American Heritage Test 2

Articles of the Confederation

Key Principle: State Sovereignty, no executive, no judiciary, no power to tax, taking action required 9/13 states, amendments had to be unanimous

Philadelphia Convention

May 14 - First meeting, but no quorum present May 25 - September 17, 1787 55 delegates from 12 states

Majority

More than half of all votes cast

Hamilton vs. Jefferson

Pivotal disagreement between two giants with different visions for the country

Aristocratic Decision Making

Public Opinion = Elites Choose Reps = Government Actions (Senate prior to amendment 17

Direct Democracy

Public Opinion = Government Actions

Representative Democracy

Public Opinion = voters elect reps = government actions (House of Representatives)

Collective Action Problem

Pursuing individual interests leads to worse outcomes for all Problem: *States unable to solve these conflicts themselves *National government too weak to impose a solution

Remove Cause of Factions

Remove Liberty (BAD)

The Checks and Balances Paradox

Sharing some power is the key to separation of powers

How do states chose electors?

State legislatures, therefore, choose the manner of selecting electors

Argument for State Representation

States have unique interests as states; these state interests must be represented equally

Factions

"By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or interest, adverse to the rights of other citizens, or to the permanent and aggregate interests of the community." Madison

Gettysburg Address

"Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us — that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth."

Quotes about Shay's Rebellion

"I am mortified beyond expression when I view the clouds that have spread over the brightest morn that ever dawned in any country... What a triumph for the advocates of despotism, to find that we are incapable of governing ourselves and that systems founded on the basis of equal liberty are merely ideal and fallacious." ~ George Washington "Rebellion against a king may be pardoned, or lightly punished, but the man who dares to rebel against the laws of a republic ought to suffer death." ~ Samuel Adams "A little rebellion now and then is a good thing. It is a medicine necessary for the sound health of government." ~Thomas Jefferson

Origin of Rights

"The sacred rights of mankind are not to be rummaged for, among old parchments, or musty records. They are written, as with a sunbeam in the whole volume of human nature, by the hand of divinity itself; and can never be erased or obscured by mortal power." ~ Alexander Hamilton

Abraham Lincoln

"All the political sentiments I entertain have been drawn, so far as I have been able to draw them, from the sentiments which originated in and were given to the world from this Hall. I have never had a feeling, politically, that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence." *Over the course of the war, Lincoln develops a clearer vision of the moral connections between the Declaration, the Constitution, and the Union *Lincoln brings the Constitution and the Declaration together. -Uses the power of the Constitution to realize the ideals of the Declaration

Small Republic Quotes

"If respect is to be paid to the opinion of the greatest and wisest men who have ever thought or wrote on the science of government, we shall be constrained to conclude, that a free republic cannot succeed over a country of such immense extent, containing such a number of inhabitants..." (Brutus) "It is natural to a republic to have only a small territory, otherwise it cannot long subsist." (Montesquieu) "In a republic, the manners, sentiments, and interests of the people should be similar. If this be not the case, there will be a constant clashing of opinions; and the representatives of one part will be continually striving against those of the other. This will retard the operations of government." (Brutus) "In so extensive a republic, the great officers of government would soon become above the controul of the people.... It is scarcely possible, in a very large republic, to call them to account for their misconduct, or to prevent their abuse of power." (Brutus)

Thomas Jefferson 1800

"Let us, then, fellow-citizens, unite with one heart and one mind. Let us restore to social intercourse that harmony and affection without which liberty and even life itself are but dreary things." "We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists."

Federalist #78

"No legislative act ... contrary to the Constitution can be valid. To deny this, would be to affirm, that the deputy is greater than his principal; that the servant is above his master; that the representatives of the people are superior to the people themselves; that men acting by virtue of powers, may do not only what their powers do not authorize but what they forbid." "It may truly be said to have neither force nor will, but merely judgment; and must ultimately depend upon the aid of the executive arm even for the efficacy of its judgments." "It is in continual jeopardy of being overpowered, awed, or influenced by its co-ordinate branches." *the interpretation of the laws is the "proper and peculiar province of the courts." -The courts are meant to be deliberative bodies, which are best suited to interpret law. -Judges would not be the most ambitious individuals in government.

Narrowly Stating Rights

"No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law." (3rd Amendment) *Clearer interpretation *Easier to enforce

Richard Neustadt

"The Constitution of 1787 is supposed to have created a government of 'separated powers.' It did nothing of the sort. Rather it created a government of separated institutions sharing powers."

Tyranny

"The accumulation of all powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in the same hands... may justly be pronounced the very definition of tyranny."

Marbury vs Madison

"The constitution is either a superior, paramount law, unchangeable by ordinary means, or it is on a level with ordinary legislative acts, and like other acts, is alterable when the legislature shall please to alter it ..." "[Not striking down unconstitutional laws] would be giving to the legislature a practical and real omnipotence ..." "It is emphatically the province and duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. Those who apply the rule to particular cases, must of necessity expound and interpret that rule. If two laws conflict with each other, the courts must decide on the operation of each."

Causes of Factions

"The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the nature of man..." Different opinions about religion Attachment to different leaders Unequal distribution of property

Political Parties Quotes

"The spirit of party agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms, [and] kindles the animosity of one part against another." ~ George Washington "Political parties created modern democracy and modern democracy is unthinkable save in terms of the parties." ~ E.E. Schattschneider "If the Constitution were all we had, politicians would be incapable of getting organized to accomplish even routine tasks. Every day, for every bill or compromise, they would have to start from scratch, rounding up hundreds of individual politicians and answering to thousands of squabbling constituencies and millions of voters. By itself, the Constitution is a recipe for chaos." ~ Jonathan Rauch

Constitution as a Bill of Rights

"The truth is, after all the declamations we have heard, that the Constitution is itself, in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, A BILL OF RIGHTS." Alexander Hamilton, Federalist #84 *Provisions that protect rights by protecting against arbitrary government -Impeachment power -Writ of habeas corpus -No ex post facto laws -No bills of attainder -No titles of nobility -Right to trial by jury *The structures of the Constitution are intended to create a limited government, a government that could control itself

Supremacy Clause: Article 6

"This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; ... shall be the supreme Law of the Land ..."

Anti-Judicial

"Those who are to be vested with [judicial power] are to be placed in a situation altogether unprecedented in a free country. They are to be rendered totally independent, both of the people and of the legislature." Brutus

Madison's Diagnosis of Collective Action Problem

"Want of sanction to the laws, and of coercion in the Government of the Confederacy" "Mistaken confidence that the justice, the good faith, the honor, the sound policy" of the states would be enough States will sometimes need to be coerced by the national government. *Acts of the national government "bear unequally hard" on the states; states will have unequal interests in carrying out national policies *"Courtiers of popularity": politicians will advance their own interests by criticizing national policies *Even when they share a common interest, some states may try to free ride on the efforts of others

Lincoln's Parable

"We all declare for liberty; but in using the same word we do not all mean the same thing." "The shepherd drives the wolf from the sheep's throat, for which the sheep thanks the shepherd as a liberator, while the wolf denounces him for the same act as the destroyer of liberty, especially as the sheep is a black one. Plainly the sheep and the wolf are not agreed upon a definition of the word liberty..."

Majority Factions

"When a majority is included in a faction, the form of popular government ... enables it to sacrifice to its ruling passion or interest both the public good and the rights of other citizens."

Properties of US Two Party System

*Divide United States into 435 districts *Each district only gets one representative *You do not win any representation unless you are able to appeal to a broad swath of voters. *Ideally, the system rewards accommodation and compromise, not splintering *Parties are rewarded by being "big tents" that include different perspectives on society

Slavery as a "positive good"

*"Many in the South once believed that it was a moral and political evil; that folly and delusion are gone; we see it now in its true light, and regard it as the most safe and stable basis for free institutions in the world...." John Calhoun *George Fitzhugh, Cannibals All! -Northern manufacturers relationship to their workers is much worse than slavery -Slaves are "free": "The negro slaves of the South are the happiest, and in some sense, the freest people in the world.... when the labors of the day are over, and free in mind as well as body; for the master provides food, raiment, house, fuel, and everything else necessary to the physical well-being of himself and family." -"Masters treat their sick, infant, and helpless slaves well, not only from feeling and affection, but from motives of self-interest." -The interests of labor and capital are brought together -Masters grow to love their slaves because they live so closely together -"We do not agree with the authors of the Declaration of Independence, that governments 'derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.' The women, the children, the negroes, and but few of the non-property holders were consulted, or consented to the Revolution, or the governments that ensued from its success...." In the North, "they hold that all men, women, and negroes, and smart children are equals, and entitled to equal rights... The experiment which they will make, we fear, is absurd ..." *"The difference between [North and South] is, that our slaves are hired for life and well compensated; there is no starvation, no begging, no want of employment among our people.... Why, you meet more beggars in one day, in any single street of the city of New York, than you would meet in a lifetime in the whole South." James Hammond

Madison's Diagnosis of Problems within States

*"Multiplicity of laws" *"Mutability of laws" *"Injustice of the laws" *"Impotence of the laws"

Madison's Diagnosis of Problems between States

*"Trespasses of the States on the rights of each other" *"Want of concert in matters where common interest requires it" *"Encroachments by the States on the federal authority" *"Failure of the States to comply with the Constitutional requisitions"

Constitutional Failure?: Political Process

*1854 - Kansas-Nebraska Act -Stephen Douglas -Popular sovereignty: Allow each state to vote on slavery *Bleeding Kansas -Violence -Disruption from partisans on both sides *Constitutional structures fail to resolve adequately those differences

Declaration of Independence vs. Constitution

*A comprehensive critique of government vs. A comprehensive structure for government *Suspicious of government authority vs. Assumes government authority necessary for national purposes *States that all individuals are equal vs Does not treat all individuals as politically equal *This equality presumes that all voices are equal vs Some voices weighted more heavily than others (e.g. residents of small states)

John Adams Thoughts on State Government

*Better structures are key: bicameral legislature, independent judiciary, strong governor(elections & veto power)

Hamilton's British Plan

*Bicameral legislature -Lower house elected by the people for 3- year terms -Upper house elected by electors chosen by the people, lifetime term of service *Executive (called the Governor) -Elected by electors, lifetime term of service -Absolute veto over bills *Judiciary -Lifetime term of service *State governors appointed by the national legislature *National veto power over any state legislation *Even more powerful national sovereignty

Two Camps of 55 Delegates

*Broadly nationalist camp that favored strong central government *Group of advocates for the states who feared centralized power

Madison on Bill of Rights

*Came to feel that a bill of rights was necessary -Had promised the Anti-Federalists -Might even be needed

How do you keep branches separate?

*Combine "constitutional means and personal motives" to ... -"Resist encroachments" -Promote cooperation

Federalist #51

*Control conflict using institutions "In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place, oblige it to control itself." *Primary Control: The Nature of the Republic -Dependence on the people --Public virtue --Accountability through free elections --Refinement of views through representation *Auxiliary Precautions -Structural solution -Social arrangements that channel human nature so as to produce a more desirable outcome "Ambition must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of the place." (USE AMBITION AGAINST ITSELF)

Federalism

*Divide sovereignty between states and national government *Preserve the smaller units (states) so cherished by so man STATE Crime Property Rights Education Domestic Order Local Commerce NATIONAL Defense Diplomacy Foreign Trade Interstate Commerce

Constitutional Failure?: Supreme Court

*Dred Scott v. Sanford (Sandford) *Chief Justice Roger Taney -Dred Scott is not a citizen of the United States. -Blacks "are not included, and were not intended to be included, under the word 'citizens' in the Constitution, and can therefore claim none of the rights and privileges which that instrument provides for and secures to citizens of the United States." -"On the contrary, they were at that time considered as a subordinate and inferior class of beings." -"The writers of the Declaration of Independence "perfectly understood the meaning of the language they used, and how it would be understood by others; and they knew that it would not in any part of the civilized world be supposed to embrace the negro race, which, by common consent, had been excluded from civilized Governments and the family of nations, and doomed to slavery." *Dred Scott is not free. -Simply going to a free territory or free state does not make you free. *Congress has no power to outlaw slavery in the territories. *Slavery is allowed by the Constitution, and slaveowners' property rights must be respected in all territories

Problems from Factions

*Factions cause us to forget each other and the common good *Factional tendency toward extremism and ultimately anarchy *Capture of government by a single faction creates tyranny

Federalist #10

*Give everyone the same opinions: Can't do that *Representatives who "refine and enlarge the public views" *Extend the sphere: More factions = more conflict and competition = less tyranny

Jefferson's "Republican" vision

*Importance of state level politics *Limitation of national power (smaller national gov't) *Narrow interpretation of constitutional powers *Promote agrarian values and the benefits of rural life *Encourage participation in politics of the most virtuous—those closest to the soil.

Hamilton's Federalist vision

*Importance of the nation *Expansion of national power . . . strong and united . . . feared in the world *Broad interpretation of constitutional powers *Promote commercial values, integrated society, and the benefits of urban life. *Aristocratic leadership—the "rich and the wellborn."

James McPherson

*Isaiah Berlin's positive vs. negative liberty -Negative liberty: "freedom from" Congress shall not ... (1st Amendment) -Positive liberty: "freedom to" Congress shall ... (14th-15th Amendments) *The "new birth of freedom" is meant to "move the nation toward an expanded and open-ended concept of positive liberty.

Goals for institutional structure

*Keep self-interest in check *Mobilize civic virtue

Civil War

*Lincoln elected, November 1860 *South Carolina secedes, December 1860 *By Mar, 1861, 7 more states secede *Lincoln's First Inaugural, March 1861 -South does not have right to secede *S.C. attacks Fort Sumter, April 1861

Constitutional Failure?: Federalism North vs South

*North: Keep the Union together -Lincoln: "I hold that, in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution, the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments." *South: National government is ignoring states' rights and trampling on the "true" Constitution. -John C. Calhoun: "The [Constitutional] Convention meant to leave slavery in the States as they found it, entirely under the authority and control of the States themselves." -"The character of the Government has been changed ... from a federal republic, as it originally came from the hands of its framers, into a great national consolidated democracy."

Party Identification

*Parties have reputations *Parties simplify the alternatives *Parties can expand the electorate: Voter registration and mobilization

Judicial Review

*Power of the judiciary to declare laws or other acts of government unconstitutional *The power to interpret is a significant power *Insulated from the pull of interests (factions) that affect the other branches *Impartial When the constitutional text (or the text of laws) is drafted broadly, the power to interpret can be great

Modern Changes to Party System

*Primaries and primary campaigns: Empower more extreme voters (who are more likely to participate in primaries) *Campaign finance reforms: Empower interest groups outside of the party *Institutional reforms in Congress: Seniority and party loyalty are less important, Negotiation and compromise is harder

Winner Take All and Electoral College Results

*Reduces the incentives of third-party candidates to run for president *Reduces the incentives of a presidential candidate to compete in "safe" states *May weaken the incentives of voters in "safe" states to participate the U.S. has a two-party system because of two important rules: Winner-take-all Single member legislative districts

Issues of Convention

*Representation *Federalism *Executive *Slavery

House of Reps

*Representation by population *A strong electoral connection between the representative and the people *Frequent and direct elections -Every two years *Smaller districts "...the House of Representatives is so constituted as to support in the members a habitual recollection of their dependence on the people." ~ James Madison, Federalist #57

The Senate

*Representation by state *A weaker electoral connection between the representative and the people *Senators run every six years, instead of every two years. -Indirect election (Until 1913—with the passage of the 17th amendment—Senators were elected by the state legislatures) *Two senators per state means large and diverse constituencies for most senators

Rules of Convention

*Secrecy *One vote per state Washington presides

Constitutional Failure?: Separation of Powers

*Sectionalism meant that the South had no confidence in constitutional structures. -John C. Calhoun: "The North has acquired a decided ascendancy over every department of this Government, and through it a control over all the powers of the system." *Southerners did have considerable power in both the Senate and the Supreme Court. *Checks and balances resulted in gridlock

Slavery

*Slaves were a profitable investment *Slaves were highly productive *With the cotton gin, slavery and cotton production expanded

Is a Bill of Rights Needed?

*Some argued that a bill of rights was unnecessary: -States already had them -Consent is the key *Some argued that a bill of rights would be dangerous 1. Undermines the Constitution's message that government was limited "For why declare that things shall not be done which there is no power to do? Why, for instance, should it be said that the liberty of the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by which restrictions may be imposed?" 2. Privileges enumerated rights and does not sufficiently protect those that are not enumerated. 3. Might open up a pandora's box of rights claims "A rapidly expanding catalog of rights - extending to trees, animals, smokers, nonsmokers, consumers, and so on - not only multiplies the occasions for collisions, but it risks trivializing core democratic values. A tendency to frame nearly every social controversy in terms of a clash of rights impedes compromise, mutual understanding, and the discovery of common ground." Mary Ann Glendon

Southern Way of Life

*Southerners began to argue that slavery was the key to their way of life *Aristocratic society based on honor, gallantry, and glory

Where do political parties come from?

*Substantive differences in political ideals and goals *The need to organize and win in politics -Solve collective action problems -Mobilize voters -Organize and facilitate legislative action

Gettysburg

*The South needs to change the war. It knows it cannot win a war of attrition. *It invades the North. The Union army shadows the Confederate Army. *Union army keeps itself between the Confederate army and Washington, D.C. *The two armies meet almost unexpectedly in a little Pennsylvania town *pivotal battle hinges on the bravery and valor of a few men at a critical juncture of the war *Union victory at Gettysburg marks the "high water mark" of the Confederacy. Never again would the Confederate States of America seriously challenge the North for supremacy.

Constitutionalism

*The idea that the Constitution is a permanent document that was not intended to be easily amended, especially by simple acts of the legislature -If the Constitution is the higher law, it takes precedence over any ordinary laws passed by the legislature -It is inconsistent to talk about a supreme law that can be amended by simple ordinary law

Great Compromise

*Two legislative bodies -House of Representatives representing the people as individuals -Senate representing the state

Constitutional Failure?: The Presidency

*Until 1860, most presidents still relied heavily on Southern support *The election of 1860 did not mean victory for a centrist candidate Election of 1860 -John Bell (Constitutional Union Party) No firm stand on slavery, must keep union together -Stephen A. Douglas (Northern Democrat) Popular sovereignty: Let the states decide -John C. Breckinridge (Southern Democrat) Preserve the Union with slavery -Abraham Lincoln (Republican) Preserve the Union, but gradually abolish slavery Nation cannot survive half-slave and half-free

Accomplishment under Articles of Confederation

*Victory in war, peace treaty with Britain *Northwest Ordinance *informed the future constitution

Arguments against Virginia Plan

*Violated official purpose *Violated state sovereignty *Violated "small state" theory of republics/democracies -Government must remain close to the people -Citizens must share similar values/preferences

Bill of Rights

*Wasn't done at constitution

What did Articles of Confederation limit power of government to?

*resolve conflicts between states *regulate trade between states *enforce decisions *conduct foreign policy

Criticisms of Electoral College

1. Electors do not exercise independent judgment 2. Popular vs. Electoral Winners 3. Unequal representation

Federalist #71 (Important qualities of President)

1. National character (speak to broader issues and audiences) 2. Steadiness and statesmanship (cannot be too receptive to public opinion, for while the public may intend the public good) "and has procured lasting monuments of their gratitude to the men who had courage and magnanimity enough to serve them at the peril of their displeasure."

Representation in Extended Sphere

1. People chose best to represent 2.Exposure to other ideas and interests 3.Lengths of terms and nature of constituency

Control Effects of Factions

1. Pure Democracy (Minority factions checked by majority, BUT majority factions) 2. Republican Government (Enlightened Statesmen, BUT can't rely on) -EXTEND SPHERE (*Majority factions less likely to form *Majority factions less able to coordinate *Favors those with "enlightened views and virtuous sentiments")

Why State Laws are Problematic

1. Representative Legislatures (ambition and personal interest outweigh public good, early republic depended on reputation and honor among its ruling class) 2. People! (majorities vs. minorities, private interests vs. public good, respect and religion can't restrain)

Problems under Articles of Confederation

1.Injustice and conflict within the states 2.Lack of cooperation among the states 3. Instability in states (due to debt, economic hardship, ineffectiveness of state government, suspicion of authority)

Auxiliary Precautions

ARE STRUCTURES 1. Constitutional Means -Mix responsibilities among the branches in the formal Constitution 2. Personal Motives -Out of a desire to preserve the Union or to simply keep their own power, people will protect their own institution from incursion

Electoral College is a

COMPROMISE *Electors are chosen by each state -Number of electors in each state = the sum of senators and representatives from that state *States determine the electors *Must have a majority of electors to be elected -If no majority, the House of Representatives decides, with each state receiving 1 vote. Presumption that two possibilities were likely: 1. One candidate is a clear choice (ex., George Washington) 2. The House would frequently be the selection mechanism

Dominant theme in American Politics

CONFLICT *Conflict between the branches of government *Conflict between the political parties that dominate our political culture Needs to be channeled and controlled (requires civil virtue)

Locke and Jefferson

CONSENT OF THE GOVERNED

Virginia Plan

Edmund Randolph *National legislature with 2 houses -1st House: Elected by the people, representation proportional to population -2nd House: Elected by the 1st House *National executive is chosen by the legislature for one 5 year term *National judiciary is chosen by the legislature *"Council of revision": Executive and judiciary could review and veto national and state laws *Sovereignty in the nation

Madison's Large Republic

Federalist #10 *The diversity of the large republic will actually lead to better forms of governance

What to the Slave is the Forth of July?

Fredrick Douglass *The slave cannot rejoice on this day. *"America is false to the past, false to the present, and solemnly binds herself to be false to the future." *The country neither follows the Bible nor the Constitution. *Slavery is a contradiction and hypocrisy at the heart of America.

Broadly Stating Rights

Freedom of worship and speech (1st Amendment) Enumeration of certain rights does not mean there aren't others (9th Amendment) *Narrow rights insufficiently cover potential problems *Easier to get agreement *Sometimes a ringing declaration is necessary Challenges: *Conflict -Broad rights are likely to collide with other rights and values *Inclusion -Example: No way to protect some religion without protecting all of it. What counts as religion? *Interpretation

Common Assumption in Post-Revolutionary America

High public virtue among people, legislatures should reflect commitment to public good, executive branch should be weak, sovereignty should reside with the states

Anti-Federalist Concerns of Extended Republic

How do we recognize virtuous leaders? How can we make sure leaders are motivated by virtue?

Federal #68

The election should be by... Men most capable of analyzing the qualities adapted to the station" "Acting under circumstances favorable to deliberation, and to a judicious combination of all the reasons and inducements which were proper to govern their choice." *"The mode of appointment of the chief magistrate of the United States is almost the only part of the system, of any consequence, which has escaped without severe censure... I...hesitate not to affirm that if the manner of it be not perfect, it is at least excellent."

Argument for Weighting by Population

The great diversity of interests must be represented; individual interests should be represented equally

Plurality

The largest block of all votes cast

None of the Key Elements of the Founding...

Were able to prevent the Civil War

Separation of Powers

Where the rule-making, rule-interpreting, and rule-enforcement powers are held in different hands.

Argument for Small Republic

Why Not: 1. The Example of History 2. Diversity and the Common Good 3. The People and their Representatives Small republics can be united by a commitment to a common good. In a large republic, we have less in common because ... -we are more diverse, and -we are less likely to associate with individuals from other parts of the republic. In a large republic: *people will not watch over their representatives carefully enough *representatives will forget the people

New Jersey Plan

William Paterson *Congress largely the same as under the Articles -Unicameral -Equal state representation *National executive -Could be a council -Single term, subject to recall by state governors *Judiciary -Lifetime terms of service *Retained State Sovereignty

Development of a national two-party system

aggregate national support behind a given candidate and pledged electors to support that candidate

Massachusetts Constitution of 1780

model for US constitution, John Adams wrote

Who are electors?

prominent citizens or party workers

Constitutional Failure?: Factionalism becomes...

sectionalism *Each region develops a separate identity, lifestyle, political and economic morality, and sense of destiny

Shay's Rebellion

series of protests in 1786 and 1787 by American farmers against state and local enforcement of tax collections and judgments for debt (came at a bad time for farmers)

Design of Government must be able...

to account for human nature