Abnormal Psych chapters 8, 9, 10

Sociocultural perspectives on substance abuse

peer pressure and exposure to a drug subculture are important influences in determining substance use among adolescents and young adults. -drinking is determined, in part, by where we live, whom we worship with, and the social or cultural norms that regulate our behavior. -cultural attitudes can encourage or discourage problem drinking. -rates of alcohol abuse vary across ethnic and religious groups.

Eating disorders

involve disordered eating behaviors and maladaptive ways of controlling body weight . Disorders under this category include: -Anorexia nervosa -Bulimia nervosa -Binge-eating disorder

Treatment of substance use disorders

(1) Biological (a) etoxification - The process of ridding the system of alcohol or other drugs under supervised conditions. (b) disulfiram - a drug used to discourage alcohol consumption because the combination of the two produces a violent response consisting of nausea, headache, heart palpitations, and vomiting. (c) smoking cessation drugs - drugs that blunt cravings for nicotine, including buproprion and varenicline. (d) nicotine replacement therapy - nicotine replacements in the form of prescription gum, transdermal patches, lozenges, and nasal sprays can help smokers reduce cravings and unpleasant withdrawals. (e) methadone maintenance programs - the synthetic opiate methadone is used to blunt cravings for heroin and curb unpleasant withdrawal. (f) naltrexone - drug used to help block the feelings of pleasure produced by alcohol, opioids, and amphetamines. (2) Psychological -culturally sensitive treatments (3) Nonprofessioinal support groups -Alcoholics Anonymous -Narcotics Anonymous -Cocaine Anonymous (4) Residential approaches: hospital or therapeutic residence, such as 28-day detox period (5) Psychodynamic approaches: view substance abuse and dependence as symptoms of conflicts rooted in childhood experiences. -therapist attempts to resolve the underlying conflicts, assuming that abusive behavior will then subside as the client seeks more mature forms of gratification. -*effectiveness of psychodynamic methods for treating substance abuse and dependence is not supported by controlled and replicable research studies.* (6) Behavioral approaches: modifying behavior patterns (a) self-control training - helps abusers develop skills they can use to change their behavior. Use "ABC" model of substance abuse: A (antecedent cues), B (abusive behavior), and C (consequences) (b) contingency management (CM) programs - provide reinforcements (rewards) contingent on performing desirable behaviors. (c) aversive conditioning - painful or aversive stimuli are paired with substance abuse or abuse-related stimuli to condition negative emotional responses to drug-related stimuli. (d) social skills training - helps people develop effective interpersonal responses in social situations that prompt substance abuse. (e) controlled drinking - perspective that many people with alcohol abuse or dependence can develop self-control techniques that allow them to engage in controlled drinking. *This is a controversial viewpoint.* (7) Relapse-prevention training: help substance abusers identify high-risk situations and learn effective coping skills for handling these situations such as negative mood states, interpersonal conflict, and socially conductive situations; interpretation of lapse/slip

Pathways to addiction

(1) Experimentation (2) Routine use (3) Addiction or dependence

Biological perspectives on substance abuse

(1) Neurotransmitters - many drugs of abuse alter levels of neurotransmitters; increased levels of the neurotransmitter *dopamine* in the brain's reward or pleasure circuits produce feelings of pleasure. --> regular use of some drugs may sap the brain's own production of dopamine, leading to dependence on drug to produce feelings of pleasure. --> other neurotransmitters such as serotonin and endorphins may also play a role in drug abuse and dependence. (2) Genetic factors - evidence supports role of genetic factors in a range of substance use disorders involving alcohol, amphetamines, cocaine, heroin, and tobacco.

Treatment for paraphilias

(1) Psychoanalysis - Attempts to bring childhood sexual conflicts into awareness so they can be resolved in the light of the individual's adult personality. (2) Cognitive-behavioral therapy - Includes a number of specific techniques, such as aversion therapy, covert sensitization, and social skills training, to help eliminate paraphilic behaviors and strengthen appropriate sexual behaviors. (3) Biomedical therapies - SSRIs for obsessive thoughts regarding paraphilic acts and antiandrogen drugs to reduce levels of testosterone in the bloodstream.

Psychological Perspectives on paraphilias

(1) Psychodynamic theorists - Paraphilias as defenses against leftover castration anxiety from the phallic period of psychosexual development. -young boys develops sexual desire for the mother and perceive the father as a rival. -castration anxiety - Unconscious fear that the father will retaliate by removing the organ that has become associated with sexual pleasure. (2) Learning theorists - Paraphilias are explained in terms of conditioning and observational learning. -object or activity becomes inadvertently associated with sexual arousal. -object or activity then gains the capacity to elicit sexual arousal (3) Multifactorial: Sexual or physical abuse in childhood may corrupt normal sexual arousal patterns

Theoretical perspectives on gender and sexuality

(1) Psychodynamic theorists point to extremely close mother-son relationships, empty relationships with parents, and fathers who were absent or detached. (2) Learning theorists similarly point to the unavailability of a strong male role model. (3) Variations in male sexual hormones acting upon the developing brain during prenatal development may contribute. (4) Genetic and hormonal influences may create a disposition that interacts with early life experiences in leading to the development of transgender identity.

Psychological Perspectives on sexual dysfunction

-a history of sexual trauma or rape -performance anxiety -underlying irrational beliefs and attitudes -relationship problems

Insomnia disorde

-a sleep disorder characterized by chronic or persistent insomnia. -occurs at least 3 nights per week for at least 3 months -affects concentration, attention, response time, problem solving, and memory -associated with physical health problems, including impaired immune system functioning

Narcolepsy

-a sleep disorder characterized by sudden, irresistible episodes of sleep. -narcoleptic attacks: sudden sleep without warning, immediate transition from wakefulness into REM sleep stage, occurs at least 3 times a week for a period of 3 months, sometimes associated with: cataplexy (a sudden loss of muscular control), sleep paralysis Most common type of narcolepsy: narcolepsy/hypocretin deficiency syndrome, associated with deficiency of hypocretin in brain. May be a type of autoimmune disease in genetically susceptible individuals.

Binge-eating disorder (BED)

-characterized by recurrent eating binges without purging. -affects about 3.5% of women and 2% of men at some point in their lives...more common in women -linked to depression and disturbed eating behavior. -treatment: Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) has shown therapeutic benefits and is treatment of choice. -Many sufferers are overweight or obese. --> obesity - a condition of excess body fat; generally defined by a BMI of 30 or higher.

Causes of Anorexia and Bulimia

(1) Sociocultural: comparing one's own body to media images of the perfect body can lead to body dissatisfaction; 4 out of 5 women in US have gone on diet by the time they're 18; 80% of college women reported dieting (2) Psychosocial: feelings of insecurity, body dissatisfaction (role of Facebook), use of food for emotional gratification, problems with interpersonal relationships (3) Emotional Anorexia nervosa - food restriction as an attempt to relieve upsetting emotions by mastery over body. Bulimia nervosa - evidence links negative emotional states to binge-eating episodes; coping with emotional distress and often accompanied by depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and substance-related disorders; more likely to have experienced childhood sexual and physical abuse (4) Learning: eating disorders as a type of weight phobia, relief from anxiety acts as a negative reinforcement. (5) Cognitive: demands for perfectionism and overconcern about making mistakes figure prominently in many cases of eating disorders. (6) Psychodynamic: suggest that girls with anorexia nervosa have difficulty separating from families, struggle with forming individuated identities, unconsciously want to remain a prepubescent child, do not want to mature and take on adult responsibilities (7) Family: frequently develop against a backdrop of family problems and conflicts: dysfunctional families with high levels of conflict, overprotective parents, but also less nurturing and supportive, refusing to eat punishes parents for feelings of loneliness and alienation experienced in the home (8) Biological: *serotonin imbalance* may play a role with bulimia nervosa. --> Prozac, which increases serotonin activity, can decrease binge-eating episodes in bulimic women. --> genetic factors play an important role in the development of eating disorders.

Genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder

-Applies to women who experience sexual pain and/or difficulty engaging in vaginal intercourse or penetration. --> pain cannot be explained by an underlying medical condition, and is believed to have a psychological component. --> vaginismus - Muscles surrounding the vagina involuntarily contract whenever vaginal penetration is attempted, making sexual intercourse painful or impossible.

Biological Perspectives on paraphilias

-Higher-than-average sex drives in men with paraphilias --> referred to as hypersexual arousal disorder --> higher frequency of sexual fantasies and urges and a shorter refractory period after orgasm by masturbation -Differences between paraphilic men and male control subjects in brain wave patterns in response to paraphilic (fetishistic and sadomasochistic) images and control images

sex reassignment surgery

-Hormone treatments for development of secondary sex characteristics -Postoperative adjustment more favorable for female-to-male

Treatment of sexual dysfunctions

-Most contemporary sex therapists assume sexual dysfunctions can be treated by directly modifying the couple's sexual interactions. -Pioneered by Masters and Johnson (1970), sex therapy uses cognitive-behavioral techniques (1) treatment for low sexual drive/arousal: self-stimulation with erotic fantasies, couple therapy, hormone therapy, sensate focus exercises--nondemanding sexual contacts --> for erectile dysfunction, has organic causes --> Viagra, surgery, bio treatments combined with psych approaches (2) treatment for disorders of orgasm: modification of negative attitudes toward sex, treatment for relationship --> for female orgasmic dysfunction - directed masturbation --> for delayed ejaculation in men - increasing sexual stimulation and reducing performance anxiety --> for early ejaculation in men - stop-and-go technique (3) treatment for vaginismus - a conditioned reflex involving the involuntary constriction of the vaginal opening; may include a combination of behavioral methods, including relaxation techniques and the gradual exposure method; if woman has history of rape or abuse, psychotherapy often part of treatment program.

Sadomasochism

-Mutually gratifying sexual interactions between partners involving both sadistic and masochistic acts. ---> a diagnosis of sexual masochism or sadism is appropriate when people become distressed by their behavior or fantasies, or when urges and fantasies lead to problems with other people.

Effects of Sexual Abuse on Children

-Nearly 8% of adult males and nearly 20% of adult females reported some form of sexual abuse before the age of 18. -Typical abuser is a relative or step-relative of the child, a family friend, or a neighbor. -Sexual abuse can inflict great psychological harm - anger, anxiety, depression, eating disorders, inappropriate sexual behavior, aggression, drug abuse, suicide, PTSD, low self-esteem, sexual dysfunction, and feelings of detachment.

Transvestism

-Recurrent and powerful urges, fantasies, or behaviors in which individuals become sexually aroused by cross-dressing. -Usually found among heterosexual men -Cross-dressing typically done in private -May frequent transvestite clubs or become involved in transvestic subculture

Frotteurism

-Recurrent, powerful sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors in which the person becomes sexually aroused by rubbing against or touching a nonconsenting person. -Also called "mashing," often occurs in crowded places

Fetishism

-Recurrent, powerful sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors involving inanimate objects, such as an article of clothing. -Prefer the object over a person and unable to become sexually aroused without it -Origins of fetish can usually be traced back to childhood

Physiological dependence

-Repeated use of a substance alters the body's physiological reactions leading to: --> tolerance - with frequent drug use, higher doses are needed to achieve the same effect. --> withdrawal syndrome - specific physiological reaction which will vary depending on the drug.

Sociocultural Perspectives on sexual dysfunction

-Stereotypical attitudes toward sexuality -Sociocultural beliefs and sexual taboos --> sexual anxieties may transform negative expectations into self-fulfilling prophecies -Negative beliefs about sexuality --> ex: sex is inappropriate for adults past childbearing age

Sexual masochism

-Strong and recurrent sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors in which the person becomes sexually aroused by being humiliated, bound, flogged, or made to suffer in other ways. -May involve binding or mutilating oneself during masturbation or sexual fantasies -Partner may restrain, blindfold, paddle, or whip the person

Voyeurism

-Strong and recurrent sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors in which the person becomes sexually aroused by watching unsuspecting people, generally strangers, who are naked, disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity. -Usually masturbates while watching or while fantasizing about watching -May be the voyeur's only sexual outlet -Prospect of being discovered heightens excitement

Bulimia nervosa

-characterized by recurrent episodes of gorging on large quantities of food, followed by compensatory behaviors. --> purging by means of self-induced vomiting; use of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas; or fasting or engaging in excessive exercise. --> commonly occurring features: feelings of lack of control over eating during binge-eating episodes, excessive fear of gaining weight, excessive emphasis on body shape and body weight on self-image -several medical complication, such as Skin irritation around the mouth, Blockage of salivary ducts, Decay of tooth enamel and dental cavities, Damage to taste receptors on the palate, stress on pancreas, potassium deficiency

opiods

-classified as narcotics, opioids are drugs that have pain-relieving and sleep-inducing properties: --> highly addictive, produce rush: an intense feeling of pleasure, stimulate brain's pleasure circuit --> naturally occurring opiates derived from the juice of the poppy plant and synthetic drugs that have opiate-like effects --> brain produces its own opiate-like substance: endorphins types: -morphine - strongly addictive narcotic derived from the opium poppy that relieves pain and induces feelings of well-being. -heroin - the most widely used opiate, is a powerful depressant that can create a euphoric rush.

Gambling disorder

-classified by DSM-5 as a nonchemical addictive disorder. -characterized by: loss of control over behavior, state of high arousal or pleasurable excitement when behavior is performed, withdrawal symptoms -personality characteristics overlap with chemical abusers. -cognitive errors such as gambler's fallacy and illusion of control bias are common. -many suffer low self-esteem and childhood rejection or abuse. treatment: challenging because compulsive gamblers: have little insight into causes of their problems & are reluctant to enter treatment --> some success reported with cognitive-behavioral programs and peer support groups.

Biological Perspectives on sexual dysfunction

-decline in testosterone -cardiovascular problems -health issues such as obesity -vascular or nervous disorders -prescription and psychoactive drug use

Treatment of eating disorders

-hospitalization may be warranted when weight loss is severe or body weight is falling rapidly. -cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is effective for bulimia and is currently recognized as the treatment of choice for this disorder. -interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), a structured form of psychodynamic therapy, is also effective in treating bulimia. -SSRI-type antidepressant drugs have therapeutic benefits in treating bulimia, but effectiveness is limited.

Learning theory perspectives on substance abuse

-largely learned and can, in principle, be unlearned. (1) Operant conditioning - drugs produce reinforcing effects such as feelings of pleasure and reductions in anxiety or depression. --> can also produce relief from tension (tension reduction theory). --> can provide social reinforcers such as approval from others. --> relief from unpleasant withdrawal symptoms is a negative reinforcer to resuming drug use. (2) Classical conditioning --> cravings may represent a conditioned response to environmental cues associated with prior use of the substance. --> negative emotional states that have been paired with the use of drugs in the past may also elicit cravings. (3) Observational learning: important role of modeling --> adolescents with a parent who smokes are much more likely to smoke compared to those in families where neither parent smokes.

Alcohol abuse

-most widely abused substance in the United States and worldwide. -contains depressant drug called ethyl alcohol. -3 in 10 American adults develop an alcohol use disorder in their lifetime. -effects of alcohol: psychological effects, physiological effects such as heightened activity of GABA, impaired judgement, etc. -moderate drinking: correlational evidence shows that moderate use of alcohol (about 1 drink per day for women, about 2 drinks for men) is linked to lower risks of heart attacks and strokes, as well as lower death rates.

Sexual dysfunctions

-persistent or recurrent problems with sexual interest, arousal, or response. -About 40% to 45% of adult women and 20% to 30% of adult men are affected at some point in their lives. Dysfunctions classified according to general categories: -lifelong - have existed for the person's lifetime -acquired - begin following period of normal function -situational - occur only in some situations -generalized - occur in all situations and every time person engages in sexual activity Types: (1) sexual interest, desire, or arousal: male hypoactive sexual desire disorder, erectile disorder, female sexual interest/arousal disorder (2) orgasmic response: female orgasmic disorder, delayed ejaculation, premature (early) ejaculation (3) pain during sexual intercourse or penetration (in women): genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder

Sleep-wake disorders

-persistent or recurrent sleep-related problems that cause distress or impaired functioning. Types -Insomnia disorder -Hypersomnolence disorder -Narcolepsy -Breathing-related sleep disorders -Circadian rhythm sleep-wake disorders -Parasomnias

Hypoxyphilia

-person seeks sexual gratification by being deprived of oxygen by means of using a noose, plastic bag, chemical, or pressure on the chest during masturbation or sexual act. -typically discontinued before loss of consciousness, but occasional deaths are reported

Pedophilia

-recurrent and powerful sexual urges or fantasies or behaviors involving sexual activity with children (typically 13 years old or younger). -To be diagnosed with pedophilia, the person must be at least 16 years of age and at least 5 years older than the child or children toward whom the person is sexually attracted or has victimized. -In some cases of pedophilia, the person is attracted only to children. In other cases, the person is attracted to adults as well.

Anorexia nervosa

-severe weight loss due to significant restriction of calorie intake or self-starvation. -usually develops between ages of 12 and 18. -common features: excessive fear of gaining weight, distorted body image, failure to recognize risks posed by abnormally low body weight -typically affects young, European American women: .9% in women, .3% in men 2 general subtypes: (a) binge eating/purging type and alternating between rigid control and impulsive behavior; substance abuse (b) restricting type: rigid and obsessive about diet and appearance -medical complications: losses of as much as 35% of body weight, and anemia; dermatological problems; cardiovascular complications, increased risk of death - about 5% to 20% of cases, due either to suicide or to malnutrition from starvation.

Parasomnias

-sleep disorders involving abnormal behavior patterns associated with partial or incomplete arousals occurring around the boundary between wakefulness and sleep. (1) Parasomnias associated with non-REM sleep: (a) Sleep terrors: repeated episodes of terror-induced arousals that usually begin with a panicky scream; more common in young children, more intense than ordinary nightmares, tend to occur during the first third of nightly sleep and during deep sleep; cause unknown (b) Sleepwalking: repeated episodes in which motor behavior is performed while sleeping, without conscious awareness; most common in children, affecting between 1% and 5% of children, occur during deeper stages of sleep, cause unknown (2) Parasomnias associated with REM sleep: (a) Rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder: repeated episodes of acting out one's dreams during REM sleep; normal muscle paralysis is absent or incomplete, affects about .5% of adult population, primarily older adults, may indicate early signs of Parkinson's disease or withdrawal from alcohol (b) Nightmare disorder: recurrent episodes of disturbing and well-remembered nightmares during REM sleep; often associated with traumatic experiences and generally occur when the individual is under stress

Psychodynamic perspectives on substance abuse

-traditional psychodynamic theory: alcoholism reflects an oral-dependent personality -excessive alcohol use is linked to oral traits, such as dependence and depression...oral traits originated with fixation in the oral stage of psychosexual development. -excessive drinking or smoking in adulthood symbolizes an individual's efforts to attain oral gratification.

Paraphilias

-unusual or atypical patterns of sexual attraction that involve sexual arousal in response to atypical stimuli. -to be diagnosed with a paraphilic disorder, the paraphilic behavior: --> must cause personal distress or impairment in important areas of daily functioning, or involve behaviors either presently or in the past in which satisfaction of the sexual urge involved harm or risk of harm to other people others: Telephone scatologia (obscene phone call) Necrophilia (corpse) Partialism (body part) Zoophilia (animal) Coprophilia (feces) Klismaphilia (enema) Urophilia (urine) Exhibitionism: exposing genitals in public

Gender dysphoria

A psychological disorder in which people experience significant personal distress or impaired functioning as a result of a conflict between their anatomic sex and their gender identity. features: -Often begins in childhood -Associated with depression -Can take different paths: --> May end by adolescence, with the child becoming more accepting of her or his gender identity --> May persist into adolescence or adulthood

Erectile disorder

A sexual dysfunction in males characterized by difficulty in achieving or maintaining erection during sexual activity.

Treatment of sleep-wake disorders

Biological Approaches (1) Sleep medications, including antianxiety drugs and other sleep-inducing agents such as zolpidem. --> reduce the time it takes to get to sleep, increase total length of sleep, and/or reduce nightly awakenings --> problems associated with sleep medications: suppression of REM sleep and interference with restorative function of sleep, rebound insomnia, chemical dependence, psychological dependence (2) Stimulant drugs used to enhance wakefulness in people with narcolepsy, hypersomnolence. Psychological approaches (1) CBT techniques: focus on lowering states of physiological arousal, modifying maladaptive sleeping habits, and changing dysfunctional thoughts. --> Stimulus control: changing the environment associated with sleeping --> Rational restructuring: substituting rational alternatives for self-defeating, maladaptive thoughts or beliefs

Addiction

Compulsive use of a drug, accompanied by signs of physiological dependence.

Psychological dependence

Compulsive use of a substance to meet a psychological need.

Gender identity

Psychological sense of being female or being male.

Sexual sadism

Recurrent, powerful sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors in which the person becomes sexually aroused by inflicting physical or psychological suffering or humiliation on another person.

Substance-induced disorders

Substance intoxication - A pattern of repeated episodes of intoxication brought on by a particular drug. Substance withdrawal - A characteristic cluster of symptoms following the sudden reduction or cessation of use of a psychoactive substance after prolonged use.

Two major types of substance-related disorders

Substance-induced disorders - Disorders that are directly induced by using psychoactive substances. Substance use disorders - Patterns of maladaptive use of psychoactive substances that lead to significant levels of impaired functioning or personal distress.

Transgender identity

The psychological sense of belonging to one gender while possessing the sexual organs of the other. --> Not all people with transgender identity have gender dysphoria or any other diagnosable disorder.

Hypersomnolence disorder

a pattern of excessive sleepiness during the day. -difficulty awakening following a prolonged sleep period (typically 8 to 12 hours) -repeated episodes of sleepiness during day, frequent naps, dozing off -distress or difficulties in daily functioning -treated with stimulant medication

Breathing-related sleep disorder

a sleep disorder in which sleep is repeatedly disrupted by difficulty with breathing normally. (1) Obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea - repeated episodes of either complete or partial obstruction of breathing during sleep. -->excessive daytime sleepiness and fatigue --> most common among middle age and older adults --> higher levels of depression --> impaired quality of life and physical health problems (2) Central sleep apnea: may involve heart-related problems or chronic use of opioid drugs (3) Sleep-related hypoventilation: associated with lung disease or impaired lung function

Alcoholism

an alcohol dependence disorder or addiction that results in serious personal, social, occupational, or health problems. --> most widely held view of alcoholism is the disease model, the belief that alcoholism is a medical illness or disease. -risk factors: male, age between 20 and 40, antisocial personality disorder, family history, lower income and educational level -ethnicity: the heaviest toll on African Americans and Native Americans; prevalence of alcohol-related cirrhosis of the liver is nearly twice as high among African Americans as among White Americans, even though African Americans are less likely to develop alcohol abuse or dependence disorders; not as common in Jewish Americans or Asian Americans -physical health: liver disease, some forms of cancer, coronary heart disease, neurological disorders

Hallucinogens

class of drugs that produce sensory distortions or hallucinations; may also have additional effects, such as relaxation and euphoria or, in some cases, panic. Types: (1) LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)- synthetic hallucinogenic drug; effects vary by amount taken and user's expectation, personality, mood, and surroundings. (2) Phencyclidine, or PCP - referred to as "angel dust.": classified as a deliriant - a drug capable of producing states of delirium. (3) Marijuana: hallucinogenic drug derived from the leaves and stems of the plant Cannabis sativa. --> in low doses, produces relaxed feelings; use is on the rise among high school students and adults. --> classified as a hallucinogen because in high doses it can produce perceptual distortions or mild hallucinations. --> associated with psychological rather than physiological dependence.

Drugs of abuse

classified within three major groupings: (1) depressants, such as alcohol and opioids --> slows down CNS, reduces tension/anxiety, slows movement, impairs cognitive processes, can cause death in high doses (2) stimulants, such as amphetamines and cocaine (3) hallucinogens, such as marijuana, PCP, and LSD

female sexual interest/arousal disorder

experience either a lack of or greatly reduced level of sexual interest, drive, or arousal

DSM-5: Substance Use and Addictive Disorders

includes: -Substance use disorders -Gambling disorder --> considered a nonchemical form of addition, previously called pathological gambling, previously (DSM-4) included in impulse control disorder

Circadian rhythm sleep disorder

persistent disruption of the natural sleep-wake cycle. -can lead to insomnia disorder or hypersomnolence -causes significant levels of distress or impaired ability to function in social, occupational, or other roles -frequent changes in work shifts can disturb body's natural sleep-wake cycle, resulting in this disorder that can make someone sleep deprived

male hypoactive sexual desire disorder

persistently have little, if any, desire for sexual activity or may lack sexual or erotic thoughts or fantasies

Stimulants

psychoactive substances that increase the activity of the central nervous system: -enhance state of alertness. -produce pleasure or even euphoric highs. -effects vary with the particular type of stimulant drug. types: (1) Amphetamines- class of synthetic stimulants; used in high doses for euphoric rush; most potent form is methamphetamine, injected directly into veins. -can cause amphetamine psychosis: hallucinations and delusions (2) Ecstasy, or MDMA, is a designer drug, a chemical knockoff similar in chemical structure to amphetamine: produces mild euphoria and hallucinations, popular on college campuses and in clubs, can produce adverse psychological effects, including depression, anxiety, insomnia, and even paranoia and psychosis (3) Cocaine - natural stimulant derived from the leaves of the coca plant; second most widely used illicit drug in the United States (after marijuana); works directly stimulates the brain's reward or pleasure circuits; produces a sudden rise in blood pressure and an accelerated heart rate. (4) Nicotine - stimulant found in tobacco products; claims more than 480,000 lives annually in the United States and more than 3 million worldwide.; smoking rates have declined dramatically in last several decades. --> ethnic differences: higher in Native Americans --> gender differences: higher in men

Barbiturates

sedative drugs used to ease anxiety, reduce pain and treat epilepsy and high blood pressure: -highly addictive -relaxing and can produce mild state of euphoria -popular as street drugs -deadly in high doses - especially when mixed with alcohol

Cognitive perspectives on substance abuse

the role of cognitive factors in substance abuse and dependence. -positive expectations about drug use increases the likelihood of use. -drug use may boost self-efficacy expectations - personal expectancies we hold about our ability to successfully perform tasks. -expectancies may account for the "one-drink effect" - the tendency of chronic alcohol abusers to binge once they have a drink.