Anatomy

Be able to interpret and explain a diagram of a hormone signaling mechanism.

A diagram of a hormone signaling mechanism typically shows the steps involved in hormone signaling, from hormone secretion to the activation of target cells. The diagram typically includes the following components: Hormone: The signaling molecule that is secreted by an endocrine gland and travels through the bloodstream to target cells. Receptor: The protein molecule on the surface of the target cell that binds to the hormone and initiates the signaling cascade. Second messenger: A small molecule or ion that is generated inside the cell in response to hormone binding and serves as a signal to initiate cellular responses. Effector proteins: Proteins that are activated by second messengers and carry out the cellular responses to hormone signaling. The diagram may also include other components, such as enzymes that generate or degrade second messengers, and feedback mechanisms that regulate hormone secretion and receptor activation. To interpret and explain a diagram of a hormone signaling mechanism, one would typically start by identifying the components and the sequence of events involved in the signaling cascade. Then, one would explain how each component contributes to the overall response of the target cell to hormone signaling. Finally, one would describe any feedback mechanisms or other regulatory processes that help to maintain proper hormone levels and cellular responses over time.

Give an example of how multiple hormones can interact at a target cell.

A familiar example is the effect of two pancreatic hormones, insulin and glucagon. Insulin increases the liver's storage of glucose as glycogen, decreasing blood glucose, whereas glucagon stimulates the breakdown of glycogen stores, increasing blood glucose.

hormone

A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by endocrine glands or cells that regulates various physiological functions in the body by binding to specific receptors on target cells or tissues.

Olfactory epithelium

A mucous membrane at the top of the nasal cavity; contains the olfactory receptor neurons that respond to airborne molecules called odorants.

Differentiate between amino-acid based and steroid hormones.

Amino acid-based hormones are water-soluble molecules derived from amino acids, while steroid hormones are lipid-soluble molecules derived from cholesterol. Amino acid-based hormones include hormones such as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and thyroid hormones. They are unable to cross the cell membrane and bind to receptors on the surface of target cells, triggering intracellular signaling pathways. Steroid hormones include hormones such as testosterone, estrogen, and cortisol. They are able to diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to intracellular receptors, where they can alter gene expression and protein synthesis in target cells. Overall, the key difference between amino-acid based and steroid hormones lies in their solubility and mechanism of action, with amino-acid based hormones acting on surface receptors and steroid hormones acting on intracellular receptors.

Create a chart to compare and contrast the nervous system and the endocrine system

AspectNervous SystemEndocrine SystemMethod of signalingElectrical impulses and neurotransmittersHormones released into the bloodstreamSpeed of responseVery fast (milliseconds)Slower (seconds to minutes)Duration of responseBrief (milliseconds to seconds)Longer (seconds to days)Mode of transmissionNeural pathwaysHormonal pathwaysTarget cellsSpecific cells and organsWidespread effects on many cells and organsRegulation of activityRapid feedback loopsSlower feedback loopsExamples of functionsControl of movement, sensation, and thought processesRegulation of metabolism, growth, development, and stress response In summary, the nervous system uses electrical and chemical signals to transmit information quickly and precisely to specific cells and organs, while the endocrine system uses hormones to regulate a wide range of physiological functions throughout the body over a longer period of time.

Hormone

Chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

iris

Colored part of the eye

Be able to interpret and explain a diagram of a hormone signaling mechanism.

Hormone synthesis and secretion: Hormones are synthesized and secreted by endocrine glands in response to various stimuli. Hormone transport: Hormones travel via the bloodstream to their target cells. Hormone-receptor binding: Hormones bind to specific receptors on the surface or inside target cells. Second messenger activation: Hormone-receptor binding activates second messenger systems inside the target cell, which can trigger various intracellular responses. Cellular response: The activation of second messenger systems leads to various cellular responses, such as changes in gene expression, enzyme activation, ion channel opening or closing, and protein synthesis.

Be able to identify the main structures of the endocrine system and their functions when give description, picture or physical specimen to reference.

Hypothalamus: Located in the brain, it is responsible for regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Pituitary gland: A small gland located at the base of the brain, it produces and secretes a variety of hormones that regulate various bodily functions, such as growth, reproduction, and metabolism. Pineal gland: Located in the brain, it produces and secretes melatonin, which regulates sleep-wake cycles. Thyroid gland: Located in the neck, it produces hormones that regulate metabolism and growth. Parathyroid glands: Four small glands located behind the thyroid gland, they produce hormones that regulate calcium levels in the body. Adrenal glands: Two glands located on top of each kidney, they produce hormones that regulate stress response, blood pressure, and electrolyte balance. Pancreas: Located in the abdomen, it produces hormones that regulate blood

Describe an example of each type of stimuli that can trigger an endocrine gland to make and release hormones.

Hypothalamus: secretes several releasing and inhibiting hormones that regulate the secretion of hormones by the pituitary gland. Pituitary gland: secretes a variety of hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction, and stress response. Examples include growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, prolactin, and adrenocorticotropic hormone. Thyroid gland: secretes thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism, growth, and development. The primary hormone secreted is thyroxine (T4) which is converted to triiodothyronine (T3). Parathyroid glands: secrete parathyroid hormone, which regulates calcium and phosphate levels in the blood and bones. Adrenal glands: secrete a variety of hormones that regulate stress response and salt and water balance.

Give an example of how multiple hormones can interact at a target cell.

In the human body, the pancreas produces two hormones that regulate blood glucose levels: insulin and glucagon. Insulin is released in response to high blood glucose levels and signals cells in the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue to take up glucose from the bloodstream. Glucagon, on the other hand, is released in response to low blood glucose levels and signals the liver to break down stored glycogen into glucose and release it into the bloodstream.

Differentiate between lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones.

Lipid-soluble hormones are nonpolar and can easily cross cell membranes to bind to intracellular receptors, while water-soluble hormones are polar and cannot cross cell membranes easily, so they bind to cell-surface receptors.

Neural stimuli

Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release Sympathetic nervous system fibers stimulate adrenal medulla to secrete catecholamines

Describe an example of each type of stimuli that can trigger an endocrine gland to make and release hormones.

Neural stimulation: The sympathetic nervous system can stimulate the adrenal gland to release adrenaline and noradrenaline in response to stress or danger. Humoral stimulation: A decrease in blood calcium levels can stimulate the parathyroid glands to release parathyroid hormone (PTH), which helps to increase calcium levels in the blood. Hormonal stimulation: The hypothalamus can stimulate the pituitary gland to release follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which in turn stimulate the ovaries or testes to produce sex hormones such as estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone. In summary, neural, humoral, and hormonal stimuli can all trigger endocrine glands to produce and release hormones, depending on the specific physiological needs of the body.

Identify the hormones secreted by each of the endocrine glands, their target organs, and their resulting effects on the body.

Pituitary gland: Growth hormone: Stimulates growth and cell reproduction in bones and muscles. Thyroid-stimulating hormone: Stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. Adrenocorticotropic hormone: Stimulates the adrenal gland to produce cortisol and other hormones. Follicle-stimulating hormone: Stimulates the production of eggs in females and sperm in males. Luteinizing hormone: Stimulates the production of estrogen and testosterone in females and males, respectively. Prolactin: Stimulates milk production in the mammary glands of females. Thyroid gland: Thyroxine and triiodothyronine: Regulate metabolism, growth, and development of the body. Adrenal glands: Cortisol: Helps regulate the body's response to stress and inflammation. Epinephrine and norepinephrine: Involved in the body's "fight or flight" response to stress. Pancreas: Insulin: Helps regulate blood sugar levels by allowing cells to use glucose for energy. Glucagon: Stimulates the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream to increase blood sugar levels. These hormones have different effects on different organs in the body, depending on the type of hormone and the specific receptor it binds to. Their effects can include changes in metabolism, growth, development, reproduction, and other physiological processes.

List the factors that affect a target cell's ability to receive a hormone and affect a response.

Presence of hormone receptors: Target cells must have specific hormone receptors that can bind to the hormone in order to initiate a response. The number and affinity of these receptors can affect the cell's sensitivity to the hormone. Hormone concentration: The concentration of hormone in the bloodstream can affect the number of receptors that are occupied and the strength of the signaling cascade that is initiated. Competition with other hormones: Some hormones can compete with each other for binding to the same receptors, which can affect the relative potency of each hormone. Feedback mechanisms: Feedback mechanisms can regulate the production and release of hormones in response to changes in the body's physiological needs, which can affect the concentration and availability of hormones for target cells. Cellular signaling pathways: The intracellular signaling pathways that are activated by hormone-receptor binding can vary depending on the type of hormone and receptor involved, which can affect the specific cellular response that is elicited. In summary, the ability of a target cell to receive a hormone and initiate a response is influenced by factors such as the presence and affinity of hormone receptors, the concentration of hormone and competition with other hormones, feedback mechanisms, and the specific cellular signaling pathways that are activated.

Optic disc

Region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina. It is the blind spot of the eye because it contains only nerve fibers, no rods or cones, and is thus insensitive to light.

Explain how the chemical structure of a hormone affects it.

The chemical structure of a hormone affects its solubility, specificity for receptors, half-life in the bloodstream, and ability to undergo modifications such as enzymatic cleavage or conjugation. These factors ultimately determine the hormone's potency, duration of action, and overall physiological effects on the body.

Explain how the chemical structure of a hormone affects it.

The chemical structure of a hormone plays a crucial role in determining how it functions in the body. Hormones are signaling molecules that are produced by endocrine glands and secreted into the bloodstream. They travel to specific target cells in the body where they bind to receptors and trigger a response.

Be able to identify the main structures of the endocrine system and their functions when given a description, picture or physical specimen to reference.

The main structures of the endocrine system include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and pancreas. Their functions include regulation of growth, metabolism, reproduction, stress responses, blood pressure, blood sugar levels, and other physiological processes in the body.

List the overall function of the endocrine system and examples of the different bodily activities it regulates.

The overall function of the endocrine system is to regulate various physiological functions and maintain homeostasis in the body. It regulates bodily activities such as growth and development, metabolism, reproductive functions, stress response, blood pressure, and blood sugar levels.

Differentiate between amino-acid based and steroid hormones.

What is the difference between a steroid hormone and an amino acid-based hormone? Steroid hormones are lipid soluble and amino acid-based hormones are water soluble.

suspensory ligaments

a fibrous membrane that holds the lens of the eye in place

Antagonism

active hostility or opposition

Humoral stimuli

changing blood levels of ions and nutrients directly stimulate secretion of hormones

Cones

color vision

Synergism

combination of two drugs causes an effect that is greater than the sum of the individual effects of each drug alone

done

finally

Exocrine

gland that secretes its products through excretory ducts to the surface of an organ or tissue or into a vessel

Vitreous humor

jellylike substance found behind the lens in the posterior cavity of the eye that maintains its shape

choroid

middle, vascular layer of the eye, between the retina and the sclera

Permissiveness

one hormone cannot exert its effects without another hormone being present

next

part

Basal epithelial cells

precursor cells that divide to replace the gustatory epithelial cells

Hormonal stimuli

release of hormones in response to hormones produced by other endocrine organs

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

ciliary body

ring of tissue behind the peripheral iris that is composed of ciliary muscle and ciliary processes

Endocrine

secreting internally

Taste buds

sensory organs in the mouth that contain the receptors for taste

Odor

smell

Papillae

taste buds

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

Aqueous humor

the clear fluid filling the space in the front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea.

Retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Gustatory epithelial cells

the receptor cell responsible for taste sensation, developed from support cells

Lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina