America as a Global Power Final

why Clinton failed at combatting terrorism and fixing nuclear threats

-Clinton's record with using airstrikes to combat nuclear non-proliferation and radical Islamic terrorism is a poor one, marked by an inability to achieve successful outcomes in either of these two policy area. The president's commitment to "low-cost, low-risk military interventions", what Colin Dueck criticized as "hegemony on the cheap," betrayed an unwillingness to depart from his initial plan to rely on airstrikes as the tactic of choice. Even though he seemingly recognized the importance of combating these threats, he did not properly plan for tackling these problems with decisive force, partly out of concern for the domestic political opposition to stronger measures, and as such he left these threats to fester.

the Taiwan Strait Crisis

-Eisenhower and Dulles use massive retaliation threat that the New Deal followed to successfully stop communist from taking over two islands outside of Taiwan

fall of communism in 1989

-fall of Berlin wall -overthrow of communist regimes all around Eastern Europe without any opposition from the USSR -50 years of geopolitical and ideological competition between the US and USSR and capitalist vs communist systems comes to a sudden conclusion

Reagan meeting with Gorbachev

-first met in Geneva in 1985, failed to reach deal -met at Reykjavik in 1986, failure to reach deal -created the INF treaty at Washington summit in 1987

George H.W Bush

-focused more on managing the peaceful end of the Cold War and less on developing a full-fledged grand strategy for the new era

NATO

-formation provided an unequivocal security guarantee in the form of a mutual defense treaty in order to shore up US allies and protect them from the threat of a potential Soviet attack

1945 international context

-frictions between the winning coalition of WWII over the political/economic future of Eastern Europe/ Asia/ Middle East -Truman moves to form a new grand strategy to counter the growing threat of the Soviets -containment

some of Reagan's most strategic accomplishments

-ideological warfare against the USSR -overt and covert support for democratic forces, particularly in Eastern Europe

Reagan's 2nd term

-if Cold War had ended in 1985 instead of 1989, Reagan's military, economic, and ideological pressure leading to the demise of the Soviet Union would have been a lot more powerful -consequential policy decisions in this term were not shaped by his early grand strategy principals and in some cases ran counter -originally had tense relations with Soviet leaders but now meeting with them face-to-face

Reagan administration

-implemented its grand strategic plans most evidently in the areas of defense spending, military competition, and economic pressure directed at the Soviet Union -defense spending increases from $142 billion in 1980 to $287 billion by 1988

US defense modernizes

-intercontinental ballistic missiles -ballistic missile submarines -air-launched cruise missiles -B1 bombers -navy increased from 450 to 600 ships -new sensors and surveillance systems -increased computing, information technology, and high tech systems give US competitive advantage over Soviets

NSC 162/2: Task Force A- "containment"

-led by George Kennan 1. maintain over a sustained period armed forces to provide for the security of the US and to assist in the defense of vital areas of the free world 2. to continue to assist in the building up of economic and military strength of the free world 3. without materially increasing the risk of general war, to continue to exploit the vulnerabilities of the Soviets and their satellites by political, economic, and psychological means

NSC 162/2: Task Force C- "rollback"

-led by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles 1. increase efforts to disturb and weaken the Soviet bloc and to accelerate the consolidation and strengthening of the free world 2. to create the maximum disruption and popular resistance through the Soviet bloc -going behind "the iron curtain"

SALT treaty

-limited number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (IBCMs) and submarine launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) each superpower is allowed to have

three major goals of post cold war grand strategy

-maintain US global primacy -deepen and extend the liberal international world order -defeat emerging threats to the current peaceful and prosperous state of affairs

Reagan's legacy of supporting anti communist insurgents and authoritarian leaders

-mixed reviews -might have helped with short term fight against communism -significant blowback in the long run -America's image associated with freedom and democracy tarnished in the Third World -contributing to anti-American sentiments and skepticism of US foreign policy goals both during the Cold War and beyond

The Hamiltonian School

-named after Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of Treasury -influence of commercial interests-- focus on international trade ("American Realism") -freedom of the seas --- key international interest of the US -protectionist prior to WWII - manufacturing tariffs -open markets and free trade agreements after 1940s -international financial stability -access to strategic resources like oil

The Jacksonian School

-named after President Andrew Jackson -a populist movement, highly patriotic and skeptical of international initiatives, heir to a "warrior tradition" and American "frontier mentality" -supports decisive and unilateral use of American military force -narrow view of national interest limited to security/power considerations -a resurgent school after the 2016 election?

The Jeffersonian School

-named after Thomas Jefferson -Main Idea: foreign interventions and entanglements threaten democracy at home by diminishing civil liberties and increasing size/role of federal government, and hence should be avoided -skeptical of military force, prefer economic sanctions and diplomacy -opposed to long standing alliances, international institutions, "nation building projects" and democracy promotion -lost influence after 20s and 30s, "isolationism" ended in WWII

The Wilsonian School

-named after Woodrow Wilson, the proponent of a League of Nations after WWII -an idealist approach to world affairs focused on democracy promotion, international law, international institutions, development and human rights protection -core idea: in the long term, the US and global peace are best served by the spread of democracy worldwide, and of a rules-based global order installed by international institutions -Wilsonians are strong advocates of global treaties such as the Geneva conventions on treatment of prisoners of war

the Nixon administration pushed hard for...

-negotiations with the USSR on nuclear arms control -came up with SALT (strategic arms limitation treaty) in 1969 -followed by the ABM (anti-ballistic missile treaty) in 1972

new transnational threats

-nuclear proliferation in North Korea, Iraq, Iran -global terrorism

NSC 162/2 mainly implemented...

-option B (containment + massive retaliation) -psychological operations and covert actions taken from option A -economic and military support to local anti-communists taken from option C

the "opening to China"

-orchestrated by Nixon administration -left a positive strategic legacy during its tenure and in the long term -one of the more successful grand strategic moves of the cold war -established long term relations with China

NSC 162/2

-outlined the "New Look" grand strategy -praised by scholars for the deliberate process of carefully analyzing different strategic options

A national security strategy of engagement and enlargement

-overarching vision: global leadership -maintain strong defense capability and promote cooperative security measures -open foreign markets -promote democracy abroad

Nixon Doctrine

-part of a purposefully designed grand strategy to reduce America's global footprint by narrowly defining the national interest around considerations of power and geopolitics, and consequently diminishing to the point of irrelevance the role of American values in the conduct of the Cold War

Linkage

-policy pursued by the United States of America, championed by Richard Nixon and Henry Kissinger, during the 1970s period of Cold War Détente which aimed to persuade the Soviet Union and Communist China to co-operate in restraining revolutions in the Third World in return for concessions in nuclear and economic fields.

Legacy of the Truman Doctrine: Long Term

-possible that if Doctrine followed Kennan's plans then could have avoided the enormous costs of the Vietnam war -maintained bipartisanship public support for containment throughout the Cold War -US emerges as leader of the free world over USSR -ultimately led to the collapse of the Soviet empire

"Basic National Security Policy" + "Flexible Response"

-prevent Russia or China from overtaking Europe or Asia -small shifts in the distribution of power could be catastrophic due to chain reactions concern with reputation and credibility -support changes in third world to steer them in democratic direction -unlike Eisenhower, new administration favored expanding the tools of power (financial and militarily) to allow for a "flexible response"

INF treaty

-removed the intermediate-range nuclear missiles from Europe -this policy of nuclear abolitionism goes against his grand strategy that advocated for the strengthening of nuclear deterrence

Korean War and the NSC 68

-report showed how to interpret North Korea's invasion: part of Kremlin design to challenge the US and the free world -NSC 68 led a strong military response to liberate South Korea, punish communist aggression, deter future such sanctions, roll back communism -US led UN forces succeeded in reversing the initial invasion but failed to achieve more than an armistice after China's intervention -settled for the status quo ante (same state as before)

George W Bush

-response to 9/11 dominated America's national security policy and strategy during this administration -secured a number of bilateral trade agreements -revamping foreign aid and a global effort against AIDs -assisting pro-democracy and human rights organizations worldwide -new strategic partnership with India

Bush's successes

-reunification of Germany -peaceful dissolution of the Soviet Union -short, successful war to reverse Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait

Initiatives launched by Reagan administration providing tangible support to pro-democracy activists

-revamped radio free Europe/ Radio liberty and voice of America -started project Truth: program aimed at combatting Soviet propaganda by exposing the brutal nature of communist regimes -National Endowment for Democracy (NED): institution aimed at the global promotion of democracy

Dean Acheson - the idealist components of containment

-secretary of state -the Cold War was an ideological struggle between freedom and communism

Shanghai Communique

-set up when Nixon meets with Mao in China -Washington acknowledged "that all Chinese on either side of the Taiwan Strait maintain that there is but one China and that Taiwan is a part of China." -opened up US-China relations

military intervention doctrine in civil wars

-shift from UN led "assertive multilateralism" to US led "indispensable nation" -success of Haiti -Bosnia, desired outcome through airstrikes/ US led attack allowing for more aggression -Somalia, Rwanda, Kosovo

maintenance of regional security commitments to allies in Europe, East Asia, and Persian Gulf

-shifting away from a "threat based" force -world ordering role for the US military to shape the future security environment in key strategic regions -critiques argue that this is too expensive, pushback from competing regional powers looking to balance US dominance, allies can "free ride" -recent signs of instability across the world are leading people to question this grand strategy policy

legacy of Nixon Doctrine

-short and long term failure -led to rise of anti-Americanism among publics we tried to partner with

covert operations in third world countries

-short term successes but long term failures -strained relations with Iran for years after -communist threat still plagued Central America -the overthrow of democratically elected leaders and the support of authoritarian ones hurt America's image as the defender of the free world and as promoter of human rights, thus poisoning US relations with parts of the Third World for decades to come.

Legacy of the Truman Doctrine: Short Term

-significant measure of success -successfully contained the spread of communism in Southern Europe and the Mediterranean -Greece and Turkey join NATO in 1952 and remained 2 important allies for the rest of the cold war

Reagan Doctrine

-support of anti-communist regimes outside of Europe in Afghanistan, Nicaragua, and Angola -Reagan called these groups "freedom fighters" which was questionable

risks and problems for the Massive Retaliation Strategy

-technological advances in the power of nuclear weapons undermined the possibility of credibly using the threat of massive retaliation to deter anything but the most direct threats to US homeland -launch of Sputnik announces Soviet nuclear IBCM (ballistic missile capability) which makes US more vulnerable -difficult to apply in the third world and for limited wars, and wars of national liberation

pressure on the Soviets

-the Soviets seeing Reagan trying to gain an upper hand in the nuclear arms race will force them to divert massive amounts of money to their own missile defense program, something Moscow could hardly afford

NSC 68 argued that...

-the United States could not focus solely on containing the expansion of the Soviet Union and of communism, but also had to play a leadership role in promoting a liberal politico-economic world order in the free world

the Emergent Strategy Paradigm

-the more a President's foreign policy is shaped by the emergent learning and short term adaptation, the more successful it will be -learning, adaptation, and improvisation are keys to successful strategy -strategist should be a "pattern recognizer", not a "designer"

according to Collin Dueck, grand strategy involves...

-the prioritization of foreign policy goals -the identification and existing of potential resources -and the selection of a plan or road map that uses those resources to meet those goals

massive retaliation doctrine

-the way to deter aggression is for the free community to be willing and able to respond vigorously and at places with means of its own choosing -path to reducing defense spending was to shift the burden of America's deterrent and containment commitments away from US conventional forces and instead rely on the threat of nuclear retaliation

critique on Eisenhower

-too formalistic in his planning -too reliant on nuclear weapons

Vietnamization (1st part of Nixon Doctrine)

-under Nixon Doctrine US intended to accomplish "peace with honor" via a negotiated settlement with the North Vietnamese to withdraw all US troops and leave behind a South Vietnamese government strong enough to protect itself against North Vietnam -war ended not before US tried to increase its leverage by controversial bombing campaigns -North Vietnamese take over South Vietnam two years later and unify Vietnam as a communist state

opening of free trade and free markets

-vision of a liberal world order through free trade to promote growth, equality, and world peace -NAFTA -Uruguay round of global trade negotiations -World Trade Organization -bailed Mexico out $50 billion when they were experiencing a currency crisis that threatened regional economic cooperation -extended "normal trade status" to China and promoted Beijing's accession to the WTO -lifted the Vietnam trade embargo

Dwight D Eisenhower

-wanted to avoid getting sucked into more wars like the Korean war -thought Truman's view towards containments and the NSC 68's militaristic approach was to expensive

economic warfare on USSR

-way to apply pressure other than just military build up -imposed sanctions on Poland to force the Soviets to bail the Warsaw government out of its financial troubles and used sanctions/embargoes to deny the USSR access to Western technology -persuaded NATO allies to limit technology and hard currency transfers to the Soviet Union for a gas pipeline connecting Siberia and Western Europe -administration worked with the Saudis to lower the price of oil, thus further reducing Soviet access to hard currency from their oil exports

second term shift

-went from calling the USSR an "evil empire" in 1983 to saying he "was talking about a different era" in 1988 -view of Soviet Union leadership changed as he got to know Gorbachev

The grand strategy of detente- core values

1. "Peace through Partnership" - Nixon doctrine a. keep all treaty commitments b. provide nuclear shield to allies c. furnish military/ economic aid but not assume primary responsibility for defense of allies 2. renewed investment in military strength 3. negotiations with USSR ("linkage")

Bush 41 developed 3 principles for America's new role of a global super power that became part of Washington's implicit strategic framework into the 90s

1. America will use military force not only in self defense, but also to protect the peaceful international order 2. Expansion of free trade and free markets 3. Maintain and enhance US military commitments and alliances in 3 key regions of the world: Europe, East Asia, Persian Gulf

Principal's of Kennedy's Strategy

1. Decrease reliance on nuclear weapons 2. maintain nuclear deterrence 3. strengthen alliances 4. non military elements of power as important as military ones 5. better use of US domestic resources through government reforms 6. negotiations with the USSR (after Cuban Missile Crisis)

détente, linkage and arms control failed to secure Détente's strategic priorities in the 1970s in two major ways:

1. USSR continued a pattern of aggressive ideological behavior aimed at spreading its influence around the world -Kremlin provided continued support for North Vietnam despite requests by Kissinger for them to sign a peace treaty -USSR continues to support third world communist groups such as the Angolan maxist rebels, Portuguese communists, and support for Egypt against Israel

NSC 162/2 final document

1. a strong military posture, with emphasis on the capability of inflicting massive retaliatory damage by offensive striking power 2. the US and allied forces in readiness to move rapidly initially to counter aggression by Soviet bloc forces and to hold vital areas and lines of communication 3. a mobilization base, and its protection against crippling damage, adequate to insure victory in the event of general war

NSC 68 options and recommendations

1. continuation of current policies, with current and currently projected programs for carrying out these polices 2. isolation 3. war 4. a more rapid building up of the political, economic, and military strength of the free world than provided under current policies... formation of a tolerable state of order for security

the "opening to China" failed in two objectives:

1. efforts to get Beijing its North Vietnamese client government into a quicker end to the Vietnam war 2. lack of progress in diffusing tensions in the Korean Peninsula

SALT treaty followed a "New Strategy for Peace" by...

1. engaging in direct negotiations with USSR in order to build more mutual trust and set the stage for a more stable relationship 2. maintaining strategic military strength a. USSR was rapidly increasing its capabilities b. US was anticipating a large military drawdown because of anti-military climate caused by the Vietnam war

contested assumption of current US grand strategy

1. the US will continue to enjoy military supremacy around the globe and in key theaters 2. strong and capable allies 3. China's rise will be peaceful 4. Great power war is obsolete 5. irreversible advance of democracy around the world 6. globalization is unstoppable 7. technological process will be a force for good

NSC 162/2: Task Force B- "containment + red line"

1. to complete the line now drawn into the NATO area and the Western Pacific so as to form a continuous line around the Soviet bloc to where the US will not permit Soviet forces to advance 2. to make clear to Soviet leaders that the US has established and determined to carry out this policy 3. to reserve freedom of action, in the event of Communist seizure of power of countries on our side of the line, to take all measures necessary to re-establish a situation compatible with the security interests of the US and its allies -more global than task force A

NSC 162/2 has

3 options

legacy of Korean War and NSC 68

-a globalized and militarized containment -US defense builds up -NATO transformation into a fully functional military organization -rearmament with Germany -commitment to East Asia and Indochina

Eisenhower viewed the threat of the Soviet Union as...

-a long run problem requiring a strategy that is financially sustainable for decades to come -NSC 68 focused on one "peak year"

The "Great Equation" of the Eisenhower administration

-achieving the security objectives of the Cold War while not harming the overall fiscal health of the US economy.

détente, linkage and arms control failed to secure Détente's strategic priorities in the 1970s in two major ways:

-administrations arm control agreement turned out to be a short term fix at best -failed to foresee the extent to which the Russians would stretch SALT - still looked for ingenious ways to upgrade nuclear forces -failed to account for the importance of American values in shaping a successful foreign policy

Project Solarium

-an elaborate strategic planning exercise organized by the White House to consider the grand strategic options available to the United States and help the president choose the one most likely to achieve the administration's goals -NSC 162/2 is the resulting document

support of third world dictators as "regional policeman"

-another major element of Nixon-Kissinger grand strategy -"regional policemen" in charge of preserving local stability in order to avoid the need for costly US involvement -balance of power approach -not a willingness to bear the financial and military burdens of leading the free world against international communism (what Truman and Kennedy followed)

Reagan's ideological assault on communism

-aware that murderous ideology is responsible for millions of deaths, economic misery and political oppression to millions more -used powerful rhetoric to encourage dissidents to continue their fight for freedom

strategic rationale for Washington's support of Latin American Military dictators (3rd part of Nixon doctrine)

-backed leaders of Brazil and Argentina in their efforts to eliminate domestic political opponents to assure regional stability -authoritarian leaders are the best way to guarantee US influence at a modest cost.

generational shift from Eisenhower to Kennedy

-bias towards actions -ad hoc committees -needed a more efficient formulation of strategy

"the heyday of American covert actions"

-central feature of Eisenhower's foreign policy" -in dealing with situations in the third world covert operations were employed supporting local anti-Communist forces

Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)

- $23 billion dollar national missile defense program -Goals: improve US position in nuclear arms race and set stage for elimination of nuclear weapons

Bill Clinton

-comes into office in Jan 1993 -criticizes Bush for being too cautious in supporting the massive shift towards democracy and free markets in the world -not that big of a shift on foreign policy compared to Bush

George Kennan and the realist components of Containment

-contain Russian expansionism, not communism everywhere -psychological means, not military -balance of power vision

Detente Grand Strategy conclusions

-despite its careful designs as a grand strategy, in the long run the Détente with USSR (manifested through negotiations, arms control, and linkage) failed to bring lasting successes to US foreign policy.

containment setbacks

-early containment was successful with the security of Greece and Turkey, NATO, and the Marshall Plan -America's nuclear monopoly ended with the USSR tests their first nuclear weapon -Mao Zedong forces win civil war in China against US supported nationalist troops -- China becomes communist

positives of "opening to China"

-eliminated need to prepare for war on two fronts -gained leverage in negotiations with USSR -very low cost -the move essentially transformed the Cold War geopolitical picture in East Asia away from bipolar rivalry between two blocks and towards the administration's grand strategic goal of a more stable multi-polar structure

Using military force not only for self defense but for peaceful international order

- US responding to Iraq's invasion in Kuwait would determine our post cold war grand strategy - "new world order": US as global leader enforcing the rule of law in the international arena -A major reason for the lack of state-on-state wars challenging the US-guaranteed liberal world order in the 1990s was that Washington and its allies showed themselves capable and willing to swiftly punish potential aggressors -very successful outcome in Gulf War

NSC 68 report

- first two sections describe the "present world crisis" and the overall purpose of American grand strategy -third section explains the presumed "Kremlin design" -next section explains the "underlying conflict" in the realm of "ideas and values" between the two superpowers

The Truman Doctrine

-"I believe that it must be the policy of the US to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way" -aid provided to Greece and Turkey -

The grand strategy of detente - context

- "US foreign policy for the 1970s: A new strategy for peace" -changes in international system from the 1950s; communism no longer monolithic, nuclear arms race acquired dangerous momentum, perceived shift from bipolar world to multipolar world -the need for detente, aka reducing tensions with USSR -Kissinger-Nixon strategy based on realism and balance of power, not ideological conflict or advancement of US values

overarching goal of detente

- "a structure of peace" between the great powers

why the Reagan administration policies changed...

-"Popular American fears of nuclear war in the early 1980s motivated a turn in Reagan administration policy." -NATO's Able Archer military exercise showing a misunderstanding between the two superpowers could lead to a mutual disaster

NSC 68 declared that...

-"the assault on free institutions is world-wide now, and in the context of the present polarization of power a defeat of free institutions anywhere is a defeat everywhere."

support for authoritarian but anti communist regimes (2nd part of Nixon Doctrine)

-In Africa, cultivation of close relations with the apartheid regime in South Africa to maintain stability and to diminish possible influence of communist-leaning new black majority governments in places like Mozambique or Angola -In the Middle East, support of the Shah in Iran as a pillar of regional stability by providing military support against left-leaning insurgency in Oman -backed Indonesian strongman -backed Pakistan regime as a balance of power against USSR friendly India

CIA expanded covert operations in the 1950s

-Iran (led by the British) -Guatemala -failed attempt in Indonesia

congress interfering with linkage

-Jackson amendment: denied certain important trade benefits to the USSR until the Kremlin allowed higher levels of emigration for their Jewish citizens - War Powers Act: hindered Nixon's ability to make credible threats to deter Soviet support for revolutionary movements in the 3rd world

asymmetric strategy

-NSC 162/2 allowed US to apply our strength's to the Soviet's weaknesses -NSC 68 had less symmetrical approach that called for an across the board military buildup

economic aid to third world anti-communist groups

-SEATO and CENTO -South Korea, Philippines, Vietnam, Pakistan -led to the conflict in Vietnam

Clinton administration in strategic disarray when...

-This willingness to use the American military in multilateral partnership with United Nations-backed forces for peacekeeping and stability operations diminished considerably after an ill-fated humanitarian operation in Somalia

The Marshall Plan

-US provided $13 billion in aid to the participating countries, with Britain, Germany, and France receiving the largest amounts -the plan fostered democratic political stability and promoted free trade in the region -increased political and comic ties with allies and increased relationship between Western Europe and US

positives of the Nixon-Kissinger strategic legacy

-US reached a milestone with SALT that slowed down the nuclear arms race between the superpowers at least for a while -lowered risk of nuclear war by diffusing tensions

grand strategy

-a coherent set of ideas about what a nation seeks to accomplish in the world, and how it should go about doing so

Eisenhower Legacy

The administration accepted a high risk in the short-run (i.e. the threat of nuclear war) and narrowed US options to respond to Cold War crises on the periphery in the hope of saving money in the long-term.

Reagan__________ anti communist dictators in Latin America then __________ support for them

supported; withdrew