American West

Why did farmland in Oregon encourage westward expansion?

Traders and fur-trappers had been travelling to Oregon for many years, and they relayed news of rich farmland west of the Rocky Mountains in Oregon.

How many chiefs could a tribe have and state different types of chief?

Tribes could have many different chiefs; for example, a war chief, spiritual chief and a chief who led negotiations with other tribes/federal government.

How did tribes minimise casualties?

Tribes could not afford to lose many warriors in battle and so they devised methods of minimising losses: -Raids would only go ahead if it looked as if it would work, and the raiders would escape as quickly as they could if there was much opposition; this was contrary to the european style of training of the American Army. -Only selected brotherhoods would go on a raid. This reduced the tribe's losses if the raid failed; although not all brotherhoods would respect this. -Counting Coup reduced losses.

What were tribes comprised of?

Tribes were comprised of different bands.

How much would the sea-route to Oregon cost?

$300

How much would a farm labourer earn per month?

Around $11

During the 19th century what were the two policies of the Federal government with regards to the 'Indian problem'?

1. Assimilation - encouraging the Plains to assimilate into American culture and civilised norms. 2. Separate development - keeping whites and Plains Indians apart. The policies were difficult to enforce simultaneously as separate development would prevent assimilation.

Name the different uses for different parts of the buffalo:

1. Raw hide - made into bags, harnesses, shields. 2. Tanned hide - robes, tipi covers, bags, shoes, leggings. 3. Tail - fly whisks and ornaments. 4. Dung - fuel. 5. Bladder - food bags. 6. Intestines - buckets and cooking vessels. 7. Fat - soap. 8. Tendons - strings, cord, sewing thread. 9. Ribs - sledges for children in the winter. Hooves - glue and tools. 10. Bones - knives and sledge runners. 11. Hair - string stuffing for pillows and saddles. 12. Fur - blankets, mittens and saddle covers. 13. Tongue - hair brush. 14. Skull - painted and used in religious rituals. 15. Horns - head dresses, spoons, powder flasks, cups and arrow straighteners.

Name three Sioux Nation chiefs:

1. Red Cloud (Oglala sub-tribe of the Lakota Sioux) 2. Sitting Bull (Hunkpapa sub-tribe of the Lakota Sioux) 3. Crazy Horse (war chief of the Oglala Sioux

Name several Plains Indians Tribes:

1. Sioux (regarded as a nation; made of the lakota, nakota and dakota tribes) 2. Cheyenne 3. Pawnee 4. Kiowa-Apaches 5. Comanches

Name four Sioux brotherhoods:

1. White Horse Riders 2. Strong Hearts 3. Crow Owners 4. The Last Child society

In what decade did westward expansion commence?

1830s

When did the first migrants to travel along the Oregon Trail with a covered wagon reach their destination?

1836

When did westward expansion increase?

1840s

How many people belonged to the successful parties of 1841 and 1842?

1841: 60 1842: 100

When was the Indian Appropriations Act signed into law

1851

How high was unemployment in some areas?

25%

How high were wage reductions

40%

What was a band?

A band was a group belonging to a tribe; they could be several hundred people or just 20-30 people.

What sort of factor was the Oregon trail?

A powerful pull factor that encourage migration west.

What sort of factor was the economic condition in the East?

A push factor; it pushed people away from the East.

How long would the voyage around South America and up the west coast take?

As long as a year.

What were hunting grounds?

All Plains Indians had hunting areas that they used together. Sometimes treaties were agreed that granted hunting rights to two or more tribes. Conflicts often occurred when food resources became scarce and tribes pushed into hunting areas that were traditionally used by others.

What was the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act?

An Act of the Congress of the United States which was passed in 1834 and defined Indian Territory as 'all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi and not within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or the territory of Arkansas.' To keep whites and Indians apart it established a permanent Indian Frontier. The Act also prohibited whites from settling on Indian territory and prevented the sale of firearms, alcohol etc and gave the US Army the role of policing the Frontier. The Frontier was guarded by a chain on US Army forts connected by a military road.

What was a reservation?

An area of land reserved for use by the American Indians and managed by the federal government. Hunting lands were allocated to some reservations, so the Plains Indians could continue to hunt buffalo and other animals.

What was the council?

Band chiefs and elders made up the tribe's council when the tribe came together.

Why were warrior brotherhoods important in Plains Indian society?

Brotherhoods were important because they trained young men in fighting skills. They also taught young men about the tribe's beliefs and values.

Who commanded the brotherhoods?

Brotherhoods, like bands, were not under the command of the tribal council in many tribes and consequently did not always respect peace treaties.

How many people had used the Oregon Trail by 1869?

By 1869, when the First Transcontinental Railroad replaced the Oregon Trail as the primary way of travelling west, 400,000 people had migrated west along the trail.

Were Chiefs for life?

Chiefs rarely held a life tenure. They came and went as their skills emerged and, in time, faded away.

What was a Chief?

Chiefs were the leaders of Plains Indian society. They were always men.

How did different tribes order their bands?

Comanches: Bands came together frequently and people moved between bands. Pawnee: Each band had a seperate village.

What was Counting Coup?

Counting Coup (coup meaning 'success') was a special form of combat in which a warrior would attempt to make contact (hit or touch) with their opponent and get away without being injured or killed. It demanded a great deal of expertise and and gained the warrior a lot of respect and honour.

What was The Last Child society?

Crazy Horse of the Oglala Sioux founded The Last Child society which was made up of the tribe's youngest sons. Crazy Horse resolved that the youngest son was always trying to impress his siblings and ear their admiration and would therefore be the most brave and daring.

What was a Band Chief?

Each band had a chief, who was chosen to guide the band in finding food and protecting the band from danger.

Which tribes were sworn enemies and which were natural allies?

Enemies: Sioux and Pawnee. Allies: Sioux and Cheyenne

How did the Council work?

Every member of the council would be allowed to speak and heard. The tribe's spiritual chief would be consulted on important decisions and no decision was made until everyone at the council had agreed to it.

What did Fur-Trappers do along the trail?

Fur-Trappers started to use the route, digging out a path through gullies, clearing scrub vegetation and finding the most ideal spots to cross rivers.

Why were horses essential for survival on the Plains?

Horses were essential for hunting buffalo and to travel across the great expanses of the Plains in the search for food.

Why were horses important in Plain Indian society?

Horses were highly significant for warfare and for status within society. Men measured their wealth in horses and raids on other tribes and white settlers were often to steal horses.

What was the Indian Removal Act?

In 1830, President Andrew Jackson, signed the Indian Removal Act, which pressured 46,000 American Indians living in the east of America (Iroquois, Cherokee, etc) to relocate west of the Mississippi River and into 'Indian Territory' land that they were promised they would never have to surrender and that they would be protected from white settlers.

Why did the economic conditions in the East encourage westward expansion?

In 1837 there was an economic crisis in the East and South of the USA, which lasted until the mid-1840s. Many banks collapsed, people lost their savings, businesses failed and thousands lost their jobs.

When did the Walker family complete the trail?

In 1840, the Walker family (including five children) completed the trail.

When was Texas admitted to the Union?

In 1845 the Republic of Texas was dissolved and Texas admitted into the Union.

When did the United States acquire Oregon?

In 1846 the US gained Oregon, which had previously been a shared administrative territory with Great Britain.

What territories did the United States gain from Mexico and when?

In 1848 the US gained vast new territories, including California, in the West as a result of defeating Mexico in the Mexican-American War.

What was the Indian Appropriations Act?

In 1851, the Congress passed the Indian Appropriations Act. This provided funds for the government with a means of moving Plains Indians in Indian Territory onto reservations .

What were the powers of the council?

In some tribes the council reserved the authority to declare war and make peace.

What were the limitations of the Chiefs?

In some tribes, such as the Lakota Sioux, chiefs had no power to command their people. Bands made their own independent decisions. Some bands might follow one chief and others would choose a different leader.

What did Plain Indians do in the harsh winters?

In the harsh winters they would move into lodges: these were circular buildings made of earth and timber logs. First a framework of strong logs was made, and then earth was piled on top to create a well-insulated living space. A fire pit was made in the middle with beds on platforms around the walls. Some lodges were large enough for 60 people; they were built in sheltered villages.

Why was their conflict between the White Americans and the Plains Indians.

Initially, the White Americans recognized the rights of the Plains Indians to the land. However, most viewed them as savages who did naught to improve the land: they just lived off resources the land produced naturally. They thought they were racially superior and deserving of the rights to the land to improve it by ploughing it for farming, digging up its minerals for manufacturing, clearing its forests for timber and developing America into a civilised Union of States. The Plains Indians should either assimilate into American culture and adhere to civilised norms or be swept aside and off of their land.

What was the Plain Indian belief on land and property?

Land was seen as sacred— the 'mother' of the Plains Indians.

What were the larger tribes called (and give an example)?

Large tribes were sometimes referred to as Nations; for example, the Great Sioux Nation.

What was a tribal guard unit?

Leading men from warrior brotherhoods were invited to join the tribe's guard unit protected the entire tribe and organised the annual buffalo hunt, made sure old and ill tribe members were fed and chose where the tribe should gather to make camp.

Who were the first people to reach their destination by travelling along the Oregon Trail with a covered wagon?

Marcus and Narcissa Whitman and Henry and Eliza Spalding. They were missionaries who travelled to Oregon to convert American Indian Tribes there to Christianity. Their success established the trail as a viable route for migrants.

Why did migrants need an overland route?

Migrants needed an overland route that wagons could travel on so they could transport all their belongings West.

What sort of lifestyle did the Plains Indians have?

Nomadic lifestyle; tipis to live in and travois to carry each family's belongings to the next camp.

What was a vision quest?

Plain Indians believed they could contact the spirit world through 'vision quests', guided by spirit animals (such as spirit hawks or spirit foxes).

Would would Plains Indians wear to bring them luck and protection in battle?

Plains Indians would work with spirits to charge up magic items, which Plains Indians would wear to bring them luck in hunting or protection in battle from weapons, including bullets.

What was the name given to the Native Americans living on the Plains by white Americans?

Plains Indians.

Give an example of tribes rejecting their chief(s):

Red Cloud of the Lakota Sioux who united the Sioux and Cheyenne against the US in Red Cloud's War; the US left Sioux territory in return for peace but not all Sioux supported his peace treaty and many followed Sitting Bull instead— a chief who rejected the treaty. Sitting Bull had a vision of white soldiers 'as thick as grasshoppers' falling into the Lakota Sioux tribe, which inspired many Sioux to fight the US Army.

What was the equestrian skill of the Plain Indians like?

Renowned equestrian expertise, they could ride amongst stampeding buffalo, shooting arrows into their sides to kill them.

Why did reservations mark both a continuation in policy and a change?

Reservations were a continuation of the policy of separate development, moving Plains Indians away from land so it can be used by White Americans but it was something new too: by reducing the amount of land available for hunting, the government hoped to encourage them to take up farming (a Western agricultural practice). The idea was that, through farming, they would become westernised and assimilate into White American culture.

How did Plains Indians regard the buffalo and other animals

Reverence for buffalo and other animals they depended on. It was their belief that all things in nature had a spirit and that failure to respect nature would lead to the Great Spirit refusing to help them to survive on the Plains.

What is the American West?

Roughly two thirds of the USA that is west of the Mississippi River, a vast expanse of land dominated by the Great Plains, a huge natural grassland.

What were trails?

Routes marking out established and reliable passages across the West.

How many sub-tribes made up the Lakota Sioux and give two examples:

Seven sub-tribes made up the Lakota Sioux; for example, the Oglala and Hunkpapa.

What was the Plains Indians beliefs on farming?

Some Plains Indians tribes farmed as well as living by hunting, fishing and gathering wild plant resources. In these cases, a farming plot did belong to the family and not the tribe. However, farming was very difficult on the Plains and no one family owned this land as property; it was not land that could be bought or sold. Farming and mining was seen by some Plains Indians as disrespectful to the land. These activities in sacred places would be especially likely to disrupt the sacred covenant between the tribe and the spirits.

What was a ritual dance and give an example?

Spiritual dances that granted you access to the spirit world. For example, the Sun Dance.

What was survival on the plains dependent on?

Survival was dependent on hunting the buffalo on horseback. Large herds of buffalo migrated across the Plains in search of grass.

What was the nature of warfare in Plains Indians society?

Survival was difficult and resources were limited so conflict was inevitable and an unavoidable fact of life for Plains Indians. Tribes raided each other for food, horses, weapons and brides.

How many horses to people did the Comanche have in the 1870s?

THe Comanche had a population of 3,000 and a horse population of around 8,000.

What did the white Americans call the Plains?

The Great American Desert.

Why wasn't there major interest in Westward expansion during the 1830s?

The Great Plains were not suitable for farming using conventional methods, hence 'The Great American Desert'. Although the US Army could not hope to control the vast Frontier there were not enough whites wanting to cross the Frontier to cause major issues.

What was the Great Spirit?

The Great Spirit was the supreme being, either god or a conception of universal spiritual force; in many Nation cultures it was seen as the creator.

How many horses did the Hunkpapa Lakota Sioux tribe have in the 1870s?

The Hunkpapa Sioux had a population of 2,900 and a horse population of 3,500.

Where was sacred for the Lakota Sioux?

The Lakota Sioux saw the Paha Sapa (the Black Hills of South Dakota) as the most sacred place as it was where they believed the Wakan Tanka created the Tribe in a special cave in these hills.

What was the religious beliefs of the Plain Indian Nations?

The Plain Indians were deeply spiritual and believed everything in nature had a spirit and that these spirits would sometimes help humans. They also believed that humans were part of nature and should work with the spirits of nature rather than trying to tame or obey them.

What was the climate of the Great Plains?

The Plains was subject to hot summers and cold winters. The plains were extremely dry, with very scarce surface water. When rain came, it was often in thunderstorms and lightning flashes would sometimes ignite raging fires that swept across the plains (by strong winds), burning the dry prairie grass.

What name did the Sioux give to the Great Spirit?

The Sioux called the Great Spirit the Wakan Tanka.

Which was the biggest tribal nation?

The Sioux was one of the biggest nations. It was made up of the Lakota, Dakota and Nakota tribes.

What was the key part of the Oregon trail|?

The South Pass in the Rocky Mountains.

When was the South Pass first publicised and who by?

The South Pass was first publicised in 1825 by an explorer called Jedidiah Smith.

Why did the US government encourage westward expansion in the 1840s?

The US government wanted US citizens to move into its newly acquired territories in the West. For most, the journey by sea was unaffordable and very long; migrants needed to be able to travel safely across the Plains Indian lands.

Why did westward expansion increase during the 1840s?

The expansion of the USA had major consequences for American Indian policy. The Frontier no longer divided Indians in the West from White Americans in the East; American Indian lands were now surrounded by the United States

Which part of the buffalo did Plain Indians refuse to use?

The heart was removed and left on the plains; it was believed that this gave new life to the herd.

Why was the mountain ranges of the Rockies and Sierra Nevada an enormous barrier?

The mountain ranges of the Rockies and Sierra Nevada posed an enormous barrier and so a way of travelling through them was required.

What was the Oregon Trail?

The only viable passage for migrants to cross through the mountain ranges (Rockies, Sierra Nevada) with wagons. This made it vitally important to the settlement of the west.

What kind of factor was farmland in Oregon?

The prospect of free farmland in the West was a powerful 'pull factor'; especially as economic conditions worsened in the East.

Why was it near impossible for migrants to reach Oregon by a sea-route?

The sea-route to Oregon was expensive and took a long time to complete.

How were Chiefs chosen?

There was no one system for appointing chiefs; they were valued for their wisdom, leadership and spiritual powers of for their reputation in warfare as fierce warriors.

What was a warrior brotherhood?

There were several different brotherhoods within a tribe and young men joined after proving their bravery and skill in fighting with other tribes.

What parts of the buffalo did the Plains Indians use?

They used every part of the buffalo for food, fuel (dung), clothing, shelter, ornaments, gifts

What did westward expansion signify?

US policy changed; the Permanent Indian Frontier remained a boundary with Plains Indian lands, but it was no longer the case that whites could not cross the border and so the US Army forced Plains Indians away from the trails to stop them from attacking migrants.

When would all the bands of a tribe meet and why?

Usually, in the summer, the bands of the tribe would meet for a great tribal camp. As well as being social and religious occasions, these were times when a tribe could cooperate to ensure their survival on the plains.

How did migrants travel to the West?

Via trails.

Why did the nature of chiefs lead to problems in the relationships between the federal government and the Plains Indians?

White Americans struggled to comprehend the nature of Plains Indians society and government.

What was the role of women in Plains Indian Society?

Women could not be chiefs and a successful man could practice polygamy. Women were responsible for feeding and clothing their families; and for the family's possessions. Women were also responsible for processing buffalo hides and meat, turning them into products that could be traded.

Were women respected in Plain Indian society.

Yes; the contributions of men and women were seen as equally important to the tribe's survival.

Who was permitted to negotiate with the Plains Indians?

only the federal government could negotiate with tribes, state governments were strictly forbidden from doing so. This provided American Indians with some protection because the state governments were often openly hostile to them and sought after their land. However, the relationship between the US government and the Plains Indians was entirely unequal and they were viewed as helpless wards who needed to be protected as they were guided to a civilised way of life. Their rights as the original inhabitants and understanding of the environment and how to manage its resources was largely ignored.