anatomy and physiology exam chapters 1-3
State the functions of minerals in the body.
"Minerals"—inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed to humans Constitute about 4% of body weight Mostly _ca__ and __p_ (also Cl, Mg, K, Na, and S) Important for body structure (Ca crystals in teeth, bones, etc.) Important for body structure, enzymes' functions etc.
Discuss why precise spelling is important in anatomy and physiology.
-Be precise in use and spelling of terms -Many terms are spelled similarly but have very different meanings Ex: perineal versus peroneal -Health-care professions demand precision in order to maintain patient safety
Application of homeostatic mechanisms.
-Because feedback mechanisms alter the original changes that triggered them, they are called feedback loops. -Homeostasis in body temperature *If too warm, vessels dilate in the skin and sweating begins (heat-losing mechanism) *If too cold, vessels in the skin constrict and shivering begins (heat-gaining mechanism)
Define gradient and describe some examples.
-Gradient—a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between two points -Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients *Example: blood flows from a place of higher pressure to a place of lower pressure *Movement in the opposite direction is "up the gradient" *Movement in this direction requires spending metabolic energy -Chemicals flow down concentration gradients -Charged particles flow down electrical gradients -Heat flows down thermal gradients
Define homeostasis and explain why this concept is central to physiology.
-Homeostasis: the ability to detect change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions - we now see physiology as largely a group of mechanisms for maintaining homeostasis, the loss of homeostatic control as the cause of illness and death
Describe the major functions of each organ system.
-Integumentary System: Protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication. -Skeletal: support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance. -Muscular: movement, stability, communication, control of body openings, heat production. -Nervous: rapid internal communication, coordination, motor control and sensation. -Endocrine: Hormone production; internal chemical communication and coordination. -Circulatory: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells, and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance. -Lymphatic: recovery of excess tissue fluid, detection of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease. -Respiratory: Absorption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, acid-base balance, speech. -Urinary: Elimination of wastes; regulation of blood volume and pressure; stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; detoxification. -Digestive: Nutrient breakdown and absorption. liver functions include metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood. -Male reproduction: Production and delivery of sperm; secretion of sex hormones. -Female reproduction: Production of eggs; site of fertilization and fetal development; fetal nourishment; birth; lactation; secretion of sex hormones
List the organ systems of the human body and their major components
-Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails, oil glands, and sweat glands (Cutaneous glands) -Skeletal System: Bones, cartilages, ligaments -Muscular System: Skeletal Muscles -Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils -Respiratory System: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs -Urinary System: Urinary bladder, kidneys, ureters, and urethra -Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and ganglia -Endocrine: Pituitary glands, pineal gland, thyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries -Circulatory: Heart and blood vessels -Digestive: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas -Reproduction Male: Testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands, penis -Female Reproductive: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands
List the levels of human structure from the most complex to the simplest.
-Organism composed of organ systems -Organ systems composed of organs -Organs composed of tissues -Tissues composed of cells -Cells composed of organelles -Organelles composed of molecules -Molecules composed of atoms
Describe the characteristics of life and their importance.
-Organization—living things exhibit a higher level of organization than nonliving things -Cellular composition—living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells -Metabolism—internal chemical reactions -Responsiveness—ability to sense and react to stimuli (irritability or excitability) -Movement—of organism and/or of substances within the organism -Homeostasis—maintaining relatively stable internal conditions -Development—differentiation and growth -Reproduction—producing copies of themselves; passing genes to offspring -Evolution of a population —changes in genes
Lists the components of a feedback loop and explain the function of each
-Receptor: a structure that senses a change in the body -Integrating (control) center: a mechanism that processes this information relates it to other available information and makes a decision about what the appropriate response should be. -Effector: The cell or organ that carries out the final corrective action.
Define positive feedback and give examples of its beneficial and harmful effects.
-Self-amplifying cycle *Leads to greater change in the same direction *Feedback loop is repeated—change produces more change -Normal way of producing rapid changes *Examples include: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals -Can sometimes be dangerous *Example: vicious circle of runaway fever
Describe the structure and function of the serous membranes.
-Serous membranes are slippery so allow organs to move past each other. Offset friction and tension. Ex)lungs-rub against inner walls of pleural cavity that would produce a lot of tissue damage if there was not a serous membrane there. Serous membrane attach outer surface of lungs to inner surface of the ribcage, allows for inflation and expanding. -Each serous membrane is composed of a secretory epithelial layer and a connective tissue layer underneath. The epithelial layer, known as mesothelium, consists of a single layer of avascular flat nucleated cells (simple squamous epithelium) which produce the lubricating serous fluid.
Distinguish between elements and compounds
A compound contains atoms of different elements chemically combined together in a fixed ratio. An element is a pure chemical substance made of same type of atom. Compounds contain different elements in a fixed ratio arranged in a defined manner through chemical bonds.
Define anatomy and physiology and relate them to each other.
Anatomy: the study of the structure of the human body. Physiology: the study of the function of the human body. *Anatomy and Physiology complement each other; can not entirely separate the two -Unity of form and function
List and define major directional terms.
Anterior = front. Posterior = back Superficial = close to skin's surface. Deep = deep to the skin's surface Proximal = closer to the point of attachment. Distal = farther from the point of attachment Ventral = toward the front or belly. Dorsal = toward the back or spine Medial = closer to the mid-line. Lateral = farther away from the mid-line Superior = above. Inferior = below
Distinguish among the terms atomic number, mass number and atomic weight.
Atomic Number: The number of protons in its nucleus. Atomic Mass/ Atomic weight: Is equal to its total number of protons and neutrons.
Explain cell theory.
Cell theory -All organisms composed of cells and cell products -Cell is the simplest structural and functional unit of life -An organism's structure and functions are due to activities of cells -Cells come only from preexisting cells -Cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities *All organisms are composed of cells *Cells are responsible for all structural and functional properties of a living organism *Important for understanding -Workings of human body -Mechanisms of disease -Rationale of therapy
Define chemical bond.
Chemical bonds—hold atoms together within a molecule or attract one molecule to another
Describe the location of the body cavities and identify major organs found in each cavity.
Dorsal cavity - in the axial region, includes the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral canal (spinal cord). Ventral body cavity - in the axial region, includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities separated by the muscular diaphragm. Abdominal cavity - is the superior part of the abdominopelvic cavity. It houses the GI tract, kidneys, ureters, stomach, pancreas, liver, and many other digestive organs. Pelvic cavity - is the inferior part of the abdominopelvic cavity. It houses the rectum, bladder, urethra, and reproductive organs
Describe several ways of studying human anatomy.
Exploratory surgery -Cut them open and see what was wrong Medical imaging -Viewing the inside of the body without surgery -Radiology—branch of medicine concerned with imaging Gross anatomy -Study of structures that can be seen with: the naked eye Histology (microscopic anatomy) -Examination of tissues with microscope Histopathology -Microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease Cytology -Study of structure and function of cells Ultrastructure -View detail under electron microscope Inspection - simply looking at the bodys appearance Palpation -feeling a structure with the hands Ausculation -listening to the natural sounds made by the body Percussion -the examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormalities Dissection -cutting tissues to see the their relationships
Explain the importance of physiological variations.
Failure to consider variation can lead to overmedication of elderly or medicating women on the basis of research done on men
Describe the appearance of a body presented along the various planes.
Frontal plane - if the body were completely dissected on the frontal plane into two halves, it would be a cut through the body from the top of the head, down through both ears, through the arms, abdominal, and legs, creating a front and back portion. Transverse plane - if cut on a transverse plane, the body would be cut horizontally to show an aerial view down into the body. Decapitation of the head would be a transverse plane cut. Sagittal plane - a dissection on the sagittal plane is how many surgery incisions are created. A vertical cut at any part of the body creating right and left halves.
Describe the inductive and hypothetico-deductive methods of obtaining scientific knowledge.
INDUCTIVE METHOD Described by Francis Bacon -Making numerous observations until one becomes confident in drawing generalizations and predictions -Knowledge of anatomy obtained by this method Proof in science -Reliable observations, repeatedly confirmed -Not falsified by any credible observation In science, all truth is tentative -"Proof beyond a reasonable doubt HYPOTHETICO- DEDUCTIVE METHOD -Most physiological knowledge gained by this method -Investigator formulates a hypothesis—an educated speculation or possible answer to the question *Good hypotheses are consistent with what is already known and are testable -Falsifiability—if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong -If nothing could possibly prove it wrong, then: it is not scientific.
Distinguish between ions, electrolytes, and free radicals
IONS: Charged particles with an unequal number of protons and electrons. -ANION: Gains an electron and acquires a negative charge. -CATION: Loses an electron and acquires a positive charge. ELECTROLYTES: Substances that ionize in water (acids, bases, or salts) and form solution capable of conducting electricity. FREE RADICALS: Chemical particles with an odd number of electrons.
Define the term organelle.
Internal structures of a cell that carry out specialized metabolic tasks Ex: nucleus functions to direct protein synthesis
Define mixture and distinguish between mixtures and compounds.
Mixtures— physically blended but not chemically combined Compounds-
Define negative feedback, give an example of it, and explain its importance to homeostasis
Negative feedback: A process in which the body senses a change and activates mechanisms that negate it or reverse it. - Negative feedback allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point -The body senses a change and "negates" or reverses it -The fundamental mechanism to keep the body in homeostasis
Define a few subdisciplines of human physiology.
Neurophysiology: the physiology of nervous system Endocrinology: physiology of hormones Pathophysiology: mechanisms of disease Comparative Physiology: Study of different species to learn about body functions (basis for much of our understanding of human physiology and the development of new drugs and medical procedures)
Discuss the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans.
No two humans are exactly alike
With respect to non-polar covalent, polar covalent, ionic and hydrogen bonds:List each type of bond in order by relative strength. Explain the mechanism of each type of bond. Provide biologically significant examples of each.
Non-polar covalent: share electrons equally Polar covalent: unequal sharing of electrons Ionic: Gain or lose electrons Hydrogen bonds:
Give an example of each level of organization
Organism- Complete individual Organ system- Circulatory, respiration, or digestive Organs- The skin Tissues- epithelial, connective, nervous, and muscular tissue Cells- Organelles- Mitochondria, centrioles, and lysosomes. Molecules- Protein, fats, and DNA Atoms-
Describe the charge, mass, and relative location of electrons, protons and neutrons.
PROTONS:Positively charged Found in the nucleus Number of protons tells you which element: atomic number NEUTRONS: No charge Found in the nucleus with protons Number of neutrons + number of protons= atomic mass ELECTRONS: Negatively charged Found in shells, or energy levels around the nucleus 2e- in the first shell, 8 e- in the next shell In neutral atom, number of electrons= the number of protons
Describe the structure of the plasma membrane.
Plasma membrane—border of the cell (arranged in a bilayer) Functions Defines cell boundaries Governs interactions with other cells Controls passage of materials in and out of cell
Describe the location of the four abdominopelvic quadrants and the nine abdominopelvic regions and list the major organs located in each
Right hypochondriac region is in the lateral superior right region. Has the following organs - liver, gall bladder, small intestine, ascending colon, transverse colon. Epigastric region is in the superior middle region. Has the following organs: i) Digestive - esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine, transverse colon ii) Lymphatic- spleen Left hypochondriac region is in the superior left region. Has the following organs: i) Digestive - stomach, (tail of) pancreas, small intestine, transverse colon, descending colon ii) Excretory - left kidney iii) Lymphatic - spleen Right lumbar region is the right middle region. Has the following organs: i) Digestive -ascending colon, small intestine ii) Excretory - right kidney Umbilical region is the center region. Has the following organs: i) Digestive - stomach, pancreas, small intestine, transverse colon Left lumbar region is the left middle region and contains organs for the following systems i) Digestive - small intestine, descending colon ii) Excretory - left kidney (tip) Right iliac (inguinal) region is located in the right lower region and contains organs for the following systems i) Digestive - small intestine, appendix, cecum, ascending colon ii) Reproductive Females - right ovary, right fallopian tube Hypogastric region is the lower middle region and contains organs for the following systems i) Digestive - small intestine, sigmoid colon, rectum ii) Excretory -urinary bladder iii) Reproductive Females - uterus Left iliac (inguinal) region is in the left inferior region. Has the following organs: i) Digestive - small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon ii) Reproductive Females - left ovary, left fallopian tube
Describe some aspects of experimental design that help to ensure objective and reliable results
Sample size -Number of subjects in a study Controls -Control group resembles treatment group but does not receive treatment Psychosomatic effects -Effects of subject's state of mind on her or his physiology -Tested by giving placebo to control group Experimenter bias -Avoided with double-blind study Statistical testing -Provides statement of probability that treatment was effective Double-blind study: Testee and tester do not know who is receiving the real drug or the placebo
Explain what is meant by hypothesis, fact, law, and theory in science.
Scientific fact -Information that can be independently verified Law of nature -Generalization about the way matter and energy behave *Results from inductive reasoning and repeated observations Theory -An explanatory statement or set of statements derived from facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses *Examples: Cell Theory, Fluid Mosaic Theory (plasma membrane), Sliding Filament Theory (muscle contraction)
Describe a person in anatomical position and how to use the terms right and left in anatomical reference.
Standing upright Feet flat on floor Feet slightly apart Arms at sides Palms facing forward Individual faces forward Anatomical right and left
Explain how cytoplasm and cytosol are different.
The cytoplasm is the cytosol plus organelles where cytosol is just the intracellular fluid.
Identify the various planes in which a body might be dissected
Transverse plane: Up and down Frontal Plane: front and back Sagittal plane: Left and Right
Explain selectively permeable membrane
it has standards; it does not allow just anything in our out. It is selective.
Name the chemical elements of the body from their symbols.
oxygen____________ (O) __carbon__________ (C) ___hydrogen_________ (H) ___nitrogen_________ (N) Calcium (Ca) Phosphorus (P)
