Adolescent Psych Test 3

Adolescents with Disabilities/ Learning Disabilities

10% of teens in american schools have been diagnosed with a disability. Half of these are learning disabilities. Learning Disability: Normal intelligence but difficulty in an academic area. May indicate deficits in brain development. Based on gap between IQ test and school tests. Boys 2x as likely to have learning disorder. Blacks, Latinos more likely to have learning disability.

Cause of Minority Unemployment

Decline in low skilled high paying jobs, many people followed movement of jobs to the suburbs, These people were affluent, community leaders. With leaders gone, community worsened, crime increased, giving businesses that remained in the city incentive to leave too. Tax base decreased w/ departure of businesses, wealthier citizens, the schools became underfunded, the students were not satisfactory in skills, and no one would hire. --> More drug use, crime, gang violence.

Schooling in Developing Countries: Past

Education beyond childhood is mainly for the urban middle class (similar to US 100 yrs ago). Adolescents typically engaged in productive work rather than attending school. Labor needed by their families and they can best learn by working besides experienced workers.

Five Uses of Media by Adolescents

Entertainment Identity Formation High sensation Coping Youth Culture Identification *All except entertainment are developmental,used by ado and EA not adults or children*

Gender Differences and Rates of School Success

From 1st grade to high school graduation, girls tend to achieve higher grades than boys and have higher educational aspirations. Girls less likely to have learning disabilities, and drop out. Exists across all Western countries through college. Why? Girls tend to enjoy the school environment more, better relationships with teachers., greater feelings of support from parents, spend more time on HW.

Five Uses of Media: Entertainment

Media as enjoyable part of their leisure lives. Music typically used as entertainment. Usually media as entertainment is for fun, amusement, and recreation.

Unemployment Trends

Most European countries have higher unemployment rates than the US amongst young people. Higher risk for depression, especially for adolescents who lack parental support. Highest in blacks and latinos, over half of high school dropouts 18-21 are unemployed. Due to shifting economic patterns, diminished number of jobs available to unskilled workers.

New Media: Internet and Cell Phones

New media allows the world of friends to be a nearly constant presence in adolescents lives, social worlds are no longer split up into time with family, and separate time with friends.

Pros/Cons: Large High Schools

Pro: Larger the school, the more variety of classes, extra-curricular programs, more friends. Cons: Less attachment to teachers and the school as a whole, can be alienating.

School and Socialization Influences

School climate had significant effect on rates of delinquency. Having an intellectual balance of high-achieving students as leaders helped banish delinquency. Ethos of the school: School's prevailing belief system. One that emphasized hard work, good performance, and had fair but firm discipline lowered delinquency.

Five Uses of Identity Formation: High Sensation

Sensation Seeking: Personality characteristic defined by the extent to which a person enjoys novelty and intensity of sensation. Higher in ado and EA. Sensation seeking related to higher media consumption, such as action films, and heavy rock music. High emotional arousal in ado when listening to music.

Military Service: Emerging Adulthood

Since the 1970s, military staffed by volunteers who are different than most. Lower SES families, tend to have mediocre grades in school, low college aspirations. Blacks and Latinos more likely than whites to enlist. Motivations include extra money,educational support, job training, belief they would become responsible, mature. Effects of military involvement recently, mostly positive. benefits especially strong for blacks, latinos.

Culture and Risk Behavior

Traditional cultures have less of a problem with antisocial behavior than cultures in the West; especially with females. American adolescents higher rates of most types of risk behavior in other Western countries.

Experimental Substance Use

Try a substance once or a few times out of curiosity and then do not use it again. Most common reason young people use drugs.

Marlboro and Camel Cigarette Ads

Two of the brands most popular among adolescents, Marlboro smoked by half of 12-17 yr. old smokers. Newport 25% Camel 13%. These are the three most heavily advertised brands; cig advertising one of influences that lead them to smoke.

Media vs. Other Sources of Socialization Effects

While other socializers main goal is to promote good personhood and citizenship, media is market driven. This means that ado have larger control over their socialization from the media than from family members/school. Consequences of this: Diversity in which media to choose from. Socialization goes over the head of other socializing adults; adults cannot control restrictions well. Media has greatest similarity with peer socialization.

The Forgotten Half: Non-College youth in America

in 1987, panel assembled by William Grant Foundation to address the transition from high school to full time work. Suggested better occupational preparation in HS, and government training programs for jobs. Wages actually declined, due to stable high wage employment in manufacturing, comm, utilities rapidly declining, Surplus of minimum wage part time jobs, and Professional jobs. Nothing in between.

Bame Nsamenang

of Cameroon, argues secondary education based on a model developed when European countries ruled Africa. Textbooks foreign, nothing of African culture.

Medicinal Substance Use

undertaken to relieve an unpleasant emotional state such as anxiety or sadness. Kind of self-medication.Ado who use drugs for this experience tend to use them more than those who do socially or experimentally, but frequent drug users are three times as likely to be depressed.

Why Delinquency-Prevention Programs Fail

1. Delinquents rarely welcome the opportunity to participate them; resist any aid. 2. Programs typically take place in adolescence when patterns of delinquency already exist, rather than childhood when problems first appear.

Sequence of Substance Abuse

1. Drinking beer/wine 2. Smoking cigarettes/hard liquor 3. Smoking marijuana 4. Using hard drugs Gateway Drugs: Beer, cigs, weed because most ado who try hard drugs have already passed through the gates of these substances.

Preventing Automobile Accidents

1. Driver Education: Not successful, studies show crashes higher amongst people who went to driving school: due to kids not wanting to learn the skills just want to get their license, higher confidence, shortened learning period. 2. Graduated Driver License: People receive driving privileges gradually, rather than all at once. Get more privilege only if safe record. Steps: 1. Learning License (driving with parental supervision), Restricted License (with driving curfews, no passenger rules, no alcohol tolerance) Full license. GDL successful: last decade fatal crashes of 16 year olds decreased by 40%.

Adolescents and Blogs

1/4 of adolescents have created their own blogs, 1/2 read other people's blogs. Most common blog focuses on daily life, over 75% of material in the blog focuses on author, can be good for identity formation.

Donald Super's Theory of Development of Occupational Goals

5 Stages beginning with adolescence. 1.) Crystallization: ages 14-18. move beyond fantasies and consider how their talents/interests match up with occupational possibilities available. 2.) Specification: ages 18-21: Job choices become more focused. Seek information about what is involved in each job prospect. Training started. 3.) Implementation: ages 21-24: Completing the education/training needed and entering the job. Reconcile what job you want and what is available. 4.) Stabilization: ages 25-35: Young adults establish themselves in their careers. Become more stable and experienced in their work. 5.) Consolidation: ages 35 and up: Continuing to gain expertise and seek advancement into higher-status positions.

Schooling Arrangement Plans

6-3-3 Plan: 6 years primary, 3 junior year, 3 high school 5-3-4 Plan: 5 years primary, 3 years middle school, 4 year high school 8-4 plan: 8 years primary, 4 years high school. Transition to middle school often hard due to puberty taking place, peer relations changing due to sex, changes in school experience. 8-4 Plan advantage: better self-esteem, school attendance, and student engagement. This plan rare in America, more common in Europe.

Characteristics of College Students

70% recent graduates enter college. In US: 58% undergraduate is female. Same trend in Europe. Worldwide Survey: More girls in college in 83 of 141 countries. In US: 90% of Asians attend college; highest ethnic group attendance. 71% of whites 60% blacks and Latinos. This has been an increase from the past.

The Internet and Adolescents

90% have access to computer across genders and races. Most preferred media form, internet use highest in emerging adulthood. Most common uses are games and social networking, boys: to play games, download music. Girls: social purposes, chat rooms, email. Provides access to information, can enhance education in childhood and adolescence. Cons: Sexual predators: 1/4 experienced unwanted sexual exposure online, 1/5 received sexual solicitation. Can cause social isolation however research proves this otherwise, more social connections.

Percentage of Top Video Games that contained Violence

94%

Apprenticeships in Western Europe

A work preparation program, an adolescent novice serves under contract to a master who has experience at a profession. Germany's apprenticeship program includes 60% of 16-18 year olds Common features: Entry at 16, lasting 2-3 yrs. Continued part time schooling while in apprenticeship. Training that takes place in the workplace under real conditions. Preparation for a career in respected industry.

Wayne Osgood's Theory of Substance Use amongst EA

ALl deviance based on propensity and opportunity. Propensity: sufficient motivation for behaving deviantly. Opportunity: being able to do so. Theorizes college students have most propensity/opportunity and the most unstructured socializing which is correlated to more use of alcohol and weed.

International Comparisons

Across reading science, and math, the developed countries of the West and Japan/South Korea perform best. Countries below international average are typically non developed countries in Africa, Latin America, and Asia.

Tracking

Addresses diversity in interests/abilities. typically includes upper level college prep track for elite students, general education track fr average students, and a special education track for for those who are behind. Cons: Dooms students in lower tracks to a second-rate education. Students in higher tracks have best resources, best teachers. Black and latino students more likely to be placed in lower tracks.

Family/Parenting Styles and Risk Behavior

Ado who have authoritative parenting least likely to participate in risk behavior. Drugs more likely in parenting that is authoritarian, permissive, disengaged, and in divorced households

Cons of European Schooling System

Adolescents must decide at a relatively early age what job they want to work in when older. At age 15 or 16, adolescents have to decide which type of secondary school to enter, this will have huge impact on their vocational lives.

Rise of Schooling for Adolescents: Western Countries

Age of Adolescence (1890-1920) states began to pass laws requiring students to go to school through the early teens.

Individual Factors of Risk Behavior

Aggression Sensation Seeking Personality Poor School Achievement Low Impulse Control- due to neglectful parenting Optimistic Bias

External Problem: Substance Abuse

Alcohol: 40% of US high school seniors used alcohol, 31% binge drink in the past month. 19% of US high school seniors smoked cigarettes 23% of US high school seniors smoked weed. Besides cigarettes, alcohol, and weed, other substance frequent use is very low. Highest in early 20s, then declines late 20s. Substance use highest in college students in 20s.

Percentages of Adolescent Media Usage

American teens listen to music for 4 hours a day, TV for 2 hours a day. Europe/Japan Teens: Watch Tv for 2-3 hrs per day. US teens: oer 50% of adolescents watch one movie p/month., 70% have TVs in room. Over 90% of Ameriacn adolescents have access to computers at home/school. 70% of US teen girls read magazines. *American teens average 7 hours per day of media*

Volunteer work Trends: Adolescence

Americans twice as likely to do volunteer work than any other Western country, 66% report yearly participation. Volunteers tend to have higher educational goals and performance, higher degree between actual selves and ideal selves. Often adolescents who partake have a parent who do so also, often part of political socialization.

Current US Adolescent Workplace

Babysitting most common first job for adolescent girls. Yard work most common first job for boys. Older adolescents typically work in retail sales, or restaurant jobs. More formal commitment,15-20 hours per week. Work tends to be repetitive, 25% of time often cleaning or carrying things.

Controversial Advertising: Cigarettes

Banned from being on commercials in 1971, but cig companies just advertised in magazines, newspapers, etc. Critics say ads are geared for adolescents, while cig companies state they are to persuade adult users to switch brand; however 90% of smokers start smoking by the age of 18, cig companies target this age. Critics also say cig companies try to get adolescents to smoke so they will become addicted before they will realize harmful effects of smoking, present images of independence, fun, coolness. *Effect of advertising 3x as strong on adolescents than for adults **

Adolescent Work Before 1900: US

Before 17th/18th century industrialization: Boys helped with farming, girls with household work and preparing meals. 19th c: Farming declined 30%, there was demand for cheap labor in the cities, by the 1870s men 16-20 were half the workforce in textile mills, women were 40% in shoe factories. Effects: Work schedule was 10-14 hours per day, 6 days a week. Accident rate twice as high for adolescents, vulnerable to illnesses, adolescents who worked in mills only half as likely to live past age 20.

Controversial Music: Heavy Metal

Beliefs it promotes suicide, violence. Violence is most common theme in Heavy Metal which peaked in the 1980s. Correlation with heavy metal fans having dark, pessimistic view of the world, cynical. Listen to music when angry, and it has a cathartic effect on their anger, therefore less likely to commit suicide.

Protective Factors

Characteristics of young people that are related to lower likelihood of participation in risk behavior. Religion, schools, good family life.

Socialized Delinquents

Committing acts of delinquency as part of a group or gang; these people rarely commit crimes by themselves and have families that are similar to adolescents who are not criminals. Commit crimes due to their group rewarding illegal behavior. View criminal behavior as bonding to the other people in the group, and exciting.

TV/Movies and Sex

Cope-Farrar and Kunkel: top 15 shows watched by US ado, 82% had sexual content. Ado learn about sex/dating script, and gender roles through sexual interactions on TV, where boys are active aggressors and girls are sexual gate-keepers. Movies: Recent study of Dutch teens concluded that boys who watched porn more likely to view women as sex objects.

Crime Trends

Crime rates rose from mid 1960s-mid 1970s. Crime rates rose from mid 1980s-early 1990s. Crime rates declined from mid 1990s to present. *Age Crime relationship: typically men 12-25* due to antisocial peer groups forming that highlight crime.

Peer Contagion

Delinquency prevention programs have been found to increase delinquency because they bring together high-risk adolescents who then form a delinquent clique.

Motola Study of Tracking

Demonstrated how the timing of tracking into different types of schools influences the timing of teens decisions about which job path to choose. French adolescents tracked at age 13, Finnish teens at age 16. 58% of French adolescents had clear idea of their chosen job, compared to only 19% of Finnish. *Earlier Tracking correlated to knowing earlier which job path to go down*

Criticisms of Social Learning Theory and Cultivation Theory

Depicted with the media consumer being relatively passive and easily manipulated. Claims cause and effect relationship between media and teen behavior; this is not true.

Media Practice Model

Developed by media researcher Jane Brown. How the uses and gratifications theory works in adolescent lives; Selection: adolescent's identity motivates what media they like or dislike and want to consume. Interaction: Paying attention to specific media leads to interaction with these products, they are evaluated. Application: Incorporate this content into their identities/lives, or resistance to it. Identity: Formed from this entire cycle.

Secondary Schooling in India

Education devised by colonial government (England) similar problems to Africa. Enrollment has increased in past decades, but only 50% of adolescents attend HS. Sharp divisions in enrollment by gender, class, location. Poor, girls in rural areas least likely to attend; 40% illiterate. Growing influence in world economy, especially computers.

Diversity of American Education

Educational decisions are decided by state and local government NOT national, therefore much variability between states. Goals 2000 and No Child Left Behind of 2001 --> advocate for national education plan. Federal Government 5% of school funding only.

International Labor Organization

Estimated that over 200 million children/adolescents worldwide are employed, and 95% of them are in developing countries. Greatest number of adolescent workers in horrid conditions are in Asia

Richard Condon's Study of the Inuit

First observed Inuit adolescents in 1978 before TV; they were noncompetitive in sports, and conservative in dating. After introduction of TV, Inuit adolescents played basketball, soccer, football very competetively, and were no longer conservative about girl boy relationships.

Kendel and Faust Theory

Found that both young people who use one substance in the sequence are more likely to use the next one and that most young people who use one substance do not proceed right away to use the next one in the sequence.

Add Health Study

Found that risk behavior significantly related to SES, family, ethnic background. Blacks less likely to use drugs or consider suicide, but more likely to have sex, or be involved in violent behavior. Weakly related to risk behavior ^^. Most related: socialization variables such as family, friends,school, religious beliefs. Parental monitoring strong predictor of risk behavior.

James Coleman: Experiment

Found that students had higher levels of achievement and lower levels of delinquency in schools that maintained high expectations and a spirit of involvement. True throughout both private and public schools, though private often had a better school climate. Private catholic schools often better climate because families instilled principles in children.

Five Uses of Identity Formation: Youth Culture Identification

Gives ado sense of being connected to youth culture, media provides a common ground for all adolescents. Music is a medium for expressing adolescent-specific values.

Unsocialized Delinquents

Have few friends and commit crimes alone.

Social Class and School Success Rates

Higher family SES better in school (achievement test scores). Before entering school, middle class kids do better on basic tests. by mid childhood, class differences clearly established, remain strong throughout HS. Higher SES more likely to attend college. Why? Middleclass parents higher IQ, pass this down to kids and environment. Lower SES more stressors, worse health care, nutrition. Middle class parents more likely to be involved, authoritative

Substance Use across ethnicities

Highest in Native Americans, then whites and Latinos. Lowest in African Americans and Asian Americans.

School Climate: Michael Rutter

How teachers interact w. students, expectations, standards, etc. Michael Rutter experiement on British secondary schools. Results: Most important differences among schools were the climate. Students better off in schools where teachers were supportive and involved but also applied discipline when necessary. High expectations. In this school, students had higher attendance, and achievement test scores.

TV and agressiveness

Important to ado and EA because most violent crimes are committed by men 15-25. Most studies correlational, not cause and effect. *Evidence is stronger that TV violence influences ado attitudes about violence; making them more accepting of violent behavior. *

Cigarette Companies Documents/Lawsuits

In lawsuits against cig companies, documents were released that provide evidence that cig companies targeted adolescents. "Today's teenager is tomorrow's potential regular customer" "Need share of youth market". Due to this, advertising decreased and cig smoking amongst young people decreased dramatically. Anti-tobacco advertising also effective.

Multi systematic Approach to Preventing Delinquency

Include parent training, job training, vocational counseling, youth centers. Intervention at different levels including the state, the home, the neighborhood, the school.

Globalizations Effects on Traditional Cultures

Increased access to electricity, daily chores made easier. Adolescents get industrial jobs, think agricultural jobs just as hard, and working in an industry viewed as a way to gain skills, get better job. HOWEVER, don't receive added comfort, instead receive brutal work in dangerous conditions for miserable pay, typically children working ages 10-15.

Two Types of Problems

Internalizing: Problems that primarily affect a person's internal world, can include depression, anxiety, eating disorders. AKA over controlled. Experience distress. Externalizing: Create difficulties in a person's external world, include delinquency, fighting, drugs. AKA under controlled, tend to come from families where parental control is lacking. Do not experience distress or unhappiness, but by the desire for excitement.

Secondary Schooling Japanese/Chinese

Japan: Almost all adolescents graduate from HS. China: Less than 75% teens even attend HS. both: Intense pressure in HS as students prepare to take a very competitive college entrance exam. Rote Learning/Memorization emphasized, Long school days with activities after.

Jeylan Mortimer: In Favor of Adolescent Work

Jeylan Mortimer at Minnesota argues the benefits outweigh the risks; according to her research, teens see more benefits in their jobs than harm. Believe they develop more responsibility, time management, social skills. 40% believe their jobs helped them develop new occupational skills. Mortimer believes main activity kids should cut back from is watching TV.

Terrie Mofit's Theory of Delinquency

Life course-persistent-delinquents: pattern of problems from birth onward. believes patterns result from ADHD or neurological defects (LD). More likely to grow up in a high risk environment. Adolescence-Limited Delinquents: Show no signs of problems in infancy or childhood, few engage in crimes after their mid-20s. Periods of occasional criminal activity in adolescence.

Media and Adolescent Socialization

Media has become new source of socialization; 49% of 10-15 year olds said they learned a lot from TV, compared to 38% saying they learned from their mother. In countries w/ freedom of speech, media offers broad socialization. US values freedom of speech more than European nations: Germany: Music of hate against minorities illegal Norway: movies that are too violent not shown. *Age restrictions available, need parent enforcement*

Fives Uses of Identity Formation: Identity Formation

Media provides materials that young people can use toward constructing an identity. Media allows ado to find ideal selves to emulate, and feared selves to avoid. Media can also provide ado with more information, such as jobs, that can go into forming an identity. *Gender Role Identity: Ados learn what it means to be man/woman partly from media. Learn sexual/romantic scripts. Also magazines*

External Problem: Risky Driving

Most common cause of death in adolescents/emerging adults. US, 16-24 highest age range for most car accidents. Due to inexperience, but also risky behavior; parental involvement lowers this. Ado tend to speed, follow too closely, violate traffic rules,more risks in changing lanes/merging, hit pedestrians. More likely to drink and drive, 50% of college kids reported driving drunk in the past year. Less likely to wear seatbelt.

Latin American Secondary Schooling

No gender difference, mainly class difference. Wealthy attend private secondary schools, the poor attend badly funded public schools, where 50% of city attendees drop out and 75% of rural attendees drop out.

Rise of Schooling for Adolescents: Western Countries: Norway

Norway 1950, 20% of adolescents continued schooling past 15, today 90% of 16-18 year olds are in school.

Greenberger and Steinberg: Occupational Deviance

Occupational Deviance: They had first time teen workers indicate on a questionnaire how often they engaged in 9 behaviors that involved occupational deviance. Over 60% of working adolescents had engaged in at least one type of deviance . Due to lack of personal investment in the boring, tedious, job.

Media as Super Peer

One of functions of media for adolescents. Ado often look to media for information that their parents may be unwilling to provide, as they would to a friend/peer.

Video Game Violence Effects

One study found that aggressiveness/hostility increased after arcade games Another found that levels of hostility/anxiety increasing in correlation with the level of violence in video game played. Interview with boys 12-14: Used games to experience fantasies of power and fame, to explore exciting situations. Helped them work through feelings of anger, overall positive.

Passive Genotype Environment Interactions: Parents/School Success Rates

Parents with higher intelligence have high expectations for children, but also provide them with gene for high intelligence.

Rise of Schooling for Adolescents: United States Percentages

Proportion of 14-17 yr olds in school rose from 5% in 1890 to 30% in 1920. By 1970, 90% of teens were in school.

Controversial Music: Rap

Rap:1980s gained widespread popularity, currently the most popular amongst US adolescents. ( 2/3 of 12-18 yr olds listened to rap in past day). Controversy over "Gangta Rap" which has themes of sexual exploitation of women, violence, and racism. Rap highest in groups with high risk behavior. Dutch Study: Preference for hip hop was positively associated with sexual stereotypes of women.

Neighborhoods and Socialization Influences

Sense of neighborhood identity and cohesion discouraged delinquency. High rates of residential mobility related to high rates of crime; no attachments to neighbors or the neighborhood. Community norms regarding drug use/availability related to substance use.

School to Work Programs in the US

Small scale apprenticeship programs promising, seen by Hamilton of Cornell who gave apprenticeships to 10th grade students and saw favorable effects on work-based learning/achievement.

Roberta Simmons and Dale Blyth

Sociologists 1987 studied adolescents over a 5 year period; half attended a 6-3-3, the other half attended an 8-4. Study focused on self esteem, GPA, extracurricular activities, and perceived anonymity. Results: 8-4 Plan better in self esteem, activities, and less anonymity.

Patterson Model of Delinquency

Starts in infancy, when a baby's temperament is aggressive and difficult, and parents respond with harsh, inconsistent, permissive parenting. This leads to personality of the child as impulsive and low in self-control, and these rejected children find themselves and become delinquents.

Types of Crimes

Status Offenses: Violations of the law only because of the juvenile age of the criminal. Ex: Running away from home. Index Crimes: Serious crimes, either violent such as rape, murder, or property crimes such as robbery. Nonindex crimes: Less serious offenses such as gambling.

America & Disengagement in Schools: Steinberg

Steinberg Studies: More than 1/3 of adolescents reported rarely working hard/paying attention. Trend: Recent decades, disengagement is worse. Favorable school climate enhances students' engagement, which results in higher levels of achievement.

Addictive Substance Use

Takes place when person depends on regular use of substances to feel good physically and psychologically; withdrawal symptoms are experienced. This is the most regular/frequent substance use of the four categories.

Community Service in Emerging Adulthood

The Peace Corps: sends American volunteers all around the world to assist by providing medical care, knowledge, etc. to people. Began in 1961 with John Kennedy, half of participants between 18-25. Americorps: Founded 1994, larger than Peace Corps, does not administer a volunteer program, but sponsors volunteers to work in local community organizations. Almost all participants are emerging adults.

Jobs and School Success Rates

The more adolescents work over 10 hours a week, the lower their grades, educational aspirations, less attendance, less time on HW.

Uses and Gratifications Approach

This approach to media's influence on teens recognizes that the role media plays is more complex than cause and effect. Emphasis is on viewing people as active media consumers. Based on: People differ in multiple ways that make them have different preferences for media. People consuming the same media product will respond to it in a variety of ways, depending on their individual characteristics.

Stephen Hamilton and Transparency vs. Permeability

Transparancy: How clearly the path t oa job is marked through the education leading to the job market. Permeability: How easy it is to change job prospects. US System: Low in transparency, high in permeability. European System: High in transparency, low in permeability.

Social Substance Use

Use of drugs or alcohol during social activities with one or more friends, usually at parties or nightclubs, is a group activity.

TV and aggression study: Eron and Huesmann

longitudinal study where the participants were 8 years old and half watched violent tv, monitored again at age 19 and 30. Results: Boys who watched aggressive TV at 8, more likely to have aggressive behavior when 19, and more likely to have been arrested, or abuse their children at age 30. Controlled level of initial aggression amongst 8 year old boys.

College Majors and Gender Differences

1972: Females 1/4 as likely to major in physical sciences as males. Current Females: Equal representation of males/females in biological sciences, premed, prelaw, business. Females 4x as likely to major in education, 3x as likely to major in psych. Current Males: Equal in business, premed, prelaw, science, but 4x as likely to major in computer science or engineering.

Adolescent Prostitution

Pervasive, growing problem in traditional cultures, especially Asia (Thailand). Some girls are kidnapped and taken to a separate country Some are rural girls who are promised jobs as waitresses then forced to be prostitutes when get to the city Some are sold into it by their family. Demand higher for younger girls, cause less likely to have HIV

Drop out Prevention Programs

1. Alternative schools, kids here half as likely to drop out than control group. School is successful if: low student to teacher ratio, attention from caring workers, starting program in middle school. 2. Privately sponsored dropout programs: offer incentives to staying in school: IHAD: New York: by Eugene Lang; for any kid who made Bs in high school, he would pay their full college tuition. Drop out rate in that area was 75%, but in this group, only 10% dropped out and 60 % attended college.

European Countries: 3 Types of Secondary Schools

1. College-Prep school; similar to American comprehensive high school, offers variety of courses to provide a general education. Does not include music, gym. About 1/2 of adolescents attend this school. 2. Vocational School; Adolescents learn the skills needed to be in a specific occupation (plumbing). About 1/4 of students attend this type of school. 3. Professional School; Devoted to teacher training, the arts, or another specific purpose. 1/4 of adolescents attend this. *Germany & Switzerland apprenticeships*

Four College Student Subcultures: Clark and Trow 1960

1. Collegiate: centered around frats, dating, drinking, big sporting events, campus fun. Grades/classes as second priority. Main purpose is fun, mostly at big schools 2. Vocational: Purpose of college is to gain skills that will enable them to get a job they couldn't have without college. Resist professors demands for engagement in ideas. Typically work 20-40 hours a week to support themselves. Mostly community college students. 3. Academic Subculture: Drawn to world of ideas and knowledge. They study hard, do their assignments and get to know their professors. Excited/engaged. 4. Rebel: Deeply engaged with the ideas offered in their courses, however aggressively non conform. Typically detached from professors and skeptical of their experiments. Selectively studious to info they deem relevant.

Murnane and Levy 1990s New Basic Skills

1. Reading at a ninth grade level or higher 2. Doing math at a ninth grade level or higher 3. Solving semistructured problems. 4. Communicating effectively orally and in writing 5. Use of computer for word processing other tasks. 6. Collaborating in diverse groups. These skills needed for success at new jobs available to high school graduates in changing economy that promise career development and middle calls wages.

John Holland's personality characteristic categories to consider when matching a person with a job

1. Realistic: High physical strength, practical approach to problem solving, low social understanding. Best occupations: involving physical activity/practical application of knowledge: farming, truck driving, construction. 2. Investigative: High on conceptual and theoretical thinking. Prefer thinking problems through than applying knowledge, low on social skills.Best fields: Math and Science. 3. Social: High in verbal/social skills. Best jobs: teaching, social work, counseling. 4. Conventional: High on following directions carefully, like to be in structured situations. Best: clear responsibilities with little leadership, such as banking. 5. Enterprising: high in verbal skills/social/leadership. Best: Sales, business, politics. 6. Artistic: Introspective, imaginative, sensitive. Best: Writer or author.

William Julius Wilson's Approach to Helping Minority Unemployment

1. Upgrade education: poor areas have smaller tax base to draw from than wealthy areas, results in bad schooling for the poor. 2. Improve school to work programs 3. Improve access to employment: Organized car pool and van networks carry urban young people to the suburbs to apply and attain a job, get more information to urban youth about available jobs. 4. Provide government-funded public service jobs: Young people serve in jobs such as nurses aids, playground supervisors, bridge painters.

Adolescent Work in the 20th c: US

1925: majority of adolescents left school by age 15 to become full-time workers, families viewed their income as essential. 1940: 70% in high school, 30% working, but no mix. 1950-90s: shift in american economy towards need for part-time workers resulted in adolescents working part time and attending school. Today 80% of HS seniors have held a part time job, higher than any other developed country,

NAEP (National Assessment of Educational Progess) trends through U.S. years

1970s/1980s: Declines in eighth grade math, science, and reading, especially to higher order thinking. 1990s: Rose during the 90s in all areas. 2000s: Reading and science scores changed slightly, math continues to rise, reaching highest ever in 2009.

Changes in Schooling for US Adolescents

19th century: secondary education available only to wealthy males and focused on broad liberal arts 1920: Steep rise in proportion of young people attending secondary school, widespread reform in education. Rich males → broad population. Shifted from education for personal sake to education for as a goal focusing on training the work force and citizens. 1920s-1950s: Continued expansion of adolescents receiving schooling Diversity of HS continued to increase, enlarged to include preparation of family life, leisure, courses on music, art, health, physical education. 1970s: Relevance became new significance → high schools encouraged to develop programs that involved less time in the classroom and more time learning skills in the workforce. 1980s: The focus on relevance became an issue; education achievement tests were lower than the 1960s → back to basics. More stringent requirements in the sciences, math, more homework, longer school days.

No Child Left Behind Act

2001, provided billions of federal aid toward a number of objectives, including national testing, new standards of teacher training, and evaluations of teaching effectiveness.

Positive Signs of Change: Adolescent Work Exploitation

According to ILO, number of child and adolescent laborers fell during 2000-2010. Due to increased awareness of the issue by media and government.

Asian Parenting Beliefs of School vs. Whites

Asian American parents believe school success is due mainly to effort, while white parents believe it is due to ability. This results in asian parents less likely to accept average/poor school performance. More likely to insist to child that they have to study more, try harder.

Parenting Styles Affects on School Success

Authoritative Parenting best; highest engagement, results in traits of self-reliance, persistence, and responsibility which lead to good work in school. Worst off: Neglectful parenting, leads to lowest engagement, lowest grades. Steinberg.

Indian Debt Bondage

Common system for child labor exploitation; when a person needs a loan and has no money to offer for security, so instead pledges the labor of his children. Lenders are poor and often illiterate, so they are manipulated and can never pay the loan back. Adolescents more valuable than kids, sold into agriculture, service, prostitution, etc.

Friends/Peers Influence on School Success Rates

Friends: Affects school attendance, grades, etc. Low-achieving teens with high-achieving friends more likely to go to college, and increase their GPA. Peers: If peers are doing slightly worse than the teen, teen will have higher expectations. "big fish in a little pond effect" - Teens naturally compare themselves, if their classmates are doing worse than the teen, the teen will feel good about how school is going. Opposite true too. Teens in less selective schools had significantly higher academic self-concept.

Schooling in Developing Counties: More current

Growing economic development and increased global industrialization is changing the trend to include increasing schooling for adolescents Agricultural technologies make physical labor less needed, and staying in school becomes necessary because jobs become available that require educational skills. Higher literacy rates among younger in the generation reflect this trend.

Best Size of HS and HS classes

High School most effective if: 500-1000 students. Class Size: most say not much difference between 20-40 kids. For students with difficulties, small classes are preferable (more attention).

Secondary Schooling in Muslim countries of North Africa

High rates of illiteracy amongst parents/grandparents (over half), but adolescents are more likely to be literate. Education oriented around the Koran, though this recently changed to secular education. Schools segregated by sex, girls less likely than boys to attend secondary school (early arranged marriage, work around house)

School to Work Programs: Job Corps

Job Corops, began in 1964 serves 62,000 new participants each year. Highly effective in improving job prospects of adults who don't attend college. Job Corps participants: employed more hours per week, earned 22 more per week, improved literacy, more likely to earn a GED, less likely to be arrested. Cons: Very expensive. --> Alternative, YouthBuild: youths build houses while receiving aid for jobs.

Gender and Job Occupation Choice

Jobs held by women: service-sector: teacher, nurse, secretary, child-care worker. Tend to be low paying and low status. Jobs held by men: engineer, chemist, surgeon, computer software designer. Tend to be high paying and high status. Due to gender socialization/norms, and the "second shift"- domestic work shift women must perform at home after regular work. Women less likely to join jobs highly demanding/time consuming to accommodate for children.

HS Drop-Outs by Ethnicity

Latinos highest: 19%. Blacks: Highest decrease, 9% Whites: 6% Asians: 3% All ethnicities besides asians, men more likely to drop out than women.

Emerging Adulthood and Jobs

Looking for a job that will turn into a career; focuses on identity questions. Finding the right job takes several years at least. Average American holds 7-8 jobs between ages of 18 and 30. For many, working means finding a job that will pay the bills until something better opens up, feeling like they didn't really pick their job.

Discrimination effects on Ethnic School Success Rates

Low achievement of African American and Latino teens is because of the perception that even if they excel educationally, their skin color would limit their job success due to discrimination. Such prejudice leads black teens to believe striving for good grades to be "acting white". Other studies: consequences of not succeeding academically less so in African American, latino communities, and more so in white and asians.

Secondary Schooling in Sub-Saharan Africa

Lowest rates of secondary schooling in the world. However, these rates vary from country to country; 94% attend in Zimbabwe, while 13% attend in Niger & Guinea. Reasons include poverty, civil war, a non-industrialized economy.

Gender and Postgraduate degrees

MD: now 50%, 1970: 8% MBA: now 50%, 1970: 4% Law: now 50%, 1970: 5% Across fields, women earn 57% of postgraduate degrees, up from 10% in 1960.

Mean World Syndrome

Part of Cultivation Theory; states that the more people watch TV, the more they believe the world is a dangerous place, that crime rates are rising, and they are at chance of being a victim of crime. Believe this because TV often depicts crime/violence on TV which leads viewers to think this is accurately the world.

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

People will b more likely to imitate behaviors they see frequently performed by models who are rewarded or not punished. Ex: "Bobo Doll Experiment"; children watched adults kick/punch the doll, then the children imitated it. Ex: Watch more sexual content on TV, have sex more.

Pros/Cons: Small HS

Pro: More attachment to students, school itself, teachers, less alienating. Students more likely to participate in extra-curricular. Cons: Less activities to choose from, less classes.

ADHD

Problems of inattention, hyperactivity, impulsiveness. 1/2 of kids with a learning disability have ADHD, most also have an additional LD. Boys 4x more likely to have ADHD, partly inherited. Medication is given to 90% of patients, but medication and behavioral therapy is most effective. European treatment: medication, psychotherapy, combination of these, no treatment,

Gifted Adolescents

Programs for gifted teens more common; typically was of an IQ over 130, now more schools recognize special talents. Four characteristics of Gifted Kids: 1. Precocity: Gifts were evident at early age. Could read, write, at earlier age than normal. 2. Independence: Typically prefer working alone, need less instructions. 3. Drive for Mastery: Intense drive to master subjects of their gifts. 4. Excellence in Information Processing: Process info faster, learn more quickly, better reasoning.

Comprehensive High School System: Pros/Cons

Pros: Allows for greater flexibility, all adolescents can choose from broad range of classes/topics. Because all teens attend same type of HS, little of occupational direction is known at time of graduation. Cons: Adolescents in same school/classes even though they may have very different abilities or interests. Makes teaching more challenging.

Arthur Levine & Jean Cureton

Psychologists who administered survey, found that 81% of college students were satisfied with the teaching, 65% said faculty took special interest in undergraduate progress.

Pascarella & Terenzini 1991

Psychologists who found that college benefits many different things; verbal, quantitative skills, oral and written communication skills, critical thinking, clearer identity and values, more social confidence. Also found students find college less for jobs, but more for the sake of gaining an education.

Retention in College

Retention= graduation. 50% of college students drop out higher SES , better precollege education

Work in Traditional Cultures: Child Care

Typically done by the females; girls can be in charge of child care as early as 6 or 7 years old. Also household work significant for adolescent girl, works alongside mother, chores without electricity/water are tedious. This demonstrates she is capable of fulfilling the expectations for running a household when she is married.

Hunting, Fishing, Gathering: Traditional Cultures

Undertaken by men; teen boys learn how it is done by accompanying fathers on trips. Females rarely do this, but sometimes help by holding nets. Success at fishing includes navigation and boating skills, South Sea Island natives used compass. Nomadic way of life associated w/ hunting, not well-suited to a global economy. Women gather, contribute more than hunting.

Abundant Leisure and School Success Rates

Unstructured socializing is negatively related to academic performance, while structured leisure in organized activities appears to have positive effects. Sternberg.

Work Hours and Psychological Functioning

Up to 10 hours per week, work has little effect on psychological functioning, or amount of sleep teens get. Beyond this, amount of sleep declines as work hours increase. Beyond 20 hours a week, problems become increasingly significant (anxiety, worsening grades). HOWEVER, working a job that gives new skills is positively correlated to psychological well-being. Teens who work more likely to use drugs, cigs, especially if over 10 hours per week.

Five Uses of Identity Formation: Coping

Use media to relieve negative emotions; Watch Tv/ Listen to music most often coping strategies ado use when upset. In early ado when issues rise, music intake also rises. Ado watch tv to turn off stressful emotions that have accumulated throughout the day.

Secondary Education/College percetanges: Developed vs. Nondeveloped countries

Virtually 100% of adolescents in developed countries go to secondary school. 50% attend college. 50% of adolescents non developed countries attend secondary school, while 10% attend college.

Cultivation Theory of Media's Influence

Watching TV gradually shapes or cultivates a person's worldview; over time it comes to resemble the views that are on the TV. Ex: Ado girls who watch soap operas are more likely to believe single mothers have easy lives, because they are portrayed as such on the soap opera shows.

Parents effects on Middle School

When parents are aware of and sensitive to adolescents' needs and developmental characteristics, the adolescents are less likely to have self-esteem decrease.

Jacky Eccles 1997, 2003.

difficulties in transitions due to many adolescents finding environment of middle school alienating and oppressive. Increased emphasis on teacher control is mismatched with early adolescents increased abilities/desires for autonomy, undermines self-esteem.

High School Dropouts

by 2010, only 8% of americans didn't have a GED or HS diploma by the age of 24. 1/4 of american teens leave high school but get a GED. Dropout rates have declined over the past 30 years in all ethnic groups, but Latinos have a high drop out rate of 19%.