An Affluent Society, 1953-1960

With a few exceptions, like the ___ hearings mentioned in the previous chapter, TV avoided controversy and projected a bland image of ___ life. Popular shows of the early 1950s, such as The Goldbergs (with Jewish immigrants as the central characters) and The Honeymooners (in which Jackie Gleason played a bus driver), featured working-class families living in __ apartments. By the end of the decade, they had been replaced as the ___ programs by quiz shows, westerns, and comedies set in ___ homes like Leave It to Beaver and The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet. Television also became the most effective advertising medium ever invented. To polish their image, large ___ sponsored popular programs--The General Electric Theater (hosted for several years by Ronald Reagan), Alcoa Presents, and others. TV __, aimed primarily at middle-class suburban viewers, conveyed images of the good life based on endless consumption.

Army-McCarthy middle-class urban dominant suburban corporations ads

For years, the NAACP, under the leadership of attorneys __ & ___, had pressed legal challenges to the "separate but equal" doctrine laid down by the Court in 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson (see Chapter 17). At first, the NAACP sought to gain ___ to white institutions of higher learning for which no black equivalent existed. In 1988, the Supreme Court ordered the University of Missouri Law School to admit __ __, a black student, because the state had no such school for blacks. Missouri responded by setting up a ___ law school, satisfying the courts. But in 1950, the Supreme Court unanimously ordered __ __ admitted to the University of Texas Law School even though the state had established a "school'' for him in a basement containing three classrooms and no library. There was no way, the Court declared, that this hastily constructed law school could be "equal" to the ___ all-white institution

Charles Hamilton Houston and Thurgood Marshall admission Lloyd Gaines segregated Hernan Sweat prestigious

Both Kennedy and Nixon were ardent ___ Warriors. But Kennedy pointed to Soviet success in putting Sputnik, the first earth satellite, into orbit and subsequently testing the first __ __ __ (ICBM) as evidence that the United States had lost the sense of national purpose necessary to fight the Cold War. He warned that Republicans had allowed a missile gap to ___ in which the Soviets had achieved technological and military superiority over the United States. In fact, as both Kennedy and Nixon well knew, American economic and military ___ far exceeded that of the Soviets. But the charge persuaded many Americans that the time had come for new ___. The ___ of Kennedy's wife, Jacqueline, which stood in sharp contrast to the more dowdy public appearance of Mamie Eisenhower and Pat Nixon, reinforced the impression that Kennedy would conduct a more youthful, vigorous ____. In the first televised debate between presidential candidates, judging by viewer response, the handsome Kennedy bested Nixon, who was _____ from a cold and appeared tired and nervous. Those who heard the encounter on the radio thought Nixon had won, but, on TV, image counted for more than substance. In November, Kennedy eked out a narrow _____, winning the popular vote by only 120,000 out of 69 million votes cast (and, Republicans charged, benefiting from a ___ vote count by the notoriously corrupt Chicago Democratic machine)

Cold intercontinental ballistic missile develop capacity leadership stylishness presidency suffering victory fraudulent

___ life during the 1950s seemed far more daring than politics. Indeed, many adults found the emergence of a mass-marketed teenage culture that rejected middle-class ___ more alarming than the actual increase in juvenile arrests. Teenagers wore ___ jackets and danced to rock-and-roll music that brought the hard-driving rhythms and ___ provocative movements of black musicians and dancers to enthusiastic young white audiences They made ___ __, a rock-and-roll singer with an openly sexual performance style, an immensely popular entertainment ___. Challenges of various kinds also arose to the family-centered image of personal ___. ___ magazine, which began publication in 1958, reached a circulation of more than 1 million copies per month by 1960. It extended the ___ culture into the most intimate realms of life, offering men a ___ world of sexual gratification outside the family's confines. Although considered sick or deviant by the larger society and subject to constant police ___, gay men and lesbians created their own subcultures in major cities.

Cultural norms leather sexually Elvis Presley celebrity fulfillment Playboy consumer fantasy harassment

___ presented the United States with a complex set of choices. It created power ___ in the former colonies into which, Americans feared, communists would move. The Soviet Union strongly supported the ___ of Europe's overseas empires, and communists participated in movements for colonial independence. Many noncommunist leaders, like Jawaharlal Nehru of India and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, saw ___ of one sort or another as the best route to achieving economic independence and narrowing the social ___ fostered by imperialism. Most of the new Third World nations resisted alignment with either major power bloc, hoping to remain ___ in the Cold War. On the other hand, many nationalists sincerely admired the United States and, indeed, saw the American struggle for independence as a model for their own ___. __ __ __, the communist leader of the Vietnamese movement against rule by France, modeled his 1945 proclamation of nationhood on the American Declaration of Independence. He even requested that President Truman establish a protectorate over ___ to guarantee its independence

Decolonization vacuums dissolution socialism inequalities neutral struggles Ho Chi Minh Vietnam

In 1956, Israel, France, and Britain- without prior consultation with the United States--invaded ___ after the country's nationalist leader, Gamal Abdel Nasser, nationalized the ___ Canal, jointly owned by Britain and France. A furious Eisenhower forced them to abandon the invasion. After the Suez fiasco, the United States moved to replace ___ as the major Western power in the Middle East, and American companies increasingly dominated the region's __ fields. In 1957, Eisenhower extended the principle of ___ to the region, issuing the Eisenhower Doctrine, which pledged the United States to defend Middle Eastern governments threatened by ___ or Arab nationalism. A year later, Ike dispatched 5,000 American troops to ___ to protect a government dominated by pro-Western Christians against Nasser's effort to bring all Arab states into a single ___ under his rule.

Egypt Suez Britain oil containment communism Lebanon regime

In January 1961, shortly before leaving office, Eisenhower delivered a televised ___ ___, modeled to some extent on George Washington's address of 1796. Knowing that the missile gap was a myth, Ike warned against the drumbeat of calls for a new ___ buildup. He urged Americans to think about the dangerous power of what he called the military-industrial complex, the conjunction of "an immense military ____" with a "permanent arms industry"- with an influence felt in "every office" in the land. "We must never let the weight of this ____," he advised his countrymen, "endanger our liberties or democratic processes." Few Americans shared Ike's ___- far more saw the alliance of the Defense Department and private industry as a source of jobs and national security rather than a threat to ____. A few years later, however, with the United States locked in an increasingly unpopular war, Eisenhower's warning would come to seem _____.

Farewell Address military establishment combination concern democracy prophetic

"The concept of freedom" wrote one commentator in 1959, "has become as familiar to us as an old hat or a new ___" And a new Ford-or Chrysler or Chevrolet- now seemed essential to the enjoyment of freedom's benefits. Along with a home and television set, the ___ became part of what sociologists called "the standard consumer package" of the 1950s. By 1960, 80 percent of American families owned at least one car, and 14 percent had two or more, nearly all ___ in the United States. Most were designed to go out of ___ within a year or two, promoting further purchases. Auto manufacturers and oil companies vaulted to the top ranks of __ America. Detroit and its environs were home to immense ___ factories. The River Rouge complex had 62,000 employees, Willow Run 42,000. Since the military increasingly needed high-___ goods rather than the trucks and tanks that had rolled off assembly lines in World War II, the region around the Great Lakes lagged in defense contracts. In the long term, the continued funneling of federal dollars from the North and Midwest to the Sunbelt would prove devastating to the old industrial ___. But during the 1950s, the booming automobile industry, with its demand for steel, rubber, and other products, assured the region's continued ____.

Ford car manufactured style corporate auto technology heartland prosperity

A ___ Act passed by Congress in 1949 authorized the construction of more than 800,000 units of public housing in order to provide a "decent home for every American family." But the law set an extremely low ceiling on the ___ of residents- a rule demanded by private contractors seeking to avoid competition from the government in building homes for the middle class. This regulation limited housing projects to the very ____. Since white urban and suburban neighborhoods successfully opposed the construction of public housing, it was increasingly confined to ____ neighborhoods in inner cities, reinforcing the concentration of poverty in urban non-white neighborhoods. At the same time, under programs of urban ___, cities demolished poor neighborhoods in city centers that occupied potentially valuable real estate. In their place, developers constructed ___ centers and all-white middle-income housing complexes, and states built urban public ____ like Wayne State in Detroit and the University of Illinois at Chicago. Los Angeles displaced a neighborhood of mixed ___ groups in Chavez Ravine in order to build a stadium for the Dodgers, whose move in 1958 after sixty-eight years in Brooklyn seemed to symbolize the growing importance of California on the national scene. White residents displaced by urban renewal often moved to the ____. Non-whites, unable to do so, found housing in ___ city neighborhoods.

Housing income poor segregated renewal retail universities ethnic suburbs rundown

Dwight D. Eisenhower, or "___," as he was affectionately called, emerged from World War II as the military leader with the greatest political ___, partly because his public image of fatherly warmth set him apart from other successful generals like the ___ Douglas MacArthur. Eisenhower' party affiliation was ___. In 1948, he voted for Truman, and he accepted Truman's invitation to return to Europe as ___ ___ of NATO forces. Both parties wanted him as their candidate in 1952 But Eisenhower became convinced that Senator Robert A. Taft of Ohio, a leading contender for the Republican nomination, would lead the United States back toward ____. Eisenhower entered the contest and won the Republican nomination.

Ike appeal arrogant unknown Supreme Commander isolationism

In Vietnam, the expulsion of the ___ in 1945 led not to independence but to a French military effort to preserve their Asian empire, which dated to the late nineteenth century, against Ho Chi Minh's nationalist ___. Anticommunism led the United States into deeper and deeper ___. Following a policy initiated by Truman, the Eisenhower administration funneled billions of dollars in aid to bolster ___ efforts. By the early 1950s, the United States was paying ___ of the cost of the war. Wary of becoming bogged down in another land war in Asia immediately after Korea, however, Ike ___ to send in American troops when France requested them to avert defeat in 1954. He also rejected the National Security Council's advice to use ___ weapons, leaving France no alternative but to agree to Vietnamese independence.

Japanese forces involvement French four-fifths declined nuclear

For years, civil rights activists in ___ had been strategizing over how best to confront the city ordinance that required bus segregation. An earlier challenge had been abandoned because the person who refused to move was an unmarried pregnant ___. The dignified, accomplished Parks was the ideal person to become a ___ of the fight. The date may have been chosen because an all-white jury in Mississippi had just acquitted the murderers of ___ __, a black teenager who had allegedly whistled at a white woman. Till's murder and the judicial outcome shocked the nation. When his body was returned to Chicago, his parents insisted that the casket remain ___ at the funeral, so people could see his severely bruised and disfigured body--dramatic witness to why the racial status quo desperately needs to be changed. ___ __, a professor at the all-black Alabama State University, had been calling for a boycott of public transportation since 1954. When news of Parks's ___ spread, hundreds of blacks gathered in a local church and vowed to refuse to ride the buses until accorded equal treatment. For 881 days, despite legal ___ and occasional violence, black maids, janitors, teachers, and students walked to their destinations or rode an informal network of taxis. Finally, in November 1956, the Supreme Court ruled segregation in public transportation _____. The boycott ended in triumph.

Montgomery teenager symbol Emmett Till open Jo Ann Robinson arrest harassment unconstitutional

In 1957, however, after Governor __ __ of Arkansas used the National Guard to prevent the court-ordered integration of Little Rock's Central High School, Eisenhower dispatched ___ troops to the city. In the face of a howling mob, soldiers of the 101st ___ Division escorted nine black children into the school. Events in Little Rock showed that in the last instance, the federal government would not allow the flagrant ___ of court orders. But because of massive resistance, the pace of the movement slowed in the final years of the 1950s. When Eisenhower left office, fewer than 2 percent of black students attended _____ schools in the states of the old Confederacy.

Orval Faubus federal Airborne violation desegregated

As his running mate, Eisenhower chose ___ ___ of California, a World War II veteran who had made a name for himself by vigorous ____. In his first campaign for Congress, in 1946, Nixon attacked his opponent as an advocate of "state ___" He gained greater fame by his pursuit of ___ ___ while a member of the House Un-American Activities Committee. Nixon won election to the U.S. ___ in 1950 in a campaign in which he suggested that the Democratic candidate, Congresswoman ___ __, had communist sympathies. These tactics gave Nixon a lifelong reputation for opportunism and ___. But Nixon was also a shrewd politician, who pioneered efforts to transform the Republican Party's image from defender of business to champion of the "___ man"- the hardworking citizen burdened by heavy taxation and unresponsive government bureaucracies. In using populist language to promote free market economics, Nixon helped to lay the foundation for the triumph of ____ a generation later.

Richard Nixon anticommunism socialism Alger Hiss Senate Helen Gahagan Douglas dishonesty forgotten conservatism

When Vice President ___ __ prepared for his trip to Moscow to launch the exhibition, a former ambassador to Russia urged him to emphasize American ___: "We are idealists; they are materialists." But the events of the opening day seemed to reverse these roles. Nixon devoted his address, entitled "What ____ Means to Us," not to freedom of expression or differing forms of government, but to the "extraordinarily high ___ of living" in the United States, with its 56 million cars and 50 million television sets. The United States, he declared, had achieved what Soviets could only dream of-"____ for all in a classless society!"

Richard Nixon values Freedom standard prosperity

Buoyed by success in Montgomery, King in 1956 took the lead in forming the ___ __ __ __, a coalition of black ministers and civil rights activists, to press for desegregation. But despite the movement's success in popular ___, the fact that Montgomery's city fathers agreed to the boycott's demands only after a Supreme Court ruling indicated that without national ___, local action might not be enough to overturn Jim Crow. The white South's refusal to accept the Brown decision reinforced the conviction that black citizens could not gain their constitutional rights without Washington's ____. This was not immediately forthcoming. When the Supreme Court finally issued its ____ ruling in 1955, the justices declared that desegregation should proceed "with all deliberate speed" This vague formulation unintentionally encouraged a campaign of "massive _____" that paralyzed civil rights progress in much of the South.

Southern Christian Leadership Conference mobilization backing intervention implementation resistance

In 1956, 96 of 106 southern congressmen- and every southern senator except Lyndon B Johnson of Texas and Albert Gore and Estes Kefauver of Tennessee signed a ___ ___, denouncing the Brown decision as a "clear abuse of judicial power" and calling for resistance to "forced integration" by any lawful means." State after state passed laws to block _____. Some made it illegal for the NAACP to operate within their ___. Virginia pioneered the ___ of closing any public schools ordered to desegregate and offering funds to enable white pupils, but not black, to attend private institutions. Prince Edward County, Virginia, shut its ___ entirely in 1959; not until 1964 did the Supreme Court order them reopened. Many states adopted "freedom of ___" plans that allowed white students to opt out of integrated schools. As a symbol of ___, Georgia's legislature incorporated the Confederate battle flag into its state flag in 1956, and Alabama and South Carolina soon began flying the battle flag over their state ___ buildings.

Southern Manifesto desegregation borders strategy schools choice defiance capitol

____, for whom the home represented not only an emblem of freedom but the family's major investment, became increasingly fearful that any non- white presence would ___ the quality of life and destroy property values. Life magazine quoted a white suburbanite discussing a prospective black neighbor: "He's probably a nice guy, but every time I see him, I see $2,000 drop off the ___ of my house" Residential segregation was reinforced by "___"- a tactic of real-estate brokers who circulated exaggerated warnings of an impending influx of non-whites, to persuade ___ white residents to sell their homes hastily. Because of this practice, some all-white neighborhoods quickly became all-___ enclaves rather than places where members of different races lived side by side. "____ is equal housing too" became a slogan in the campaign for residential integration. But suburban home ownership long remained a white ____, with the freedom of non-whites to rent or purchase a home where they desired overridden by the claims of private property and "freedom of association." Even as the old ___ between white ethnic Americans faded in the suburban melting pot, racial barriers in housing, and therefore in public education and jobs, were reinforced

Suburbanites lower value blockbusting alarmed minority Freedom entitlement divisions

___ ___ decided that the time had come to attack not the unfair applications of the "separate but equal" principle but the doctrine itself. Even with the same funding and facilities, he insisted, segregation was inherently ___ since it stigmatized one group of citizens as unfit to associate with others Drawing on studies by New York psychologists __ & ___ Clark, Marshall argued that segregation did lifelong damage to black children, undermining their self-esteem. In its legal brief, the Eisenhower administration did not directly support Marshall's ___, but it urged the justices to consider "the problem of racial discrimination in the context of the present world struggle between freedom and ___. Other peoples, it noted, '"cannot understand how such a practice can exist in a country which professes to be a staunch supporter of freedom, justice, and ___" The new chief justice, ___ __, managed to create unanimity on a divided Court, some of whose members disliked segregation but feared that a decision to outlaw it would spark widespread violence. On May 17, 1954, Warren himself read aloud the decision, only eleven pages long. ___ in public education, he concluded, violated the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the ___ Amendment. "In the field of education, the doctrine of "separate but equal" has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."

Thurgood Marshall unequal Kenneth and Mamie position tyranny democracy Earl Warren Segregation Fourteenth

A sharp jump in the number of individuals investing in ___ __ inspired talk of a new "people's capitalism." In 1958, 4.5 million Americans only slightly more than in 1928- owned shares of ___. By the mid-1960s, the number had grown to 25 million. In the face of widespread ____, who could deny that the capitalist marketplace embodied individual freedom or that ___ would soon be a thing of the past? "It was American Freedom," proclaimed Life magazine, "by which and through which this amazing ___ of wealth and power was fashioned."

Wall Street stock abundance poverty achievement

The social critics did not offer a political __ or have any real impact on the parties or government. Nor did other stirrings of ___. With ___ a growing part of the population thanks to the baby boom, the emergence of a popular culture geared to the emerging youth market suggested that significant generational tensions lay beneath the bland ___ of 1950s life. J.D. Salinger's 1951 novel Catcher in the Rye and the 1955 films Blackboard Jungle and Rebel without a Cause (the latter starring James Dean as an aimlessly rebellious youth) highlighted the __ of at least some young people from the world of adult respectability. These works helped to spur a mid-1950s panic about "juvenile ___" Time magazine devoted a cover story to "Teenagers on the Rampage," and a Senate committee held ___ in 1954 on whether violent comic books caused criminal behavior among young people. (One witness even criticized Superman comics for arousing violent emotions among its readers.) To head off federal ___, publishers--like movie producers earlier- adopted a code of ___ for their industry that strictly limited the portrayal of crime and violence in comic books

alternative dissent teenagers surface alienation delinquency hearings regulation conduct

Soon after he entered office, Eisenhower approved an ___ that ended fighting in Korea. But this failed to ease international tensions. Ike took office at a time when the Cold War had entered an extremely ___ phase. In 1952, the United States exploded the first ___ bomb-a weapon far more powerful than those that had devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The following year, the Soviets matched this ___. Both sides feverishly developed ___ bombers capable of delivering weapons of mass destruction around the world. A professional soldier, Ike hated __, which he viewed as a tragic waste. "Every gun that is made,; he said in 1958, "every warship launched signifies a ___ from those who hunger and are not fed." But his secretary of state, __ __ __, was a grim Cold Warrior. In 1954, Dulles announced an updated version of the doctrine of ___. Massive retaliation, as it was called, declared that any Soviet attack on an American ally would be countered by a nuclear ___ on the Soviet Union itself. In some ways, this reliance on the nuclear threat was a way to enable the budget-conscious Eisenhower to reduce spending on conventional ___ forces. During his presidency, the size of the armed services fell by nearly __. But the number of American nuclear ___ rose from 1,000 in 1958 to 18,000 in 1960.

armistice dangerous hydrogen achievement long-range war theft John Foster Dulles containment assault military half warheads

Marshall now launched a frontal ___ on segregation itself. He brought the NAACP's support to local cases that had arisen when black parents challenged ___ school policies. For parents to do so required remarkable courage. In Clarendon County, South Carolina, ___ __, a black farmer who brought a lawsuit on behalf of his children, saw his house burned to the ground. The Clarendon case attacked not segregation itself but the ___ funding of schools. The local school ___ spent $179 per white child and $48 per black, and unlike white pupils, black children attended class in buildings with no running water or indoor toilets and were not provided with buses to transport them to classes. Five such cases from ___ states and the District of Columbia were combined in a single appeal that reached the Supreme Court late in 1952. When cases are ___, they are listed alphabetically and the first case gives the entire decision its name. In this instance, the first case arose from a state outside the old Confederacy. __ __ went to court because his daughter, a third grader, was forced to walk across dangerous railroad tracks each morning rather than being allowed to attend a nearby school restricted to whites. His lawsuit became ___ v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas

assault unfair Levi Pearson unequal board four united Oliver Brown Brown

The ____, the pivot on which suburban life turned, transformed the nation's daily life, just as the interstate highway system (discussed later) transformed Americans' travel habits, making possible _____ vacationing by car and commuting to work from ever-increasing distances. The result was an altered American ___, leading to the construction of motels, drive-in movie theaters, and roadside eating establishments. The first ___ fast food restaurant opened in Illinois in 1954. Within ten years, having been franchised by California businessman ___ __, approximately 700 McDonald's stands had been built, which had sold over 400 million hamburgers. The car symbolized the identification of ___ with individual mobility and private choice. On the road, Americans were constantly reminded in advertising, television shows, and popular songs, they truly enjoyed freedom. They could imagine themselves as ___ versions of western pioneers, able to leave behind urban crowds and workplace pressures for the "open road."

automobile long-distance landscape McDonald's Ray Kroc freedom modern

The federal government tried to remain aloof from the __ struggle. Thanks to the efforts of Senate majority leader Lyndon B. Johnson, who hoped to win ___ support for a run for president in 1960, Congress in 1957 passed the first national civil rights law since ___. It targeted the denial of black voting rights in the South, but with weak enforcement provisions it added few voters to the rolls. President Eisenhower failed to provide ___ leadership. He called for Americans to __ by the law, but he made it clear that he found the whole civil rights issue distasteful. He privately told ___ that he disagreed with the Supreme Court's reasoning Ike failed to act in 1956 when a federal court ordered that ___ __ be admitted to the University of Alabama; a mob prevented her from registering and the board of trustees expelled her. The university remained all ___ into the 1960s.

black liberal Reconstruction moral abide aides Autherine Lucy white

The end of World War II was followed by what one scholar has called the "golden age" of ___, a period of economic expansion, stable prices, low unemployment, and rising standards of living that continued until 1978. Between 1946 and 1960, the American gross national product more than ___ and much of the benefit flowed to ___ citizens in rising wages. In every measurable way-diet, housing, income, education, recreation- most Americans lived ___ than their parents and grandparents had By 1960, an estimated 60 percent of Americans enjoyed what the government defined as a ___ standard of living. The official ___ rate, 80 percent of all families in 1950, had declined to 22 percent a decade later (still, to be sure, representing more than one in five Americans). Numerous ___ came into widespread use in these years, transforming Americans daily lives. They included television, home air-conditioning, automatic dishwashers, inexpensive long-distance telephone calls, and jet air travel. ___ like electricity, central heating, and indoor plumbing that within living memory had been enjoyed only by the rich and solidly middle class now became features of ___ life.

capitalism doubled ordinary better middle-class poverty innovations Services common

Brown did not ___ the modern civil rights movement, which began during World War Il and continued in cities like New York after the war. But the decision did ensure that when the movement ___ after waning in the early 1950s, it would have the backing of the ___ courts. Mass ___ against Jim Crow soon reappeared On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a black tailor's assistant who had just completed her day's work in a Montgomery, Alabama, department store, refused to surrender her seat on a city bus to a white __, as required by local law. Parks's arrest sparked a yearlong Montgomery bus ___, the beginning of the mass phase of the civil rights movement in the South. Within a decade, the civil rights revolution had overturned the structure of legal segregation and regained the right to vote for black southerners. In 2000, Time magazine named Rosa Parks one of the 100 most ___ persons of the twentieth century.

cause resumed federal action rider boycott significant

The presidential campaign of 1960 turned out to be one of the ___ in American history. Republicans chose Vice President ___ __ as their candidate to succeed Eisenhower. Democrats nominated __ __, a senator from Massachusetts and a Roman Catholic, whose father, a millionaire Irish-American businessman, had served as ambassador to Great Britain during the 1980s. Kennedy's chief rivals for the nomination were __ __, leader of the party's liberal wing, and __ __ of Texas, the Senate majority leader, who accepted Kennedy's offer to run for vice president. The atmosphere of ___ promoted by World War II had weakened traditional anti- Catholicism. But as recently as 1949, Paul Blanshard's American Freedom and Catholic Power, which accused the church of being ______, morally repressive, and essentially un-American, had become a national best-seller. Many Protestants remained reluctant to _____ for a Catholic, fearing that Kennedy would be required to support church doctrine on controversial public issues or, in a more extreme version, take orders from the pope. Kennedy addressed the question _____. "I do not speak for my church on public matters,'' he insisted and "the church does not speak for me. His defeat of Humphrey in the Democratic primary in overwhelmingly Protestant West Virginia put the issue of his ___ to rest. At age forty-three, Kennedy became the ____ major-party nominee for president in the nation's history.

closest Richard Nixon John F. Kennedy Hubert Humphrey Lyndon B. Johnson tolerance antidemocratic vote directly religion youngest

Khrushchev's call in the same 1956 speech for "peaceful ___" with the United States raised the possibility of an easing of the Cold War The "___" was abruptly shaken that fall, however, when Soviet troops put down an anticommunist uprising in ___. Many conservative Republicans had urged eastern Europeans to resist communist rule, and Secretary of State Dulles himself had declared "___," rather than containment, to be the goal of American policy. But Eisenhower refused to extend aid to the Hungarian ___, an indication that he believed it impossible to "roll back" Soviet ___ of eastern Europe. In 1958, the two superpowers agreed to a voluntary halt to the ___ of nuclear weapons. The pause lasted until 1961. It had been demanded by the National Committee for a __ ___ __, which publicized the danger to public health posed by radioactive fallout from nuclear tests. In 1959, Khrushchev toured the United States and had a friendly meeting with Eisenhower at __ __. But the spirit of cooperation ended abruptly in 1960, when the Soviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane over their territory. Eisenhower first denied that the plane had been involved in ___ and refused to apologize even after the Russians produced the captured pilot. The incident torpedoed another planned summit ___.

coexistence chaw Hungary liberation rebels domination testing Sane Nuclear Policy Camp David espionage meeting

In New York City and San Francisco, as well as ___ towns like Madison, Wisconsin, and Ann Arbor, Michigan, the ___, a small group of poets and writers, railed against mainstream culture. The novelist ___ __ coined the term "beat"- a play on "beaten down" and "beatified" (or saintlike). His On the Road, written in the early 1950s but not published until 1957, recounted in a seemingly ___ rush of sights, sounds, and images its main character's aimless wanderings across the American landscape. The book became a bible for a generation of ___ people who rejected the era's middle-class culture but had little to put in its place.

college Beats Jack Kerouac spontaneous young

The 1950s also witnessed an easing of the labor ___ of the two previous decades. The passage of the ___ Act in 1947 had reduced labor militancy. In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged to form a single organization representing 85 percent of all ___ workers. In leading industries, labor and management hammered out what has been called a new ___ ___. Unions signed long-term ___ that left decisions regarding capital investment, plant location, and output in management's hands, and agreed to try to prevent unauthorized "__" strikes. Employers stopped trying to eliminate existing ___ and granted wage increases and fringe ___ such as private pension plans, health insurance, and automatic __ to pay to reflect rises in the cost of living. Unionized workers shared fully in 1950s ___. Although the social contract did not apply to the majority of workers, who did not belong to unions, it did bring benefits to those who labored in ___ jobs. For example, trade unions in the 1950s and 1960s were able to use their political power to win a steady increase in the ___ wage, which was earned mostly by nonunion workers at the bottom of the employment pyramid. But these "___ effects" were limited.

conflict Taft-Hartley nonagricultural social contract agreements wildcat unions benefits adjustments prosperity nonunion minimum spillover

The Moscow exhibition became the site of a classic Cold War ____ over the meaning of freedom- the "kitchen debate" between Nixon and Soviet premier ___ ___. Twice during the first day Nixon and Khrushchev engaged in an unscripted debate about the ___ of capitalism and communism. The first took place in the kitchen of a model suburban ranch house, the second in a futuristic "miracle kitchen" complete with a mobile robot that swept the floors. Supposedly the home of an ___ steelworker, the ranch house was the exhibition's centerpiece. It represented, Nixon declared, the mass enjoyment of American freedom within a ____ setting -freedom of ___ among products, colors, styles, and prices. It also implied a particular role for ___. Throughout his exchanges with Khrushchev, Nixon used the words "women" and "housewives" interchangeably. Pointing to the automatic floor sweeper, the vice president remarked that in the United States "you don't need a ___."

confrontation Nikita Khrushchev merits average suburban choice women wife

Friedman was indirectly criticizing not only liberalism but also the "new ___," a second strand of thought that became increasingly prominent in the 1950s. Convinced that the Free World needed to arm itself morally and intellectually, not just ___, for the battle against communism, "new conservatives" like writers Russell Kirk and Richard Weaver insisted that toleration of ___- a central belief of modern liberalism-offered no substitute for the search for absolute truth. Weaver's book, Ideas Have Consequences (1948), a rambling philosophical treatise that surprisingly became the most influential statement of this new ___, warned that the West was suffering from moral decay and called for a return to a civilization based on ___ grounded in the Christian tradition and in timeless notions of good and evil.

conservatism militarily difference traditionalism values

During the 1950s, a group of thinkers began the task of reviving ___ and reclaiming the idea of freedom from liberals. Although largely ignored outside their own immediate circle, they ___ ideas that would define conservative thought for the next half-century. One was ___ to a strong national government, an outlook that had been given new political life in conservatives' bitter reaction against the New Deal. To these "Libertarian" conservatives, ___ meant individual autonomy, limited government, and unregulated capitalism. These ideas had great appeal to conservative ___, especially in the rapidly growing South and West. Many businessmen who desired to pursue their economic fortunes free of government ___, high taxes, and labor unions found intellectual reinforcement in the writings of the young economist ___ __. In 1962, Friedman published Capitalism and Freedom, which identified the free ___ as the necessary foundation for individual liberty. This was not an uncommon idea during the Cold War, but Friedman pushed it to extreme _____. He called for turning over to the private sector virtually all government functions and the ___ of minimum wage laws, the graduated income tax, and the Social Security system. Friedman extended the idea of ____ free choice into virtually every realm of life. Government, he insisted, should seek to regulate neither the economy nor individual __.

conservatism developed opposition freedom entrepreneurs regulation Milton Friedman market conclusions repeal unrestricted conduct

"The ___ is the key to our economy," declared Jack Straus, chairman of the board of Macy's, New York City's leading department store. "Our ability to consume is ___. The luxuries of today are the necessities of tomorrow." The roots of the consumer culture of the 1950s date back to the 1920s and even earlier. But never before had ___, or consumerism, been so widespread. In a consumer culture, the measure of ___ became the ability to gratify market desires. Modern society, wrote Clark Kerr, president of the University of California, may well have ___ freedom "in the workplace" by subjecting workers to stringent discipline on the job, but it offered a far greater ___ of "goods and services," and therefore "a greater scope of freedom" in Americans "___ lives."

consumer endless affluence freedom reduced range personal

In a sense, the 1950s represented the ___ of the long-term trend in which consumerism replaced economic independence and democratic participation as central definitions of American ___. Attitudes toward ___ changed as well. Low interest rates and the spread of credit cards encouraged Americans to ___ money to purchase consumer goods. Americans became comfortable living in never-ending ___, once seen as a loss of economic freedom. Consumer culture demonstrated the superiority of the American way of life to ___. From Coca-Cola to Levi's jeans, American consumer goods, once a status ___ for the rich in other countries, were now marketed to customers around the globe. The country's most powerful weapon in the Cold War, insisted a reporter for House Beautiful magazine, was "the ___ offered by washing machines and dishwashers, vacuum cleaners, automobiles, and refrigerators.

culmination freedom debt borrow debt communism symbol freedom

Cold War affluence coexisted with urban ___ and ___, the seeds from which protest would soon flower. Yet to many observers in the 1950s it seemed that the ills of American society had been ___. Scholars celebrated the "end of ideology" and the triumph of a democratic, capitalist "___" in which all Americans except the maladjusted and fanatics shared the same liberal values of ____, respect for private property, and belief in equal opportunity. If problems remained, their solutions required technical ___, not structural change or aggressive political intervention.

decay racism solved consensus individualism adjustments

"I saw the best minds of my generation ___ by madness, starving hysterical naked," wrote the Beat poet Allen Ginsberg in Howl (1955), a brilliant protest against ___ and conformism written while the author was under the influence of hallucinogenic drugs. Ginsberg became nationally known when San Francisco police in 1956 ___ his book and arrested bookstore owners for ___ an obscene work. (A judge later overturned the ban on the grounds that Howl possessed redeeming ___ value.) Rejecting the work ethic, the "desperate materialism" of the suburban middle class, and the militarization of American ___ by the Cold War, the Beats celebrated impulsive action, immediate pleasure (often enhanced by drugs), and ___ experimentation. Despite Cold War slogans, they insisted, personal and political ___, not freedom, were the hallmarks of American society.

destroyed materialism confiscated selling social life sexual repression

By then, other underpinnings of 1950s life were also in ___. The tens of millions of cars that made suburban life possible were spewing toxic ___, an additive to make gasoline more efficient, into the atmosphere. Penned in to the east by mountains that kept automobile emissions from being dispersed by the wind, Los Angeles had become synonymous with ___, a type of air pollution produced by cars. ___, used in air conditioners, deodorants, and aerosol hair sprays, were releasing chemicals into the atmosphere that trapped heat and damaged the ozone layer, producing global warming and an increase in skin cancer. (Both leaded gasoline and chlorofluorocarbons had been invented by General Motors research scientist ___ ___. He "had more impact on the atmosphere," writes one historian, "than any other single organism" in the history of the world.) The chemical _____ that enabled agricultural conglomerates to produce the country's remarkable abundance of food were poisoning farm workers, consumers, and the water supply. ___ were rebelling against a life centered in suburban dream houses. Blacks were increasingly ____ with the slow progress of racial change. The United States, in other words, had entered that most ____ of decades, the 1960s.

disarray lead smog Chlorofluorocarbons Thomas Midgley insecticides Housewives impatient turbulent

Even as Europe, where the Cold War began, settled into what appeared to be a permanent ___ between a communist East and a capitalist West, an intense rivalry, by which sometimes took a military form, persisted in what came to be called the ___ __. The term was invented to describe developing countries ___ with neither of the two Cold War powers and desirous of finding their own model of development between Soviet centralized economic planning and free market capitalism. The ___ Conference, which brought leaders of twenty-nine Asian and African nations together in Indonesia in 1955, seemed to announce the emergence of a new force in global ___, representing a majority of the world's population. But none of these countries could avoid being strongly affected by the political, military, and economic ___ of the Cold War. The post-World War II era witnessed the crumbling of ___ empires. The winds of ___, said British prime minister ___ ___, were sweeping Africa and Asia. ___ began when India and Pakistan (the latter carved out of India to give Muslims their own nation) achieved independence in 1947. Ten years later, Britain's Gold Coast colony in West Africa emerged as the ___ nation of Ghana. Other new nations including Indonesia, Malaysia, Nigeria, Kenya, and Tanzania-soon followed In 1975, Portugal, which five centuries earlier had created the first modern overseas ___, granted independence to its African colonies of Mozambique and Angola.

division Third World aligned Bandung affairs contest European change Harold Macmillan Decolonization independent empire

During the 1950s, the number of houses in the United States ___, nearly all of them built in the suburbs that sprang up across the landscape. The dream of home ownership, the physical embodiment of ___ for a better life, came within reach of the majority of Americans. Developers pioneered ___ mass-building techniques, and government-backed low- interest ___ to returning veterans allowed working-class men and women in large numbers to purchase homes. ___ & __ __, who shortly after the war built the first Levittown on 1,200 acres of potato fields on Long Island near New York City, became the most famous suburban developers. Levittown's more than 10,000 houses were assembled ___ from prefabricated parts and priced well within the reach of most Americans. ___ was soon home to 40,000 people. At the same time, suburbs required a new form of shopping center- the ___--to which people drove in their cars. In contrast to traditional mixed-use city centers crowded with pedestrians, malls existed solely for ___ and had virtually no public space.

doubled hopes inexpensive loans William and Alfred Levitt quickly Levittown mall shopping

For millions of city ___, the suburban utopia fulfilled the dream, postponed by depression and war, of home ownership and middle-class incomes. For beneficiaries of postwar ___, in the words of a Boston worker who made heroic sacrifices to move his family to the suburbs, the home became "the center of __." The move to the suburbs also promoted ___, cutting residents off from urban ethnic communities and bringing them fully into the world of mass consumption. But if the suburbs offered a new site for the ___ of American freedom, they retained at least one familiar characteristic- rigid racial ___. Suburbia has never been as uniform as either its celebrants or its critics claimed. There are upper-class suburbs, working-class suburbs, industrial suburbs, and "suburban" neighborhoods within city limits. But if the class ___ of suburbia has been exaggerated, its ___ uniformity was all too real. As late as the 1990s, nearly 90 percent of suburban ___ lived in communities with non-white populations of less than 1 percent- the legacy of decisions by government, real-estate developers, banks, and residents.

dwellers prosperity freedom Americanization enjoyment boundaries uniformity racial whites

The ___ content of Cold War freedom increasingly came to focus on consumer capitalism, or, as it was now universally known, "free enterprise" More than political democracy or freedom of speech, which many allies of the United States outside western Europe lacked, an economic system resting on ___ ownership united the nations of the Free World. A week before his Truman Doctrine speech, in a major address on economic policy, the president reduced Roosevelt's Four Freedoms to ___. Freedom of speech and worship remained, but freedom from want and fear had been replaced by freedom of ___, "part and parcel," said Truman, of the American way of life. Even more than during World War II, what one historian calls the "selling of free enterprise" became a major ___, involving corporate advertising, school programs, newspaper editorials, and civic activities. Convinced that ads represented "a new weapon in the world-wide fight for ___; the Advertising Council invoked cherished symbols like the Statue of Liberty and the Liberty Bell in the service of "competitive free enterprise." To be sure, the free enterprise campaigners did not agree on every ___. Some businessmen believed that defending free enterprise required rolling back much of the __ that labor unions had gained in the past decade, dismantling New Deal regulations, and restricting the economic role of _____.

economic private three enterprise freedom issue power government

The main ___ of economic growth during the 1950s, however, were residential construction and spending on ___ goods. The postwar ___ boom and the ___ of population from cities to suburbs created an enormous demand for housing, television sets, home appliances, and cars. By 1960, suburban residents of single-family homes ___ urban dwellers and those living in rural areas. (Today, they outnumber both combined.)

engines consumer baby shift outnumbered

The long-term trend toward fewer and larger ___ continued. During the 1950s, the farm population ___ from 28 million to 15 million, yet ___ production rose by 50 percent, thanks to more ___ machinery, the application of chemical fertilizers and insecticides, increased use of irrigation to open land to cultivation in the West, and the development of new crop strains. The decade witnessed an acceleration of the transformation of ___ life that had begun during World War I. New tractors and harvesting ___ and a continuing shift from cotton production to less labor-intensive soybean and poultry raising reduced the need for farm workers. More than 8 million black and white hired hands and sharecroppers ___ out of the region. The center of gravity of American farming shifted decisively to Texas, Arizona, and especially California. The large ___ farms of California, worked by Latino and Filipino migrant laborers, poured forth an endless supply of fruits and vegetables for the domestic and world markets. Items like oranges and orange juice, once ___, became an essential part of the American diet.

farms fell agricultural efficient southern machinery migrated corporate luxuries

The "new conservatives" understood ___ as first and foremost a moral condition. It required a decision by ___ men and women to lead virtuous lives, or governmental action to force them to do so. Although they wanted government ___ from the economy, new conservatives trusted it to regulate personal behavior, to restore a Christian ___ they saw as growing weaker and weaker in American society. Here lay the origins of a ___ in conservative ranks that would persist into the twenty-first century. Unrestrained individual choice and moral virtue are ___ different starting points from which to discuss freedom. Was the purpose of conservatism, one writer wondered, to create the "free man" or the "___ man"? Libertarian conservatives spoke the language of ___ and personal autonomy, the "new conservatives" ___ tradition, community, and moral commitment. The former believed that too many ___ existed to the pursuit of individual liberty. The latter condemned an excess of individualism and a breakdown of common _____.

freedom independent expelled morality division radically good progress emphasized barriers values

Today, with the birthday of Martin Luther King Jr. a national holiday and the struggles of Montgomery, Little Rock, Birmingham, and Selma celebrated as ___ episodes in the history of freedom, it is easy to forget that at the time, the civil rights ___ came as a great surprise. Looking back, its causes seem clear: the ___ of the racial system during World War II; the mass ___ out of the segregated South that made black voters an increasingly important part of the Democratic Party coalition; and the Cold War and rise of ___ states in the Third World, both of which made the gap between America's rhetoric and its racial reality an international ___. Yet few predicted the emergence of the southern mass movement for civil ___. With blacks' traditional ___ on the left decimated by McCarthyism, most union leaders unwilling to ___ racial inequalities within their own ranks, and the NAACP concentrating on court battles, new constituencies and new tactics were sorely needed. The movement found in the southern black church the organizing ___ for a militant, nonviolent assault on segregation.

heroic revolution destabilization migration independent embarrassment rights allies challenge power

Despite the economic recovery of western Europe and Japan after World War II, the United States remained the world's predominant ___ power. Major industries like steel, automobiles, and aircraft dominated the __ & __ markets for their products. Like other wars, the Cold War fueled industrial ___ and promoted a ___ of the nation's population and economic resources. The West, especially the Seattle area, southern California, and the Rocky Mountain states, benefited enormously from government ___ for aircraft, guided missiles, and radar systems. The ___ became the home of numerous military bases and government-funded shipyards. Growth in the construction of aircraft engines and submarines counterbalanced the ___ of New England's old textile and machinery industries, many of which relocated in the South to take advantage of ___ nonunion labor. In retrospect, the 1950s appear as the last decade of the industrial age in the United States. Since then, the American economy has shifted ___ toward services, education, information, finance, and entertainment, while employment in manufacturing has declined. Even during the 1950s, the number of factory ___ fell slightly while clerical workers grew by nearly 25 percent and salaried employees in large corporate enterprises rose by 60 percent. Unions' very success in raising ___ inspired employers to mechanize more and more elements of manufacturing in order to reduce labor costs. In 1956, for the first time in American history, ___ workers outnumbered blue-collar factory and manual laborers.

industrial domestic and world production redistribution contracts South decline 1ow-cost rapidly laborers wages white-collar

In his two campaigns for president, the Texas-born Eisenhower made remarkable ___ in the Democratic South, a harbinger of the region's later political ___. In 1952, he carried eight former ___ states and won 48 percent of the votes cast in the states of the ___. He ran strongly among moderate whites living in metropolitan and suburban areas of the upper South and ___ states. But his personal appeal did not translate into a "___" effect. For the time being, ___ continued to control almost all southern state and local offices. During the 1950s, voters at home and abroad seemed to find reassurance in selecting familiar; ___ leaders to govern them. At age sixty-two, Eisenhower was one of the ___ men ever elected president. But he seemed positively ___ compared with Winston Churchill, who returned to office as prime minister of Great Britain at age seventy-seven, Charles DeGaulle, who assumed the presidency of ___ at sixty-eight, and Konrad Adenauer, who served as chancellor of ___ __ from age seventy-three until well into his eighties. In retrospect, Eisenhower's presidency seems almost uneventful, at least in ___ affairs- an interlude between the bitter party battles of the Truman administration and the social upheavals of the 1960s.

inroads realignment slave Confederacy border coattail Democrats elderly oldest youthful France West Germany domestic

What kind of nation, the economist John Kenneth Galbraith asked in The Affluent Society (1958), neglected ___ in schools, parks, and public services, while producing ever more goods to fulfill desires created by advertising? Was the spectacle of millions of educated middle-class ___ seeking happiness in suburban dream houses a reason for celebration or a waste of precious "woman power" at a time when the Soviets trumpeted the ___ of their female scientists, physicians, and engineers? ___ like Galbraith', along with William Whyte's The Organization Man (1956) and Vance Packard's The Hudden Persuaders (1957), which criticized the monotony of modern work, the emptiness of suburban life, and the pervasive influence of ___, created the vocabulary for an assault on the nation's social values that lay just over the horizon. In the 1950s, however, while ___ of mass society became a minor industry among intellectuals, it failed to dent widespread ___ about the American way.

investment women accomplishments Books advertising criticism complacency

Free enterprise seemed an odd way of describing an economy in which a few ___ corporations dominated key sectors. Until well into the twentieth century, most ordinary Americans had been deeply suspicious of ___ business, associating it with images of robber barons who manipulated politics, suppressed economic competition, and treated their workers unfairly. Americans, wrote ___ ___, chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, must abandon their traditional fear that concentrated economic power endangered "our very liberties." Large-scale ___ was not only necessary to fighting the Cold War, but it enhanced freedom by multiplying consumer goods. "By freedom," wrote Lilienthal, "I mean essentially freedom to choose. It means a maximum range of choice for the consumer when he spends his dollar." By the end of the 1950s, public-___ surveys revealed that more than 80 percent of Americans believed that "our freedom" depends on the free enterprise system.

large big David Lilienthal production opinion

The fatherly Eisenhower seemed the perfect ___ for the placid society of the 1950s. ___ was the dominant ideal in an era in which McCarthyism had defined criticism of the social and economic order as disloyalty and most Americans located the enjoyment of freedom in ___ pleasures rather than the public sphere. With the mainstreams of both parties embracing the Cold War, political ___ took place within extremely narrow limits. Even Life magazine commented that American freedom might be in greater danger from "___" than from communist subversion. ___ voices could be heard. Some intellectuals wondered whether the celebration of affluence and the either-or ___ of the Cold War obscured the extent to which the United States itself fell short of the ideal of freedom. The sociologist ___ __ challenged the self-satisfied vision of democratic pluralism that dominated mainstream social science in the 1950s. Mills wrote of a "power ___" -an interlocking directorate of corporate leaders, politicians, and military men whose domination of government and society had made political democracy obsolete. Freedom, Mills insisted, meant more than "the chance to do as one ___. It rested on the ability "to formulate the available choices," and this most Americans were effectively denied

leader Consensus private debate disuse Dissenting mentality C. Wright Mills elite pleases

Representing what might be called business's more ___ wing, the Advertising Council, in its "American Economic System" ad campaign of 1949, reaffirmed labor's right to collective ___ and the importance of government-business cooperation. Indeed, despite talk of the glories of the free market, government policies played a crucial ___ in the postwar boom. The rapid expansion of the suburban ___ class owed much to federal tax subsidies, mortgage guarantees for home purchases, dam and highway construction, military contracts, and benefits under the GI Bill.

liberal bargaining role middle

Even as the government and media portrayed the United States as a beacon of ___ locked in a titanic struggle with its opposite, one strand of social analysis in the 1950s contended that Americans did not enjoy genuine ___. These critics identified as the ___ not the unequal structure of power criticized by Mills, but the modern age itself, with its psychological and cultural discontents. Modern mass ___, some writers worried, inevitably produced loneliness and anxiety, causing mankind to yearn for stability and authority, not freedom In The Lonely Crowd (1950), the decade's most ___ work of social analysis, the sociologist David Riesman described Americans as "other-directed' conformists who lacked the inner resources to lead truly independent lives. Other social critics charged that corporate ___ had transformed employees into "organization men" incapable of independent thought. Some commentators feared that the Russians had demonstrated a greater ability to ___ for common public goals than Americans.

liberty freedom culprit society influential bureaucracies sacrifice

Most western growth took place in ___ areas, not on farms, But "___" western cities like Houston, Phoenix, and Los Angeles differed greatly from traditional urban centers in the East. Rather than consisting of downtown ___ districts linked to residential neighborhoods by public transportation, wester cities were ___ clusters of single-family homes and businesses united by a web of highways. The Los Angeles basin, the largest western suburban region, had once had an extensive system of trains, trolleys, and buses. But local governments dismantled these lines after World War II, and the state and federal governments replaced them with ___ for cars and trucks. ___ growth spilled into farm regions like the San Fernando and San Bernardino valleys. By one estimate, one-third of southern California's land area (presumably not including mountains and deserts) was paved over with ___ and parking lots. Life centered around the ___; people drove to and from work and did their shopping at malls reachable only by driving. In other sections of the country as well, shopping shifted to suburban centers, and old downtown business districts stagnated. The spread of suburban homes created millions of new ___. Today, more land is cultivated in ___ than any agricultural crop in the United States.

metropolitan centerless business decentralized freeways Suburban roads car lawns grass

During the postwar suburban boom, federal agencies continued to insure ____ that barred resale of houses to non-whites, thereby financing housing _____. Even after the Supreme Court in 1948 declared such provisions legally ____, banks and private developers barred non-whites from the suburbs and the government refused to ____ their mortgages except in segregated enclaves. In 1960, blacks represented less than __ percent of the population of Chicago's suburbs. The vast new communities built by William Levitt refused to allow ___, including army veterans, to rent or purchase homes. "If we sell one house to a Negro family," Levitt explained, "then 90 or 95 percent of our white customers will not ___ into the community" After a lawsuit, Levitt finally agreed during the 1960s to sell homes to ___, but at a pace that can only be described as ___. In 1990, his Long Island community, with a population of 58,000, included 127 black residents.

mortgages segregation unenforceable subsidize 8 blacks buy non-whites glacial

In King's soaring ____, the protesters' understandings of freedom fused into a coherent whole. For the title of his first book, relating the boycott's history, King chose the title Stride Toward Freedom. His most celebrated oration, the "I Have a Dream" speech of 1968, began by invoking the unfulfilled promise of emancipation ("one hundred years later, the Negro still is not free") and closed with a cry borrowed from a black ___: "Free at last Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last!" A master at appealing to the deep sense of injustice among blacks and to the conscience of white America, King presented the case for black rights in a ___ that merged the black experience with that of the nation. Having studied the writings on peaceful civil ___ of Henry David Thoreau and Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi, as well as the nonviolent protests the Congress of Racial Equality had organized in the 1940s, King outlined a philosophy of ___ in which evil must be met with good, hate with Christian love, and violence with peaceful ___ for change. "There will be no white persons pulled out of their homes and taken out to some distant road and lynched," he declared in his speech at the launching of the Montgomery bus _____.

oratory spiritual vocabulary disobedience struggle demands boycott

Issued from a ___ conference in 1954, the ___ Accords divided Vietnam temporarily into northern and southern districts, with elections scheduled for 1956 to unify the country. But the staunchly ___ southern leader Ngo Dinh Diem, urged on by the United States, refused to hold ___, which would almost certainly have resulted in a victory for Ho Chi Minh's communists. Diem's close ties to wealthy Catholic families-in predominantly ___ South Vietnam- and to landlords in a society dominated by small farmers who had been promised ___ by Ho alienated an increasing number of his subjects. American ___ poured into South Vietnam in order to bolster the Diem regime. By the time Eisenhower left office in 1960, Diem nevertheless faced a full-scale guerrilla revolt by the communist-led National ___ Front.

peace Geneva anticommunist elections Buddhist land aid Liberation

From the beginning, the language of freedom _____ the black movement. It resonated in the speeches of civil rights leaders and in the hand-lettered placards of the struggles of foot soldiers. On the day of Rosa Parks's ___ appearance in December 1955, even before the bus boycott had officially been announced, a tom piece of cardboard appeared on a bus shelter in Montgomery's Court Square, ___ passengers: "Don't ride the buses today. Don't ride it for freedom." During the summer of 1964, when civil rights activists established "freedom schools" for black children across Mississippi, ___ began with students being asked to define the word Some gave specific answers ("going to public libraries"), some more ___ ("standing up for your rights"). Some insisted that freedom meant legal ___, others saw it as liberation from years of deference to and fear of whites. "Freedom of the mind," wrote one, was the greatest freedom of all. For adults as well, freedom had many ___. It meant enjoying the political rights and economic opportunities taken for ___ by whites. It required ___ historic wrongs such as segregation, disenfranchisement, confinement to low-wage jobs, and the ever-present threat of violence. It meant the right to be served at lunch counters and downtown department stores, central locations in the consumer culture, and to be ___ as "Mr." "Miss." and "Mrs." rather than "boy" and "auntie"

pervaded court advising lessons abstract equality meanings granted eradicating addressed

The Montgomery bus boycott marked a turning point in ___ American history. It launched the movement for racial justice as a nonviolent crusade based in the black ___ of the South. It gained the support of northern liberals and focused unprecedented and unwelcome international ___ on the country's racial policies. And it marked the ___ of twenty-six-year-old Martin Luther King Jr., who had recently arrived in Montgomery to become ___ of a Baptist church, as the movement's national symbol. On the night of the first protest meeting, King's call to action ___ the audience: "We, the disinherited of this land, we who have been oppressed so long, are tired of going through the long night of ___. And now we are reaching out for the daybreak of freedom and justice and ______.

postwar churches attention emergence pastor electrified captivity equality

The modern West emerged in the ___ years. Unlike the 1930s, when most migrants to the West came from the South and the Dust Bowl states, all parts of the country now contributed to the region's ___. ___ spending on dams, highways, and military installations helped to fuel the flow of people. So did the pleasant ___ of many parts of the region, and the diffusion of air ___ in warmer places such as Arizona and southern California. The rapid expansion of ___ production (a result of the tremendous increase in automobile ownership) led to the explosive growth of ___ centers connected to the oil industry such as Denver, Dallas, and Houston. But it was ___ that became the most prominent symbol of the postwar suburban boom Between World War I and 1975, more than 80 million Americans moved west of the ___ River. ___ of the population growth of the 1950s occurred in California alone. In 1968, it surpassed New York to become the nation's most ___ state.

postwar growth Federal climate conditioning oil urban California Mississippi One-fifth populous

The black ___ hailed the Brown decision as a "second Emancipation Proclamation." And like its predecessor it was in many ways a limited __. The decision did not address segregation in institutions other than public schools or ban all racial ___ in the law, such as statutes prohibiting interracial marriage It did not address the de facto ___ segregation of the North, which rested on housing patterns rather than state law. It did not order immediate ___ but instead called for hearings as to how segregated schooling should be dismantled. But Brown marked the emergence of the "___ Court" as an active agent of social change. And it inspired a wave of optimism that discrimination would soon disappear. "What a wonderful world of ___ unfolded for the children, '' wrote the black novelist Ralph Ellison.

press document classifications school implementation Warren possibilities

Suburbanization hardened the ___ lines of division in American life. Between 1950 and 1970, about 7 million white Americans left cities for the suburbs. Meanwhile, nearly 8 million blacks ___ from the South to the North, greatly increasing the size of existing urban ___ and creating entirely new ones. And half a million Puerto Ricans, mostly small coffee and tobacco farmers and agricultural laborers ___ off the land when American sugar companies expanded their landholdings on the island, moved to the mainland. Most ended up in New York City's East ___, until then an Italian- American community. Although set in a different part of New York, the popular Broadway musical __ __ __ dramatized the tensions between Puerto Rican newcomers and longtime urban residents. By the late 1960s, more Puerto Ricans lived in New York City rather than San Juan, the island's ___. The process of racial exclusion became self-reinforcing. Non-whites remained ___ in manual and unskilled jobs, the result of employment discrimination and their virtual exclusion from ___ opportunities at public and private universities, including those outside the South. In 1950, only 12 percent of employed blacks held ___ positions, compared with 45 percent of whites. As the white population and industrial jobs fled the old city centers for the suburbs, poorer blacks and Latinos remained ___ in urban ghettos, seen by many whites as places of crime, poverty, and welfare.

racial moved ghettos forced Harlem West Side Story capital concentrated educational white-collar trapped

Not until the 1960s would young white ___ find their cause, as the seeds of ___ planted by the social critics and Beats flowered in an outpouring of political ___, new attitudes toward ___, and a full-fledged generational ___. A more immediate challenge to the ___ of the 1950s arose from the twentieth century's greatest citizens' movement-the black struggle for ___.

rebels dissent activism sexuality rebellion complacency equality

Both Protestant and Roman Catholic ___ leaders played crucial roles in the spread of anticommunism and Cold War culture. Official American values celebrated the nation's religiosity as opposed to "godless" ___. During the 1950s, a majority of Americans-the highest percentage in the nation's history--were ___ with a church or synagogue. In 1954, to "strengthen our national resistance to communism, Congress added the words "under God" to the Pledge of ___. In 1957, "In God We Trust" was included on paper ___. Big-budget Hollywood films like The Ten Commandments and Ben Hur ___ early Judaism and Christianity. Soviet domination of strongly Catholic eastern Europe inspired powerful currents of _____ among Catholic ethnic groups in the United States. Leading clerics like Bishop Fulton J. Sheen of the Catholic Church and Protestant evangelist Billy Graham used radio and television to spread to millions a ___ message heavily imbued with anticommunism. Communism, Graham declared. was not only an economic and political outlook but a religion one "inspired, directed and motivated by the ___ himself"

religious communism affiliated money celebrated anticommunism religious Devil

With Truman's civil rights initiative having faded and the Eisenhower administration ___ to address the issue, it fell to the courts to confront the problem of racial segregation. In the Southwest, the __ _ _ __ __ __ __ (LULAC), the equivalent of the NAACP, challenged restrictive housing, employment discrimination, and the segregation of Latino students. It won an important victory in 1946 in the case of ___ v. Westminster, when a federal court ordered the schools of Orange County desegregated. In response, the state legislature ___ all school laws requiring racial segregation. The governor who signed the measure, __ __, had presided over the internment of Japanese-Americans during World War II as the state's attorney general. After the war, he became convinced that racial inequality had no place in American ___. When Chief Justice __ __ died in 1958, Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren to replace him. Warren would play the key role in deciding Brown v. Board of Education, the momentous case that ___ school segregation.

reluctant League of United Latin American Citizens Mendez repealed Earl Warren life Fred Vinson outlawed

Ever since the beginning of the Cold War, American leaders had worried about the impact of segregation on the country's international ____. President Truman had promoted his civil ___ initiative, in part, by reminding Americans that they could not afford to "ignore what the world thinks of our record" The State Department filed a brief in the Brown case noting the ___ segregation was doing to the country's image overseas. Foreign nations and colonies paid close attention to the unfolding of the American civil rights ___. The global reaction to Brown's decision was overwhelmingly ___. "At Last! Whites and Blacks in the United States on the same school ___!" proclaimed a newspaper in Senegal, West Africa. But the slow pace of change led to criticism that embarrassed American ___ seeking to win the loyalty of people in the non-white world. In a public forum in India, the American ___ was peppered with questions about American race relations. Was it true that the Haitian ambassador to the United States had to live in a black ghetto in Washington? Why did no black person hold a high public office? Of course, the Soviet Union played up American race ___ as part of the global "battle for hearts and minds of men" that was a key part of the Cold War.

reputation rights damage movement positive benches diplomats ambassador relations

Massive ___ ran the risk that any small conflict, or even a miscalculation, could escalate into a war that would ___ both the United States and the Soviet Union. Critics called the doctrine "___," warning of the danger of Dulles's apparent willingness to bring the world to the brink of nuclear war. The reality that all-out war would result in "mutual assured ___" (or MAD, in military shorthand) did succeed in making both great powers cautious in their direct dealings with one another. But it also inspired widespread ___ of impending nuclear war. Government programs encouraging Americans to build bomb ___ in their backyards, and school ___ that trained children to hide under their desks in the event of an atomic attack, aimed to convince Americans that nuclear war was survivable. But these measures only increased the atmosphere of ___.

retaliation destroy brinkmanship destruction fear shelters drills fear

Parks is widely remembered today as a "__ with tired feet," a symbol of ordinary blacks' determination to resist the daily injustices and indignities of the Jim Crow South. In fact, her life makes clear that the civil rights revolution built on earlier ___. Parks was a veteran of black ___. During the 1980s, she took part in ___ protesting the conviction of the Scottsboro Boys. She served for many years as secretary to E. D. Nixon, the local leader of the ___. In 1948, she tried to register to ___, only to be turned away because she supposedly failed a literacy test. After two more attempts, Parks succeeded in becoming one of the few blacks in Montgomery able to cast a ___. In 1954, she attended a training session for political activists at the Highlander School in Tennessee, a meeting ground for labor and civil rights ___.

seamstress struggles politics meetings NAACP vote ballot radicals

In his inaugural address, Eisenhower repeated the familiar Cold War formula: "Freedom is pitted against ___; lightness against dark" But the end of the Korean War and the death of ___, both of which occurred in 1958, convinced him that rather than being blind zealots, the Soviets were ___ and could be dealt with in conventional diplomatic terms. In 1955, Ike met in Geneva, Switzerland, with Nikita Khrushchev, the new Soviet ___, at the first "summit' conference since Potsdam a decade earlier. The following year, Khrushchev delivered a speech to the ___ Party Congress in Moscow that detailed Stalin's ___, including purges of political opponents numbering in the millions. The revelations created a crisis of belief among ___ throughout the world. In the United States, three-quarters of the remaining Communist Party members abandoned the ___, realizing that they had been blind to the nature of Stalin's rule

slavery Stalin reasonable leader Communist crimes communists organization

Nixon's decision to make a stand for American values in the setting of a suburban kitchen was a brilliant stroke. Nixon recognized that "____ power"- the penetration across the globe of American goods and popular culture--was an even more potent form of influence than military might. Indeed, his stance reflected the triumph during the 1950s of a conception of freedom centered on ____ abundance and ___ choice within the context of traditional family life- a vision that seemed to offer far more opportunities for the "pursuit of ___" to men than women. In reply, Khrushchev ridiculed consumer culture and the American ___ with household gadgets. "Don't you have a machine," he quipped, "that puts food in the mouth and pushes it down?" Many of the items on display, he continued, served "no ___ purpose" Yet, in a sense, the Soviet leader conceded the debate when he predicted- quite incorrectly- that within seven years his country would ___ the United States in the production of consumer goods. For if material abundance was a battleground in the Cold War, American ___ was certain.

soft economic consumer happiness obsession useful surpass victory

By the end of the 1950s, the division of Europe appeared to be set in ___. Much of the focus of the Cold War shifted to the Third World. The policy of containment easily slid over into opposition to any government, whether ___ or not, that seemed to threaten American strategic or economic interests. Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán in Guatemala and Mohammed Mossadegh in Iran were elected, homegrown ___, not agents of Moscow. But they were determined to reduce foreign ___ control over their countries' economies. Arbenz embarked on a sweeping land-___ policy that threatened the domination of Guatemala's economy by the American-owned United ___ Company. Mossadegh nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, whose ___ in Iran was Britain's largest remaining overseas asset. Their foes quickly branded both as ___. In 1958 and 1954, the Central Intelligence Agency organized the ouster of both governments- a clear violation of the UN __, which barred a member state from taking military action against another except in self-___.

stone communist nationalists corporations reform Fruit refinery communists Charter defense

The emergence of ___ as a chief site of what was increasingly called the "American way of life" placed pressure on the family and especially women to live up to freedom's promise. After 1945, women ___ most of the industrial jobs they had performed during the war. As during most of American history, women who worked outside the home remained concentrated in __-salary, nonunion jobs, such as clerical, sales, and service labor, rather than better-paying manufacturing positions. After a sharp postwar drop in female employment, the number of women at work soon began to ___. By 1955, it exceeded the level of World War II. But the nature and aims of women's work had ___. The modern woman, said Look magazine, worked part-time, to help __ the family's middle-class lifestyle, not to help pull it out of poverty or to pursue personal fulfillment or an independent career Working women in 1960 earned, on average, only __ percent of the income of men. Despite the increasing numbers of wage-earning women, the suburban family's breadwinner was assumed to be ___, while the wife remained at home. Films, TV shows, and advertisements portrayed ___ as the most important goal of American women. And during the 1950s, men and women reaffirmed the virtues of family life. They married ___(at an average age of twenty-two for men and twenty for women), ___ less frequently than in the past, and had more children (8.2 per family). A ___ boom that lasted into the mid-1960s followed the end of the war. At a time of low immigration, the American population rose by nearly 80 million (almost 20 percent) during the 1950s. The increase arose mostly from the large number of births, but it also reflected the fact that Americans now lived ___ than in the past, thanks to the wide availability of "miracle drugs" like penicillin that had been developed during World War I to combat bacterial infections.

suburbia lost low rise changed support 60 male marriage younger divorced baby longer

Events in Guatemala, Iran, and Vietnam, considered great ___ at the time by American policymakers, cast a long shadow over American foreign relations. Little by little, the United States was becoming accustomed to ___, both open and secret, in far-flung corners of the world. Despite the Cold War rhetoric of freedom, American leaders seemed more comfortable dealing with reliable military ___ than democratic governments. A series of military ___ succeeded Arbenz. The shah of Iran replaced Mossadegh and agreed to give British and American oil companies 40 percent of his nation's oil ___. He remained in office until 1979 as one of the world's most ___ rulers, until his overthrow in a revolution led by the fiercely anti-American radical Islamist Ayatollah Khomeini. In Vietnam, the American decision to prop up Die's regime laid the ___ for what would soon become the most disastrous military ___ in American history.

successes intervention regimes governments revenues tyrannical groundwork involvement

Thanks to ___, images of middle-class life and advertisements for consumer goods blanketed the country. By the end of the 1950s, nearly ___ American families owned a TV set. Television replaced ___ as the most common source of information about public events, and TV watching became the nation's leading ___ activity. Television changed Americans' ___ habits (the frozen TV dinner, heated and eaten while watching a program, went on sale in 1954).

television nine of ten newspapers leisure eating

As for religious differences, the source of persistent ___ in American history, these were absorbed within a common "____" heritage, a notion that became central to the cultural and political dialogue of the 1950s. This newly invented tradition sought to demonstrate that Catholics, Protestants, and Jews shared the same ___ and values and had all contributed to the evolution of American society. The idea of a unified Judeo-Christian tradition overlooked the long history of ____ among religious denominations. But it reflected the ___ of anti-Semitism and anti-Catholicism in the wake of World War I, as well as the ongoing ____ of American life. As Will Herberg argued in his influential book Protestant-Catholic-Jew (1955), religion now had less to do with spiritual activities or sacred values than with ___ identity, group assimilation, and the promotion of traditional morality. In an affluent suburban society, Herberg argued, the "common religion" was the American way of ___, a ___ of democratic values and economic prosperity in a phrase, "free enterprise."

tension Judeo-Christian history hostility decline secularization personal life marriage

In 1958, during a "___" in the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union agreed to exchange national exhibitions in order to allow citizens of each "superpower" to become acquainted with ___ in the other. The ___ ___, unveiled in New York City in June 1959, featured factory machinery, scientific advances, and other illustrations of how communism had modernized a backward country. The following month, the __ __ __ opened in Moscow. A showcase of consumer goods and leisure equipment, complete with stereo sets, a movie theater, home appliances, and twenty-two different cars, the exhibit, Newsweek observed, hoped to demonstrate the ___ of "modern capitalism with its ideology of political and economic freedom." Yet the exhibit's real message was not freedom but ___-or, to be more precise, the equating of the two.

thaw life Soviet Exhibition American National Exhibition superiority consumption

Echoing Christian ___ derived from his training in the black church, King's speeches resonated deeply in both black communities and the broader __. He repeatedly invoked the ___ to preach justice and forgiveness. Like Frederick Douglass before him, King appealed to white America by stressing the protesters' love of ____ and devotion to national values. The "daybreak of freedom," King made clear, meant a new dawn for the whole of American society. And like W. E. B Du Bois, he linked the American "color line" with the degradation of non-white peoples ____. "The great struggle of the Twentieth Century" he declared in a 1956 sermon. "has been between the exploited masses questing for freedom and the colonial powers seeking to maintain their ___." If Africa was gaining its freedom, he asked, why must black America lag behind?

themes culture Bible country overseas domination

With a Republican serving as president for the first time in twenty years, the ___ in Washington changed. Wealthy ___ dominated Eisenhower's cabinet. Defense Secretary __ __, the former president of General Motors, made the widely publicized statement: "What is good for the country is good for General Motors, and vice versa." A champion of the business community and a fiscal ___, Ike worked to scale back government spending, including the military budget. But while right-wing Republicans saw his victory as an invitation to roll back the __ __, Eisenhower realized that such a course would be disastrous. "Should any political party attempt to abolish Social Security, unemployment insurance, and eliminate labor laws and farm programs, he declared, "you would not hear of that party again in our political ___." Eisenhower called his domestic agenda __ __. It aimed to sever his party's identification in the minds of many Americans with Herbert Hoover, the ___ __, and indifference to the economic conditions of ordinary citizens. The core New Deal programs not only remained in place, but ___. In 1955, millions of agricultural workers became ___ for the first time for Social Security. Nor did Ike reduce the size and scope of government. Despite the use of "Free ___" as a weapon in the Cold War, the idea of a "___ economy" in which the government played a major role in planning economic activity was widely accepted throughout the Western world.

tone businessmen Charles Wilson conservative New Deal history Modern Republicanism Great Depression expanded eligible enterprise mixed

Almost as soon as he won the vice-presidential nomination, Nixon ran into ___ over press reports that wealthy Californians had created a private fund for his family. Eisenhower considered ___ him from the ticket. But in an emotional nationally televised thirty-minute address in which he drew attention to his ordinary upbringing, war service, and close-knit family, Nixon denied the ___. The "___ speech," named after the family dog the one gift Nixon acknowledged receiving, but insisted he would not return--____ his political career. It illustrated how television was beginning to ____ politics by allowing candidates to bring a carefully crafted image directly into Americans living rooms. The ___ campaign became the first to make extensive use of TV ads. Parties, one observer complained, were "selling the president like ___" More important to the election's outcome, however, was Eisenhower's ____(invoked in the Republican campaign slogan "I Like Ike") and the public's weariness with the ___ War. Ike's pledge to go to Korea in search of peace signaled his ___ to bring the conflict to an end. He won a resounding victory over the Democratic candidate, Adlai Stevenson. Four years later, Eisenhower again defeated Stevenson, by an even wider ___. His popularity, however, did not extend to his party. Republicans won a razor-thin majority in Congress in 1952, but Democrats regained control in 1954 and retained it for the rest of the decade. In 1956, Eisenhower became the first president to be elected without his party ____ either house of Congress.

trouble dropping accusations Checkers rescued transform 1952 toothpaste popularity Korean intention margin controlling

The United States in the 1950s was still a segregated, ___ society. Half of the nation's black families lived in ___. Because of labor contracts that linked promotions and firings to seniority, non-white workers, who had joined the industrial labor force later than whites, ___ their jobs first in times of economic downturn. In the South, evidence of __ __ abounded--in separate public institutions and the signs "white" and "colored" at entrances to buildings, train carriages, drinking fountains, restrooms, and the like. In the North and West, the law did not require ___, but custom barred blacks from many colleges, hotels, and restaurants, and from most suburban housing. Las Vegas, Nevada, for example, was as strictly segregated as any southern city. Hotels and casinos did not admit blacks except in the most ___ jobs. Lena Horne, Sammy Davis Jr., Louis Armstrong, and other black entertainers played the hotel-casinos on the "__" but could not stay as guests where they performed. In 1950, seventeen southern and border states and Washington, DC., had laws requiring the racial segregation of public ___, and several others permitted local districts to impose it. Around 40 percent of the nation's 28 million school children studied in legally segregated schools, and millions more attended classes in northern communities where housing patterns and school district lines created __ __segregation- separation in fact if not in law. Few white Americans felt any urgency about confronting racial ___. "Segregation," the white writer John Egerton later recalled, "didn't restrict me in any way, so it was easy to accept things the way they were, to take my freedom for ___ and not worry about anyone else's

unequal poverty lost Jim Crow segregation menial strip schools de facto inequality granted

Fortunately for conservatives, political ___ often depends less on intellectual coherence than on the existence of a common foe. And two powerful ___ became focal points for the conservative revival- the Soviet Union abroad and the federal government at home. Anti Communism, however, did not clearly distinguish conservatives from ___, who also supported the Cold War. What made conservatism distinct was its ___ to "big government" in America, at least so long as it was controlled by liberals who, conservatives believed, tolerated or encouraged ___. Republican control of the presidency did not lessen conservatives' hostility to the federal government, partly because they did not consider President ___ one of their own.

unity enemies liberals antagonism immorality Eisenhower

The majority of workers did not enjoy anything close to the ___, benefits, and job security of unionized workers in such industries as ___ and steel. Indeed, nonunion employers continued to fight vehemently against labor organization, and groups like the National Association of ___ still viewed unions as an unacceptable infringement on the power of employers. Some firms continued to shift jobs to the less-unionized ___ and ___. By the end of the 1950s, the social contract was ___. In 1959, the steel industry sought to tighten work rules and limit wage increases in an attempt to boost ___ battered by a recession that hit two years earlier. The plan sparked a strike of 500,000 ___, which successfully beat back the proposed changes

wages automobiles Manufacturers suburbs South weakening profits steelworkers

Between 1950 and 1978, the average real ___ of manufacturing workers doubled. Wages rose faster for low-income than high-income Americans, lessening economic ___. Significant numbers of blue-collar men were able to earn enough at an early age to ___ and support a family. At the time, widespread affluence, the improving economic status of working-class men and women, and the ___ gap between rich and poor seemed to have become a permanent feature of American society, a model for other countries to follow. History would show that this was, in fact, an ___ moment, made possible by government policies, a strong union movement, and the country's global economic dominance in the wake of World War II. When the long postwar ___ ended in 1978 it would be succeeded by an even longer period of ___ incomes for most Americans and increasing inequality.

wages inequality marry narrowing exceptional boom stagnant

The family also became a ___ in the Cold War. The ability of women to remain at home, declared a government official, "separates us from the Communist world" where a high percentage of women worked. To be sure, the family life ___ during the 1950s differed from the patriarchal household of old. It was a ___ relationship, in which both partners reconciled family obligations with personal fulfillment through shared consumption, leisure activities, and sexual pleasure. Thanks to modern conveniences, the personal freedom once associated with work could now be found at ___. Frozen and prepared ___, exulted one writer in 1958, offered housewives "freedom from tedium, space, work, and their own inexperience" quite a change from the Four Freedoms of World War II. Like other forms of dissent, ___ seemed to have disappeared from American life or was widely dismissed as evidence of mental disorder. Prominent ___ insisted that the unhappiness of individual women or even the desire to work for wages stemmed from a failure to accept the "maternal instinct." The independent woman, declared the book Modern Woman: The Lost Sex (1947). "is a contradiction in terms." The idea of ___ life as a refuge and of full-time motherhood as a woman's "sphere" had a long history in the United States. But in the postwar suburbs, where family life was physically separated from work, relatives, and the web of social organizations typical of cities, it came close to _____.

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America's European allies like Britain and France expanded their ___ states and ___ key industries like steel, shipbuilding, and transportation (that is, the government bought them from private owners and operated and subsidized them). The United States had a more ___ welfare state than western Europe and left the main pillars of the ___ in private hands. But it too used government spending to promote productivity and boost ___. Eisenhower presided over the largest public-works enterprise in American history, the building of the 41,000-mile interstate ___ system. Cold War arguments especially the need to provide rapid ___ routes from cities in the event of nuclear war justified this multibillion-dollar project. But automobile manufacturers, oil companies, suburban builders, and construction unions had very ___ reasons for supporting highway construction regardless of any Soviet threat. When the Soviets launched ___, the first artificial earth satellite, in 1957, the administration responded with the ___ __ __ Act, which for the first time offered direct federal funding to higher education. All in all, rather than dismantling the New Deal, Eisenhower's Modern Republicanism consolidated and ___ it. By accepting its basic premises, he ensured that its continuation no longer depended on Democratic control of the presidency.

welfare nationalized limited economy employment highway exit practical Sputnik National Defense Education legitimized