cells

-CD8 -CD4 -CD4/CD25

groups of plasma proteins

-albumins -globulins -fibrinogen

body must lose ___ liters a day to get ride of biological waste (issue for dehydration)

.5

on average, T cells kill ___ cancer cells per day

1

there are ___ heme groups in 1 globin

1

monocytes circulate for ____ in the blood

1 day

T/F albumin can fit through pores in the glomerulus

true

platelets remain functional on average for ____

10 days

Type A can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____

A or O; they have anti-B antibodies

Type AB can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____

A, B, AB, or O; they have neither anti-A or anti-B antibodies

Type ___ blood will produce A AND B antigens

AB

Type ___ blood will produce B antigens ONLY

B

Type ___ blood will produce anti-A antibodies ONLY

B

BCR means

B cell receptors

most_____ differentiate into active plasma cells

B cells

____ differentiate into plasma cells that secrete antibodies

B lymphocytes (B cells)

Type B can receive blood from type ___ donors because ____

B or O; they have anti-A antibodies

complement system cascade of events: __ is activated → activates ___ → activates ___ → activates ___ → activates ___

C1; C4; C2; C3; C5

components ___ through ___ assemble into the MACs

C5; C9

____ cells are mostly helper T cells

CD4

HIV infects and destroys _____

CD4 cells

cellular stresses that can activate NF-κB pathways include - -

DNA damage; ROS

B₁₂ is necessary in the body for _______

DNA synthesis of rapidly growing cells in the body

B₁₂-deficiency causes anemia because ____

DNA synthesis stalls which stalls hemato- and erythropoiesis

____ is a cancer drug that is a RNA antagonist specifically bind and inhibits the translation of HIF-α

ENZ-2968

Thrombin cleaves _____ forming _____

Fibrinogen, Fibrin

when calculating GFR, use the equation

GFR = K_f (net filtration rate)

HIF-α increases the expression of the gene for ___, a membrane protein that allows glucose into the cell (increase leads to increase in cellular respiration)

GLUT-1

_____ are APCs to Treg cells

Granstein

____ is a cell type of the epidermis that suppresses skin-activated immune response

Granstein cells

under low oxygen conditions, HIF-α enters nucleus and binds with ____

HIF-β

Factor XII is also known as the _____ factor

Hageman

carbon monoxide poisoning occurs primarily because ___

Hb has a higher affinity for CO than O₂

____ is the reason why urine concentrations can vary

Juxtamedullary nephron and the vasa recta

_____ takes into account the surface area and permeability of the glomerulus when calculating GFR

K_f

______ are lymphocytes that release chemicals to destroy targeted cells

Killer T cells

fumarate and succinate are intermediates of the ____

Kreb's Cycle

_____ are APCs to Th cells

Langerhans

____ is a group of 3 leukotrienes that act on smooth muscle especially small airways causing contraction

SRS-A

TCR means

T cell receptors

____ directly destroy virus-laden and mutant cells by releasing chemicals that punch holes in the victim cells

T cells

_____ carry out cell-mediated immunity

T lymphocytes

_____ are responsible for cell-mediated immunity (virus laden or cancer cells)

T lymphocytes (T cells)

____ are protein antigens that do not directly stimulate the production of antibodies without the help of a Th cell

T-dependent antigens

____ are polysaccharide antigens that can B cells can bind with and be directly stimulated to produce antibodies without any help from a T-cell

T-independent antigens

delayed allergic reactions involve __ cells and are elicited by _____

T; cell-mediated immunity against the allergen

T/F antibodies can physically hinder antigens

true

____ is the random combining of a couple of hundred genes to creates the immense diversity in BCRs

VDJ

a clot is slowly dissolved by ____

activated plasmin that has been trapped in the fibrin meshwork

____ immunity: -"self-generated" -results from exposure to an antigen

active

one of the most lethal consequences of mismatched transfusions

acute kidney failure

____ are secreted by liver upon stimulation by LEM and *play role in inflammatory process, tissue repair, and immune cell activities*

acute phase proteins

classes of ______ immunity -antibody-mediated or humoral immunity -cell-mediated immunity

adaptive

____ immunity -*specifically targets* foreign material to which body has already been exposed -*requires time* -ultimate weapon against most pathogens -mediated by B and T cells -formation of memory cells

adaptive or acquired

___ are sticky cell surface molecules that facilitate intercellular binding and communication.

adhesion molecules

B cells mature in the _____

bone marrow

in addition to genes for chemokines and cytokines, NF-κB also regulates genes whose products are involved in ____

cell survival, metabolism, cell cycle, etc

_____ immunity involves the production of *activated T Lymphocytes* that directly attack unwanted (cancer or virus-laden) cells

cell-mediated

Caspases are essential in ______

cellular death by apoptosis

____ released at the site of damage attract other phagocytes to the scene

chemotaxins

_____: -*nonspecific response* -primary mechanism *activated by antibodies* to kill foreign cells -*activated by exposure to carbohydrate chains* present on surface of microbes but not on human cells

complement system

the _____ is composed of plasma proteins that are produced in the liver and circulate in inactive form

complement system

albumin in the urine is indicative of ____

damage to the glomerular membrane of the kidney

Bowman's capsule pressure could rise from a kidney obstruction (kidney stone, enlarged prostate) causing the GFR to _____

decrease

pathologically, if the plasma protein concentration increases due to low plasma (severe diarrhea), then the GFR would ____

decrease

_____ is a cellular process that releases antimicrobial cytotoxic molecules from secretory vesicles called granules found inside some cells.

degranulation

cytokines released by macrophages can stimulate _______ resulting in the release of _____

degranulation of mast cells; histamine

___ tubule and ______ exhibit variable, controlled reabsorption of Na⁺ and water, secretion of K⁺ and H⁺ occurs, and fluid leaving is urine and enters the renal pelvis

distal; collecting duct

pain of inflammation is due to _____ on afferent neurons

effect of chemicals released by macrophages and pressure of swelling

____ carry blood away from the glomerulus (vascular component), subdivides into a second set of capillaries

efferent arteriole

examples of ____ dissolved in plasma -Na⁺ -K⁺ -HCO₃⁻ -Cl⁻ -Ca²⁺

electrolytes

_____ is caused by the antibodies of a Rh⁻ mother attacking the RBC of a Rh⁺ fetus and the bone marrow of the fetus is unable to keep up the pace of RBC production and releases immature precursors of RBC

erythroblastosis fetalis

____: -red blood cells -important in O₂ transport

erythrocytes

glomerular capillary BP ____ filtration

favors

large holes in glomerular capillary wall are also known as ____

fenestrations

_______ entering the tissue from the blood helps wall off the inflamed area

fibrin and clotting factors

2 important inhibitors of prolyl-hydroxylases

fumarate and succinate

steps in the control of erythropoiesis: ____ detect ___ O₂-carrying capacity of blood leading to a release of ____ by the ____ which stimulates erythropoiesis in the _____ additional created RBC ____ O₂ carrying capacity of the blood which causes the ____

kidneys decreases erythropoietin (EPO) kidneys red marrow increases cessation of EPO release by kidneys

neutrophils can phagocytize _____ bacteria than macrophages

less

____ is a cell found in connective tissue that contains numerous basophilic granules and releases substances such as heparin and histamine in response to injury or inflammation of bodily tissues.

mast cell

IgE binds to _____ to induce degranulation

mast cells and basophils

the renal pelvis is located at the _______ of the kidney

medial inner core

_____ is a large bone marrow cell with a lobulated nucleus responsible for the production of blood thrombocytes

megakaryocyte

____ produce melanin which protects the skin by absorbing harmful UV radiations; cell type of the epidermis

melanocytes

____: -embeds itself in surface of nearby microbes -resulting holes make membranes leaky -microbe cell swells and bursts

membrane attack complex (MAC)

MAC means ____

membrane attack complexes

cytokines can be either ____ or ____

membrane-bound or diffusible

example of carbohydrate chain on microbe surface that will activate complement system

peptidoglycan in bacterial cell walls

NK directly lyse cell membranes using _____

perforin

_____ supply the renal tissue; involved in exchanges with the fluid in the tubular lumen (vascular component), will join into venules which transport blood into the vein

peritubular capillaries

______ are the blood containers that surround the tubular part of the nephron

peritubular capillaries

_____ functions as a "cleanup crew" that removes worn-out cells and tissue debris

phagocytes

role of ______: -isolate, destroy, or inactive invaders -remove debris from injured area -prepare for subsequent healing and repair

phagocytes

___ is the liquid portion of the blood

plasma

_____: (mechanism of tolerance) B cell's with receptors for self antigens change the receptor to non-self versions to prevent death of the B cell, "rehabilitated B cell"

receptor editing

in the thymus T cells undergo the process of positive/negative selection which is the process of educating T cells to _______

recognize foreign antigens only in the presence of self antigens

_____ can be found in adults in the: -upper ends of long limb bones -sternum -ribs -pelvis

red bone marrow

hematopoietic stem cells reside in the ____

red bone marrow

_____ polycythemia AKA relative polycythemia

secondary

_____ occurs normally in people living at high altitudes, chronic lung disease, and those with cardiac failure

secondary polycythemia

____ polycythemia includes ___-induced adaptive mechanism to improve blood's _____ in response to _____ to the tissue

secondary; EPO; O₂-carrying capacity; prolonged reduced oxygen delivery

particulate debris is entrapped by _____ and is removed by ____

secretion of sticky mucus; sweeping action of cilia

____ removes most of the old RBC from circulation

spleen

____ is the balance between transcapillary hydrostatic pressure and oncotic pressure

starling forces

the blood pressure of the glomerulus is regulated by _____

starling forces

_____: -vascular spasm -formation of platelet plug -blood coagulation

steps of hemostasis

cells in bone marrow known as ____ support the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic cells

stromal cell

_____ influence differentiation of hematopoietic cells by providing a microenvironment consisting of: -cellular matrix -cytokines

stromal cells

drugs that _______: -NSAIDS -glucocorticoids

suppress the inflammatory process

_______ gland secretes hormones onto the kidney regulating the filtration of key electrolytes (mainly Na)

supra-renal (adrenal?)

_____ in the dermis produce sweat which helps cool the body

sweat glands

platelets are released when needed by ____

sympathetically-induced splenic contractions

antibody subclass is determined by the ___

tail (Fc region)

flexible membrane of RBC is necessary to deliver O₂ to tissues because ---

the RBC can distort itself allowing it to travel through narrow capillaries without rupturing in the process

all additional immunological defenses are found at locations where ______

the body contacts the external environment

______ is the abnormal intravascular clot attached to a vessel wall

thrombus

T/F skin has T cells

true

T/F untreated cancer is eventually fatal

true

the activation of either pathway of NF-κB depends on ______ and in turn ____

what type of receptor gets activated; what genes are up-regulated

Rel homology domain (RHD) is important for - - -

-DNA binding -dimerization -nuclear localization signal

Hemoglobin can carry (4 things) in addition to O₂

-CO₂ -H⁺ -CO (carbon monoxide) -NO (nitric oxide)

____ regulates the inflammatory program (too much leads to inflammatory diseases)

NF-κB

_______ is responsible for innate immunity but also important in the development and progression of inflammatory diseases i.e. -cancer -autoimmune -RA -IBS -atherosclerosis -Type II diabetes

NF-κB induced inflammation

RLRs or RLHs upregulate ______ and ____

NF-κB; interferon regulating factor 3 (IRF-3)

calculation of net filtration rate (NFR) uses the equation

NFR = Glomerular filtration pressure - Bowman's hydrostatic pressure - oncotic pressure in the glomerulus

the first line of defense against cancer is ______ because they *do not require prior exposure and activation* to be able to launch an attack

NK cells

HIF-α increases the expression of the gene for ___, a protein that is important in angiogenesis

VEGF

different antibodies are produced from a couple of hundred genes through the _________

Variable Diverse Joining recombination (VDJ)


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