Anatomy and Physiology II | Final

Which of the following conditions will decrease net filtration?

,, decreased glomerular hydrostatic pressure ,,increased capsular hydrostatic pressure

Micturition

,, is another name for urination, is a reflex triggered by stretch receptors in the urinary bladder, requires the opening of two sphincters, requires contraction of the muscularis layer of the urinary bladder

Oxygen is transported in the blood two ways: _____ & ______

,,Bound to hemoglobin to form oxyhemoglobin (>98%) ,,Dissolved in plasma (<2%)

Carbon dioxide is transported in the blood in three ways: ___, ___, & ___.

,,Converted to bicarbonate, which is transported in the plasma (80-90%) ,,Bound to hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin (5-10%) ,,Dissolved in the plasma (5-10%)

The three pressures that influence glomerular filtration

,,Glomerular hydrostatic pressure (HPg)- an "outward (out of blood into capsular space)" force that favors filtration (60mmHg out, blood pressure within the glomerulus) ,,Capsular hydrostatic pressure (HPc) - an "inward" force that opposes filtration (18mmHg in) ,,Blood colloid osmotic pressure (OPg)- an "inward" force that opposes filtration (32 mmHg in)

ANP increases GFR to eliminate fluid from the blood by:

,,Stimulating dilation of afferent arterioles, increasing the net filtration pressure ,,inhibiting release of renin, reducing angiotensin II production; relaxation of intraglomerular mesangial cells increases filtration membrane surface area

Difference between Transcellular and Paracellular reabsorption

,,Transcellular: a substance passes through a tubule cell, entering at the luminal membrane and exiting at the basolateral membrane ,,Paracellular: a substance crosses in between tubule cells

What is true about aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)?

,,aldosterone increases sodium reabsorption, and water follows by osmosis ,,ADH increases the number of aquaporins, thus increasing water reabsorption

Sympathetic nerve signals reduce GFR by:

,,stimulating constriction of afferent arterioles, decreasing the new filtration pressure ,,causing granular cells of afferent arterioles to release the enzyme renin; angiotensin II formation, stimulated by renin, causes contraction of intraglomerular mesangial cells and a decrease in filtration membrane surface area

Approximately what percent of the oxygen in blood is transported by the hemoglobin of erythrocytes?

98%

The movements of oxygen and carbon dioxide follow Henry's Law:

A gas will diffuse down its partial pressure gradient, from an area of higher partial pressure to an area of lower partial pressure

ventral respiratory group (VRG)

A portion of the medulla oblongata that is involved in forced breathing, stimulates the accessory muscles involved in forced breathing to contract, resulting in forced inspiration.

dorsal respiratory group (DRG)

A portion of the medulla oblongata where it maintains the constant breathing rhythm by stimulating the diaphragm and intercoastal muscles to contract, allowing them to relax and result in expiration

Place the regions of the nephron in the correct order for the process of urine formation. a: Capsular space of glomerulus b: Nephron loop c: Collecting duct d: Distal convoluted tubule e: Proximal convoluted tubule

A, E, B, D, C

Put the portions of the male urethra in correct order from urinary bladder to exterior A. Spongy part B. Urethral orifice C. Prostatic part D. Membranous part

C, D, A, B

What prevents the trachea from collapsing?

C-shaped cartilaginous rings

What structures are used by both the respiratory and digestive systems?

Oropharynx and laryngopharynx

The primary mechanism of water reabsorption in the kidney is

Osmosis by aquaporins

What changes in the blood levels of respiratory gases result from hyperventilation?

Oxygen levels do not changes but carbon dioxide levels fall

Which is the correct order through which tubular fluid flows?

PCT, nephron loop, DCT, collecting duct

What do chief cells secrete?

Pepsinogen

The kidneys are located ___________ the peritoneum.

Posterior to

Generally, most water reabsorption in a nephron occurs at the

Proximal convoluted tubule and is called obligatory water reabsorption

Where are the renal pyramids located within the kidney?

Renal medulla

Air left in the lungs if you exhale as much air as possible

Residual volume (RV)

Term for various volumes of air moved by or associated with the lungs at a given point in the respiratory cycle

Respiratory volume

Net filtration pressure (NFP) is the result of ___

Subtracting the inward pressures from the outward pressure associated with filtration

What is deglutition?

Swallowing

Which of the following statements regarding GFR and its regulation is true?

Sympathetic stimulation and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) have opposite effects on the GFR

When mean arterial blood pressure increase to a high value, which of the following occurs to ensure blood pressure in the glomerulus does not get too high?

The afferent arteriole decrease its diameter (vasoconstriction)

In contrast to inulin, glucose is freely filtered and is normally fully reabsorbed along the proximal convoluted tubule. Therefore, how is the amount of glucose in the urine related to the amount of glucose filtered in the kidney?

The amount of glucose filtered is greater than the amount found in the urine

Absorption with digestion can occur through five mechanisms

Active transport, passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, co-transport (secondary active transport), endocytosis

When increased, what results in decreased urine volume?

Aldosterone, ADH

The alveolar cell that secretes pulmonary surfactant is the

Alveolar type II cell

What enzyme found in saliva and pancreatic secretions breaks down polysaccharides into smaller oligosaccharides and disaccharides such as maltose?

Amylase

What is the primary function of the large intestine?

Water and electrolyte absorption

Four substances that can freely cross the filtration membrane (in the kidney)

Water, Ions, Urea, Glucose

Lacteals

absorb the products of fat digestion

An organ that helps break down food but is not part of the tube through which the foodstuffs pass is referred to as a(n)

accessory digestive organ

anatomical dead space

air that is present in the airway that never reaches the alveoli and therefore never participates in gas exchange

What is the phagocytic cell of the immune system that removes debris and pathogens that have reached the alveoli?

alveolar macrophage

The most common cell making up the alveolar wall is the

alveolar type I cell

Alveolar dead space

alveoli that cease to act in gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction

Positive nitrogen balance is a condition where

an individual absorbs more nitrogen than is excreted.

All of the following are associated with a deficiency in calcium, except

anemia

The amount of force that is exerted by gases in the air surrounding any given surface, such as the body

atmospheric pressure

What structures compose a portal triad?

hepatic artery, portal vein, and bile duct.

Normal urine has a specific gravity that is ________ than the specific gravity of pure water; dehydration leads to a __________ in the specific gravity of urine

higher, increase

What is secreted at the Distal convoluted tubule (DCT)

hydrogen ions, water, potassium, breakdown products of hormones, drugs, and metabolic wastes such as urea

The thirst center of the brain is located in the

hypothalamus

Airway obstruction can lead to hypoventilation, which can cause

hypoxia, respiratory acidosis

Exposure to irritants causes mucus production to

increase

In response to the increased availability of nutrients during the fed state, liver and muscle

increase glycogenesis.

Villi

increase surface area in small intestine

The lungs remain inflated because

intrapleural pressure is less than intrapulmonary pressure.

Fixed acid is regulated by the _____ through the absorption and elimination of _____.

kidney; bicarbonate and H+

Triglycerides and steroids are both examples of

lipids

Renin is released from the juxtaglomerular apparatus in response to

low blood pressure or decreased NaCl in the fluid within the distal convoluted tubule.

The stimuli that trigger the release of ADH are

low blood pressure, low blood volume, and high blood osmolarity.

The type of receptor within the GI tract wall that detects stretch is the

mechanoreceptor

When bicarbonate levels fall due to an accumulation of fixed acids in the body, the result is

metabolic acidosis.

Elevated HCO3- levels brought about by vomiting is classified as

metabolic alkalosis

Aerobic cellular respiration and dehydration synthesis reactions result in

metabolic water intake

Which is not a function of the digestive system?

micturition

Iodine is an example of a(n)

mineral

Urine passes from the renal papilla into a ____

minor calyx, then to a major calyx, then to the renal pelvis.

When compared to extracellular fluid, intracellular fluid contains

more potassium and more negatively charged proteins.

The juxtaglomerular apparatus is located

near the vascular pole of the renal corpuscle

pneumotaxic center

neurons that inhibit activity of neurons in DRG, allowing for relaxation after inspiration, controlling rate

Components of the upper respiratory tract:

nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx

The initial site of both mechanical and chemical digestion is the

oral cavity

In response to low blood ________, the kidneys secrete __________.

oxygen, erythropoietin

Which organ is retroperitoneal?

pancreas

What type of cells produce both hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor?

parietal cells

High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) are associated with the tranport of lipid from the

peripheral tissues to the liver

Most tubular reabsorption occurs in the

proximal convoluted tubule, where cells have many microvilli.

Which vessel arises from the pulmonary trunk and carries deoxygenated, arterial blood to the alveoli?`

pulmonary artery

Aldosterone causes kidney tubules to

reabsorb more sodium and water, and secrete more potassium.

the entry and exit site for structures servicing the kidneys: vessels, nerves, lymphatics, and ureters.

renal hilum

The most common type of acid-base imbalance is

respiratory acidosis.

Climbing at high altitude where oxygen levels are insufficient can lead to

respiratory alkalosis.

When blood starts to become more alkaline than normal, the renal tubules begin to

secrete bicarbonate while reabsorbing H+ in exchange through type B cells.

When pH decreases, the kidney responds by

secreting H+.

Water lost through feces is considered ___________ water loss.

sensible, obligatory

Which ion is the principal solute of the ECF and is crucial for neuromuscular and renal function?

sodium

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

stimulates reabsorption of calcium but inhibits phosphate reabsorption.

Total dead space

sum of anatomical and alveolar dead space

Mastication is a process that facilitates

swallowing of food, and it increases the surface area of the food for exposure to enzymes.

Vital capacity (VC)

the amount of air a person can move into or out of his or her lungs, and is the sum of all of the volumes except residual volume (TV, ERV, and IRV), which is between 4000 and 5000 milliliters.

functional residual capacity (FRC)

the amount of air that remains in the lung after a normal tidal expiration; it is the sum of expiratory reserve volume and residual volume

Inspiratory Capacity (IC)

the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled past a normal tidal expiration, is the sum of the tidal volume and inspiratory reserve volume.

The renal threshold of a substance refers to

the plasma concentration of the substance below which it does not appear in the urine

Components of the lower respiratory tract:

trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

Interstitial fluid composes about ________ of the body's extracellular fluid

two-thirds

Most potassium loss from the body occurs through

urine

High levels of ADH cause

vasoconstriction and therefore increases in blood pressure.

Hyperventilation causes generalized ______, which ______ blood flow to the brain and can result in feeling dizzy or faint.

vasoconstriction, decreases

What alveolar cell secretes pulmonary surfactant? (thus reducing surface tension)

Type II alveolar cell

The ___________ transfer urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

Ureters

An individual with liver disease has a plasma protein concentration that is lower than normal. -Which of the following pressures is reduced as a results of lower plasma protein? -Compared to normal. what will happen to the net filtration pressure (NFP) and glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

A. Blood colloid osmotic pressure (OPg) B. Both NFP and GFR are increased

A patient is being treated for high blood pressure. Based on its effect on glomerular filtration rate (GFR), which one of the following could theoretically be administered to decreased blood pressure and blood volume?

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Organize the items listed into the proper sequence of events for gas exchange. a: O2 is transported to cells by circulatory system. b: O2 is drawn into the lungs during inhalation. c: Cells use O2 and generate CO2 .d: CO2 is exhaled .e: The circulatory system transports CO2 to the lungs.

B,A,C,E,D

Which answer places the following events in proper order for pulmonary ventilation? a: Thoracic cavity volume changes. b: Brainstem nuclei stimulate skeletal muscles to contract. c: Air flows down its pressure gradient. d: Dimensional changes in the thorax lead to pressure changes within the lung.

B,A,D,C

Functions of the kidney

Blood filtration, stimulation of red blood cell production, blood pressure regulation

What is not normally found in urine?

Blood, glucose, protein, leukocytes

What is the name of this equation? P1V1=P2V2

Boyle's law; describes the relationship between volume and pressure in a gas at a constant temperature

The presence of fatty chyme in the small intestine stimulates it to release _______, which causes the _____.

CCK, gallbladder to release bile

Renal autoregulation is the intrinsic ability of the kidney to maintain a constant GFR despite ____

Changes in systemic mean arterial pressure (MAP) (renal autoregulation most effective when MAP is between 80-180mmHg)

Which duct transports bile to and from the gallbladder?

Cystic duct

Inulin is a plant polysaccharide that is used in some renal function tests. In the kidney, it is freely filtered (passes through the filtration membrane), but is neither reabsorbed nor secreted. Therefore, how is the amount of inulin in the urine related to the amount of inulin filtered in the kidney?

Equal to

Vitamins A, D, E, and K are

fat soluble

An increase in the partial pressure of CO2 causes bronchioles to

Dilate

Apneustic center

Double cluster of neuronal cell bodies that stimulate neurons in DRG, controlling depth, especially deep breathing

Amount of air you can forcefully exhale past a normal tidal expiration, up to 1200 milliliters for men

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

True or false: For a protein to be complete, it must contain twenty-six different types of amino acids.

False

The percentage of the vital capacity that can be exhaled during a specific time period is known as the

Forced expiratory volume

The expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume equals the

Functional residual capacity

What is released by enteroendocrine G cells?

Gastrin

Net filtration pressure determines ___

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)

When the pH of the ECF decreases, K+ starts to move from the

ICF to the ECF.

True or false: One of the ultimate effects of insulin is to stimulate protein synthesis within cells of the body.

True

True or false: Simple sugars are carbohydrates.

True

True or false: The liver absorbs bilirubin and eliminates it as part of bile.

True

How are sodium levels and blood pressure related?

Increased plasma sodium levels increase water retention, blood volume, and blood pressure.

The amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inspiration is the inspiratory reserve volume

Inspiratory reserve volume

Produced by a deep inspiration, past a tidal inspiration (extra volume that can be brought into the lungs during a forced inspiration_)

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

The pressure of the air within the alveoli, which changes during different phases of breathing

Intra-alveolar pressure

The pressure of the air within the pleural cavity, between the visceral and parietal pleurae

Intrapleural pressure

What is the correct sequence of organs for the formation and elimination of urine?

Kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra

True or false: Thyroid hormone increases metabolic rate.

True

The active transport of solutes out of the blood and into the tubular fluid is called

Tubular secretion

What cell of the alveoli constitutes up to 97% of the alveolar surface area?

Type I alveolar cell

Why does the best antacid require the most drops of acid to change the color of the solution?

The best antacid can neutralize the most acid, so it resists changes in the pH the longest

Medications called loop diuretics inhibit the action of pumps along the ascending limb of the nephron loop. Which of the following statements describes a resulting effect?

The osmolarity (concentration of salts) deep within the medulla will be less

The ability of the thoracic wall to stretch while under pressure

Thoracic wall compliance

Amount of air that normally enters the lungs during quiet breathing. How much is normally inhaled?

Tidal volume (TV), 500mililiters

The difference the intrapleural and intra-alveolar pressures, and it determines the size of the lungs

Transpulmonary pressure

True or false: Essential vitamins must be provided in the diet.

True

True or false: Inspiratory capacity is greater than inspiratory reserve volume.

True

An increase in dead space results in

a decrease in alveolar ventilation but no change in minute ventilation

Severe diarrhea results in the increased elimination of

bicarbonate ions and therefore causes acidosis.

Glomerular hydrostatic pressure is the pressure of

blood in the glomerular capillaries.

Activation of sympathetic nerves that innervate lung tissue results in

bronchodilation

In the process of urine formation, first

filtrate is formed, then tubular fluid, then urine.

A diet rich in animal protein contributes to increased levels of

fixed acid.

Edema is an example of

fluid sequestration

Respiratory acidosis occurs when the partial pressure of

carbon dioxide rises.

The inferior esophageal sphincter is also known as the

cardiac sphincter.

If a fatty meal has been ingested, the liver and gallbladder need to be alerted about the need for bile. The receptors that are responsible for sensing the fat in the ingested food are refered to as

chemoreceptors

The most abundant anion in the extracellular fluid is

chloride

If a physiologic condition resulted in blood pH reaching 7.2, but then physiological buffering systems brought the pH to 7.4, that increase in pH would be called

compensation

The presence of food in the stomach triggers the release of a hormone that stimulates contraction of the pyloric sphincter. Specifically, these events involve release of

gastrin in the gastric phase of digestion

Drinking a liter of water will cause the osmolarity of blood plasma to

decrease

Insulin causes blood plasma levels of potassium to ________ by _______ activity of the Na+/K+ pumps.

decrease; stimulating

Pulmonary fibrosis

decreases elasticity, thereby increasing resistance and decreasing airflow.

Feelings of thirstiness are brought on by

decreases in salivary secretions and increases in blood osmolarity.

The hormone ANP causes systemic blood vessels to

dilate, which lowers blood pressure.

Disaccharides are one type of

disaccharides

The presence of proteins in the plasma tends to

draw fluid back into the glomerulus.

Metabolic rate is a measurement of the

energy used in a given period of time