Anatomy test CH. 7,8,9

Describe the properties of synovial joints and their accessory structures a. Describe the structure of synovial joints. b. Describe the structure and function of bursae and tendon sheaths.

(Daigram) Structure of Synovial Joints: Synovial joints have certain characteristics that distinguish them from other joints. The unique characteristic of a synovial joint is the presence of a space called a synovial cavity or joint cavity between the articulating bones. Because the synovial cavity allows considerable movement at a joint, all synovial joints are classified functionally as freely movable (diarthroses). The bones at a synovial joint are covered by a layer of hyaline cartilage called **articular cartilage. The cartilage covers the articulating surfaces of the bones with a smooth, slippery surface but does not bind them together. Articular cartilage reduces friction between bones in the joint during movement and helps to absorb shock. A sleevelike **articular capsule or **joint capsule surrounds a synovial joint, encloses the synovial cavity, and unites the articulating bones. The articular capsule is composed of two layers, an outer fibrous membrane and an inner synovial membrane. The fibrous membrane usually consists of dense irregular connective tissue (mostly collagen fibers) that attaches to the periosteum of the articulating bones. In fact, the fibrous membrane is literally a thickened continuation of the periosteum between the bones. The flexibility of the fibrous membrane permits considerable movement at a joint, while its great tensile strength (resistance to stretching) helps prevent the bones from dislocating, the displacement of a bone from a joint. The fibers of some fibrous membranes are arranged as parallel bundles of dense regular connective tissue that are highly adapted for resisting strains. The strength of these fiber bundles, called ligaments****, is one of the principal mechanical factors that hold bones close together in a synovial joint. Ligaments are often designated by individual names. The inner layer of the articular capsule, the synovial membrane, is composed of areolar connective tissue with elastic fibers. At many synovial joints the synovial membrane includes accumulations of adipose tissue, called articular fat pads. An example is the infrapatellar fat pad in the knee. The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid, a viscous, clear or pale yellow fluid named for its similarity in appearance and consistency to uncooked egg white. Synovial fluid a thin film over the surfaces within the articular capsule. Its functions include reducing friction by lubricating the joint, absorbing shocks, and supplying oxygen and nutrients to and removing carbon dioxide and metabolic wastes from the chondrocytes within articular cartilage. Accessory Ligaments, Articular Discs, and Labra: Many synovial joints also contain accessory ligaments called extracapsular ligaments and intracapsular ligaments. Extracapsular ligaments lie outside the articular capsule. Examples are the fibular and tibial collateral ligaments of the knee joint. Intracapsular ligaments occur within the articular capsule but are excluded from the synovial cavity by folds of the synovial membrane. Examples are the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments of the knee joint. Inside some synovial joints, such as the knee, crescent-shaped pads of fibrocartilage lie between the articular surfaces of the bones and are attached to the fibrous capsule. These pads are called articular discs or menisci. The discs bind strongly to the inside of the fibrous membrane and usually subdivide the synovial cavity into two spaces, allowing separate movements to occur in each space. separate movements also occur in the respective compartments of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). The functions of the menisci are not completely understood but are known to include the following: (1) shock absorption; (2) a better fit between articulating bony surfaces; (3) providing adaptable surfaces for combined movements; (4) weight distribution over a greater contact surface; and (5) distribution of synovial lubricant across the articular surfaces of the joint. A labrum, prominent in the ball-and-socket joints of the shoulder and hip, is the fibrocartilaginous lip that extends from the edge of the joint socket. The labrum helps deepen the joint socket and increases the area of contact between the socket and the ball-like surface of the head of the humerus or femur. Bursae and Tendon Sheaths: The various movements of the body create friction between moving parts. Saclike structures called bursae are strategically situated to alleviate friction in some joints, such as the shoulder and knee joints. Bursae are not strictly part of synovial joints, but they do resemble joint capsules because their walls consist of an outer fibrous membrane of thin, dense connective tissue lined by a synovial membrane. They are filled with a small amount of fluid that is similar to synovial fluid. Bursae can be located between the skin and bones, tendons and bones, muscles and bones, or ligaments and bones. The fluid-filled bursal sacs cushion the movement of these body parts against one another. Structures called tendon sheaths also reduce friction at joints. Tendon sheaths or synovial sheaths are tubelike bursae; they wrap around certain tendons that experience considerable friction as they pass through tunnels formed by connective tissue and bone. The inner layer of a tendon sheath, the visceral layer, is attached to the surface of the tendon. The outer layer, known as the parietal layer, is attached to bone. Between the layers is a cavity that contains a film of synovial fluid. A tendon sheath protects all sides of a tendon from friction as the tendon slides back and forth. Tendon sheaths are found where tendons pass through synovial cavities, such as the tendon of the biceps brachii muscle at the shoulder joint. Tendon sheaths are also found at the wrist and ankle, where many tendons come together in a confined space and in the fingers and toes, where there is a great deal of movement.

Identify the bones of the pelvic girdle and their principal markings. a. Identify the locations and surface features of the three components of the hip bone.

(Diagram) The pelvic (hip) girdle consists of the two hip bones, also called coxal or pelvic bones or os coxa. The hip bones unite anteriorly at a joint called the pubic symphysis. They unite posteriorly with the sacrum at the sacroiliac joints. The complete ring composed of the hip bones, pubic symphysis, sacrum, and coccyx forms a deep, basinlike structure called the bony pelvis. The plural is pelves or pelvises. Functionally, the bony pelvis provides a strong and stable support for the vertebral column and pelvic and lower abdominal organs. The pelvic girdle of the bony pelvis also connects the bones of the lower limbs to the axial skeleton. Each of the two hip bones of a newborn consists of three bones separated by cartilage: a superior ilium, an inferior and anterior pubis, and an inferior and posterior ischium. Sacroiliac joint- where the hip bone connects to the sacrum Ilium The pelvic (hip) girdle consists of the coxal (two hip bones or pelvic bones) Pubic symphysis: where the hip bones unite anteriorly Iliac crest: superior border of the ilium that ends anteriorly in a blunt anterior superior iliac spine Greater sciatic notch: below the posterior inferior iliac spine, through which the sciatic nerve passes along with other nerve and muscles Iliac fossa: concavity where the tendon of the iliacus muscle attaches Iliac tuberosity: posterior to the iliac fossa, point of attachment for the sacroiliac ligament Auricular surface: articulates with the sacrum to form the sacroiliac joint Ischium Composed of a superior body and an inferior ramus Ramus: portion of the ischium that fuses with the pubis Composed of the prominent ischial spine, a lesser sciatic notch below the spine and a rough and thickened ischial tuberosity Pubis Made up of the superior ramus, an inferior ramus and a body between the rami Pubic crest: anterior,s uperior border of the body Pubic tubercle: projection on lateral end of pubis Pubic symphysis: joint between the two pubes of the hip bones Acetabulum: deep fossa formed by the ilium, ischium, and pubis tha functions as the socket that accepts the rounded head of the femur

Compare the principal differences between female and male pelves.

(Diagram) Male pelves: larger and have larger surface marking. Its general structure is heavy and thick. The false pelivs is deep. The Acetabulum is Large and faces laterally. The obturator foramen is round. The pubic arch is less than 90 degrees. Illiac crest is more curved. The illium is more vertical. The greater sciatic notch is narrow. The coccyx is Less movable and less curved anteriorly. The sacrum is longer, narrower, and more curved anteriorly. The pelvic outlet is narrower. The ischial tuberosity is Longer, closer together, and more laterally projecting. Female Pelves: It is generally light, thin, and shotrer. The false pelvis is shallow. The pelvic brim is wide and more oval. The acetabulum is small and faces anteriorly. The obtruator formament is oval. The pelvic arch is greater than 90 degrees. The illiac crest is less curved. The illium is less vertical. The greater sciatic notch is wide. The coccyx is More movable and more curved anteriorly. The sacrum is Shorter, wider and less curved anteriorly. The pelvic outlet is wider. The Ischial tuberosity .

(Diagram) Identify the bones of the pectoral (shoulder) girdle, their functions, and their principal markings. a. Describe the location and surface features of the clavicle. b. Describe the location and surface features of the scapula.

(diagram) - The human body has two pectoral (shoulder) girdles that attach the bones of the upper limbs to the axial skeleton. Each of the two pectoral girdles consists of a clavicle and a scapula. The clavicle is the anterior bone and articulates with the manubrium of the sternum at the sternoclavicular joint. The scapula articulates with the clavicle at the acromioclavicular joint and with the humerus at the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. - The pectoral girdles do not articulate with the vertebral column and are held in position and stabilized by a group of large muscles that extend from the vertebral column and ribs to the scapula. - Each slender, S-shaped clavicle, or collarbone, lies horizontally across the anterior part of the thorax superior to the first rib. It is subcutaneous (under the skin) and easily palpable along its length. The bone is S-shaped because the medial half is convex anteriorly (curves toward you when viewed in the anatomical position), and the lateral half is concave anteriorly (curves away from you). It is rougher and more curved in males. The medial end, called the sternal end, is rounded and articulates with the manubrium of the sternum to form the sternoclavicular joint. The broad, flat, lateral end, the acromial end, articulates with the acromion of the scapula to form the acromioclavicular joint. Th conoid tubercle on the inferior surface of the lateral end of the bone is a point of attachment for the conoid ligament, which attaches the clavicle and scapula. As its name implies, the impression for the costoclavicular ligament on the inferior surface of the sternal end is a point of attachment for the costoclavicular ligament, which attaches the clavicle and first rib. - Scapula: Each scapula, or shoulder blade, is a large, triangular, flat bone situated in the superior part of the posterior thorax between the levels of the second and seventh ribs. A prominent ridge called the spine runs diagonally across the posterior surface of the scapula. The lateral end of the spine projects as a flattened, expanded process called the acromion, easily felt as the high point of the shoulder. The acromion articulates with the acromial end of the clavicle to form the acromioclavicular joint. Inferior to the acromion is a shallow depression, the glenoid cavity, that accepts the head of the humerus (arm bone) to form the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. The thin edge of the scapula closer to the vertebral column is called the medial (vertebral) border. The thick edge of the scapula closer to the arm is called the lateral (axillary) border. The medial and lateral borders join at the inferior angle. The superior edge of the scapula, called the superior border, joins the medial border at the superior angle. The scapular notch is a prominent indentation along the superior border through which the suprascapular nerve passes. At the lateral end of the superior border of the scapula is a projection of the anterior surface called the coracoid process, to which the tendons of muscles (pectoralis minor, coracobrachialis, and biceps brachii) and ligaments (coracoacromial, conoid, and trapezoid) attach. Superior and inferior to the spine on the posterior surface of the scapula are two fossae: The supraspinous fossa is a surface of attachment for the supraspinatus muscle of the shoulder, and the infraspinous fossa, serves as a surface of attachment for the infraspinatus muscle of the shoulder. On the anterior surface of the scapula is a slightly hollowed-out area called the subscapular fossa, a surface of attachment for the subscapularis muscle

Identify the regions and normal curves of the vertebral column

(diagram) - cervical vertebrae (7) - thoracic vertebrae ( 12 ) - lumbar vertebrae ( 5 ) -Sacral: - sacrum (5, fused) - coccyx (4, fused) cervical and lumbar (anteriorly convex curves) thoracic and sacral (anteriorly concave (outwards) curves) Normal lordosis: refers to the two forward curves in the cervical and lumbar regions Normal kyphosis: refers to the two backward curves in the thoracic and sacral regions. The curves of the vertebral column increase its strength, help maintain balance in the upright position, absorb shocks during walking, and help protect the vertebrae from fracture. Cervical Vertebrae: The bodies of the cervical vertebrae (C1-C7) are smaller than all other vertebrae except those that form the coccyx The first two cervical vertebrae differ considerably from the others. The atlas (C1), named after the mythological Atlas who supported the world on his shoulders, is the first cervical vertebra inferior to the skull.The second cervical vertebra (C2), the axis, does have a vertebral body. Thoracic Vertebrae: Thoracic vertebrae (T1-T12) are considerably larger and stronger than cervical vertebrae. In addition, the spinous processes on T1 through T10 are long, laterally flattened, and directed inferiorly. The bones in the Thoracic Vertebrae articulate with the ribs Lumbar Vertebrae: The lumbar vertebrae (L1-L5) are the largest and strongest of the unfused bones in the vertebral column (Figure 7.20) because the amount of body weight supported by the vertebrae increases toward the inferior end of the backbone. Their various projections are short and thick. Sacral and Coccygeal Vertebrae: The sacrum is a triangular bone formed by the union of five sacral vertebrae (S1-S5) and 4 coccyx bone. Positioned at the posterior portion of the pelvic cavity medial to the two hip bones, the sacrum serves as a strong foundation for the pelvic girdle.

Identify the bones of the lower limb and their principal markings. a. Identify the location and surface features of the femur and patella. b. Identify the location and surface features of the tibia and fibula. c. Identify the location and surface features of the bones of the foot. d. Name the arches of the foot and explain their importance.

(diagram) Each lower limb (lower extremity) has 30 bones in four locations—(1) the femur in the thigh; (2) the patella (kneecap); (3) the tibia and fibula in the leg; and (4) the 7 tarsals in the tarsus (ankle), the 5 metatarsals in the metatarsus, and the 14 phalanges (bones of the digits) in the foot The femur, or thigh bone, is the longest, heaviest, and strongest bone in the body. Its proximal end articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone. Its distal end articulates with the tibia and patella. The body (shaft) of the femur angles medially and, as a result, the knee joints are closer to the midline than the hip joints. This angle of the femoral shaft (angle of convergence) is greater in females because the female pelvis is broader. The patella (= little dish), or kneecap, is a small, triangular bone located anterior to the knee joint The tibia, or shin bone, is the larger, medial, weight-bearing bone of the leg. The tibia articulates at its proximal end with the femur and fibula, and at its distal end with the fibula and the talus bone of the ankle. The tibia and fibula, like the ulna and radius, are connected by an interosseous membrane. The fibula is parallel and lateral to the tibia, but it is considerably smaller. Unlike the tibia, the fibula does not articulate with the femur, but it does help stabilize the ankle joint. The tarsus (ankle) is the proximal region of the foot and consists of seven tarsal bones. They include the talus and calcaneus, located in the posterior part of the foot. The calcaneus is the largest and strongest tarsal bone. The anterior tarsal bones are the navicular, three cuneiform bones called the third (lateral), second (intermediate), and first (medial) cuneiforms, and the cuboid. Joints between tarsal bones are called intertarsal joints. The talus, the most superior tarsal bone, is the only bone of the foot that articulates with the fibula and tibia. It articulates on one side with the medial malleolus of the tibia and on the other side with the lateral malleolus of the fibula. These articulations form the talocrural (ankle) joint. During walking, the talus transmits about half the weight of the body to the calcaneus. The remainder is transmitted to the other tarsal bones. The metatarsus, the intermediate region of the foot, consists of five metatarsal bones numbered I to V (or 1-5) from the medial to lateral position. Like the metacarpals of the palm of the hand, each metatarsal consists of a proximal base, an intermediate shaft, and a distal head. The metatarsals articulate proximally with the first, second, and third cuneiform bones and with the cuboid to form the tarsometatarsal joints. Distally, they articulate with the proximal row of phalanges to form the metatarsophalangeal joints. The first metatarsal is thicker than the others because it bears more weight. Arches of the Foot The bones of the foot are arranged in two arches that are held in position by ligaments and tendons. The arches enable the foot to support the weight of the body, provide an ideal distribution of body weight over the soft and hard tissues of the foot, and provide leverage while walking. The arches are not rigid; they yield as weight is applied and spring back when the weight is lifted, thus storing energy for the next step and helping to absorb shocks. Usually, the arches are fully developed by age 12 or 13. The longitudinal arch has two parts, both of which consist of tarsal and metatarsal bones arranged to form an arch from the anterior to the posterior part of the foot. Arches help the foot support and distribute the weight of the body and provide leverage during walking.

Identify the bones of the upper limb and their principal markings. a. Identify the location and surface landmarks of the humerus. b. Identify the location and surface landmarks of the ulna and radius. c. Identify the location and surface landmarks of the bones of the hand.

(diagram) Each upper limb has 30 bones in three locations—(1) the humerus in the arm; (2) the ulna and radius in the forearm; and (3) the 8 carpals in the carpus (wrist), the 5 metacarpals in the metacarpus (palm), and the 14 phalanges (bones of the digits) in the hand. - Each metacarpal bone consists of a proximal base, an intermediate shaft and a distal head; bases articulate with the distal row of carpal bones to form the carpometacarpal joints

Identify the bones of the thorax and their functions

(diagram) The skeletal part of the thorax, the thoracic cage, is a bony enclosure formed by the sternum, ribs and their costal cartilages, and the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae. The costal cartilages attach the ribs to the sternum. The thoracic cage is narrower at its superior end and broader at its inferior end and is flattened from front to back. It encloses and protects the organs in the thoracic and superior abdominal cavities, provides support for the bones of the upper limbs - Sternum: articulates with the clavicles and the costal cartilages from the ribs. The sternum is a narrow bone located in the center of the anterior thoracic wall that consists of three parts. The superior part is the manubrium; the middle and largest part is the body; and the inferior, smallest part is the xiphoid process. - Ribs: provide support to the thoracic cavity. There are twelve pairs that extend from the thoracic vertebrae to the sternum. The bony portion ends a few inches from the sternum and is connected to costal (hyaline) cartilage which attaches to the sternum. The first 7 pairs are called the true ribs because their cartilage is directly connected to the sternum. The next 5 pairs are called false ribs because their cartilage is indirectly connected to the sternum (pairs 8-10) or not connected at all (pairs 11 and 12).

Describe the structural and functional features of the bones in various regions of the vertebral column

- Intervertebral discs are found between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae from the second cervical vertebra to the sacrum and account for about 25% of the height of the vertebral column. Each disc has an outer fibrous ring consisting of fibrocartilage called the annulus fibrosus and an inner soft, pulpy, highly elastic substance called the nucleus pulposus. Each disc has an outer fibrous ring consisting of fibrocartilage called the annulus fibrosus and an inner soft, pulpy, highly elastic substance called the nucleus pulposus. Processes At the point where a lamina and pedicle join, a transverse process extends laterally on each side. A single spinous process (spine) projects posteriorly from the junction of the laminae. - The vertebral body, the thick, disc-shaped anterior portion, is the weight-bearing part of a vertebra. The anterior and lateral surfaces contain nutrient foramina :openings through which blood vessels deliver nutrients and oxygen and remove carbon dioxide and wastes from bone tissue. - The vertebral arch extends posteriorly from the body of the vertebra; together, the vertebral body and the vertebral arch surround the spinal cord by forming the vertebral foramen. The vertebral foramen contains the spinal cord, adipose tissue, areolar connective tissue, and blood vessels. - Seven processes arise from the vertebral arch.

Explain the types of movements that can occur at synovial joints using examples.

. Movements at synovial joints are grouped into four main categories: (1) gliding, (2) angular movements, (3) rotation, and (4) special movements, which occur only at certain joints. MOVEMENT DESCRIPTION Gliding- Movement of relatively flat bone surfaces back-and-forth and side-to-side over one another; little change in angle between bones. Gliding movements are limited in range due to the structure of the articular capsule and associated ligaments and bones. EX: intercarpal and intertarsal joints Angular- Increase or decrease in angle between bones. Flexion- Decrease in angle between articulating bones, usually in sagittal plane. opposite of Extension. EX:Bending the trunk forward at the intervertebral joints as in doing a crunch with your abdominal muscles. Moving the humerus forward at the shoulder joint, as in swinging the arms forward while walking. Moving the forearm toward the arm at the elbow joint between the humerus, ulna, and radius as in bending your elbow Lateral flexion- Movement of trunk in frontal plane. Extension- Increase in angle between articulating bones, usually in sagittal plane. Hyperextension- Extension beyond anatomical position. EX: Bending the trunk backward at the intervertebral joints as in a backbend. Moving the humerus backward at the shoulder joint, as in swinging the arms backward while walking Abduction- Movement of bone away from midline, usually in frontal plane. Examples of abduction include moving the humerus laterally at the shoulder joint, moving the palm laterally at the wrist joint, and moving the femur laterally at the hip joint. The movement that returns each of these body parts to the anatomical position is adduction. Adduction- Movement of bone toward midline, usually in frontal plane. Circumduction- Flexion, abduction, extension, adduction, and rotation in succession (or in the opposite order); distal end of body part moves in circle. Examples of circumduction are moving the humerus in a circle at the shoulder joint, moving the hand in a circle at the wrist joint, moving the thumb in a circle at the carpometacarpal joint, moving the fingers in a circle at the metacarpophalangeal joints (between the metacarpals and phalanges), and moving the femur in a circle at the hip joint Rotation- Movement of bone around longitudinal axis; in limbs, may be medial (toward midline) or lateral (away from midline). One example is turning the head from side to side at the atlanto-axial joint (between the atlas and axis), as when you shake your head "no". Special- Occurs at specific joints. Elevation- Superior movement of body part. EX: shrugging the shoulders at the acromioclavicular joint to elevate the scapula and clavicle. Depression- Inferior movement of body part. EX: returning shrugged shoulders to the anatomical position to depress the scapula and clavicle. Protraction- Anterior movement of body part in transverse plane. EX: You can protract your mandible at the temporomandibular joint by thrusting it outward or protract your clavicles at the acromioclavicular and sternoclavicular joints by crossing your arms. Retraction- Posterior movement of body part in transverse plane. Inversion- Medial movement of sole. The movement of the sole medially at the intertarsal joints (between the tarsals) Eversion- Lateral movement of sole. Dorsiflexion- Bending foot in direction of dorsum (superior surface).Refers to bending of the foot at the ankle or talocrural joint (between the tibia, fibula, and talus) in the direction of the dorsum (superior surface). Plantar flexion- Bending foot in direction of plantar surface (sole). as when you elevate your body by standing on your toes. Supination- Movement of forearm that turns palm anteriorly. is a movement of the forearm at the proximal and distal radioulnar joints in which the palm is turned anteriorly Pronation- Movement of forearm that turns palm posteriorly. the distal end of the radius crosses over the distal end of the ulna and the palm is turned posteriorly Opposition- Movement of thumb across palm to touch fingertips on same hand. the movement of the thumb at the carpometacarpal joint (between the trapezium and metacarpal of the thumb) in which the thumb moves across the palm to touch the tips of the fingers on the same hand.

Identify the major joints of the body by location, classification, and movements. as well as intervertebral and Acromioclavicular

1. Intervertebral Components: Between vertebral bodies; between vertebral arches. Classification: Structural: cartilaginous (symphysis) between vertebral bodies; synovial (planar) between vertebral arches. Functional: amphiarthrosis between vertebral bodies; diarthrosis between vertebral arches. Movement: Flexion, extension, lateral flexion, and rotation of vertebral column. 2. Acromioclavicular Components: Between acromion of scapula and acromial end of clavicle. Classification: Structural: synovial (plane). Functional: diarthrosis. Movement: Gliding and rotation of scapula on clavicle.

Describe six factors that influence the type of movement and range of motion possible at a synovial joint.

1. Structure or Shape of the articulating bones Determines how closely bone can fit together Interlocking fit allows for rotation movement 2. Strength and Tension of the joint ligaments Tense ligament restrict movement and direct the movement of articulating bones with respect to each other (switch roles) 3. Arrangement and Tension of the muscles Restricts movements 4. Contact of Soft Parts The point at which one body surface contacts another may limit mobility 5. Hormones Relaxin- increase flexibility toward end of pregnancy 6. Disuse Limited movement

Explain the effects of aging on joints and methods of delaying or mitigating this effect.

Aging usually results in decreased production of synovial fluid in joints. The articular cartilage becomes thinner with age, and ligaments shorten and lose some of their flexibility. The effects of aging on joints are influenced by genetic factors and by wear and tear, and vary considerably from one person to another. By age 80, almost everyone develops some type of degeneration in the knees, elbows, hips, and shoulders. Stretching and aerobic exercises that attempt to maintain full range of motion are helpful in minimizing the effects of aging. They help to maintain the effective functioning of ligaments, tendons, muscles, synovial fluid, and articular cartilage. Our joints experience: - Decreased production of synovial fluid - Thinning of articular cartilage Loss of ligament length and flexibility

Describe how the skeletal system contributes to homeostasis.

Bones provide support and protection for internal organs. Bones store and relsease calcium, which is needed for proper functioning of most body tissues. digestive system: teeth masticate food. pelvis prtects portions of the intestines integrumentary system : Bones provide stong support for overlying muscles and skin.

Describe the anatomical components of the temporomandibular joint and explain the movements that can occur at this joint.

Diagram The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is a combined hinge and plane joint formed by the condylar process of the mandible and the mandibular fossa and articular tubercle of the temporal bone. The temporomandibular joint is the only freely movable joint between skull bones (with the exception of the ear ossicles); all other skull joints are sutures and therefore immovable or slightly movable. Movement: In the temporomandibular joint, only the mandible moves because the temporal bone is firmly anchored to other bones of the skull by sutures. Accordingly, the mandible may function in depression (jaw opening) and elevation (jaw closing), which occurs in the inferior compartment, and protraction, retraction, lateral displacement, and slight rotation, which occur in the superior compartment

Distinguish between the false and true pelves, explaining their clinical importance.

Divided by the pelvic brim. False pelvis: - Superior - Containes superior part of urinary bladder when full, lower intestines, and FEMALE uterus, ovaries, and uterine tubes. True pelvis: - Inferior of Pelvic brim - Contains rectum, urinary bladder, and FEMALE vagina and cervix, and MALE prostate. - During child birth, the pelvic axis is the route taken by the baby's head as it descends through the pelvis

Describe similarities and differences between the structure and functions of the three types of fibrous joints.

Fibrous joints lack a synovial cavity, and the articulating bones are held very closely together by dense irregular connective tissue. Fibrous joints permit little or no movement. The three types of fibrous joints are sutures, syndesmoses, and interosseous membranes. -A suture is a fibrous joint composed of a thin layer of dense irregular connective tissue; sutures occur only between bones of the skull. The irregular, interlocking edges of sutures give them added strength and decrease their chance of fracturing. Sutures are joints that form as the numerous bones of the skull come in contact during development. Sutures play important roles in shock absorption in the skull. Some sutures, although present during growth of the skull, are replaced by bone in the adult. Such a suture is called a synostosis (sin′-os-TŌ-sis; os- = bone), or bony joint—a joint in which there is a complete fusion of two separate bones into one -A syndesmosis is a fibrous joint in which there is a greater distance between the articulating surfaces and more dense irregular connective tissue than in a suture. The dense irregular connective tissue is typically arranged as a bundle (ligament), allowing the joint to permit limited movement. One example of a syndesmosis is the distal tibiofibular joint, where the anterior tibiofibular ligament connects the tibia and fibula. It permits slight movement (amphiarthrosis). Another example of a syndesmosis is called a gomphosis or dentoalveolar joint, in which a cone-shaped peg fits into a socket. The only examples of gomphoses in the human body are the articulations between the roots of the teeth and their sockets (alveoli) in the maxillae and mandible. The dense irregular connective tissue between a tooth and its socket is the thin periodontal ligament (membrane). A healthy gomphosis permits no movement (synarthrosis). -The final category of fibrous joint is the interosseous membrane, which is a substantial sheet of dense irregular connective tissue that binds neighboring long bones and permits slight movement (amphiarthrosis). There are two principal interosseous membrane joints in the human body. One occurs between the radius and ulna in the forearm and the other occurs between the tibia and fibula in the leg.

Describe the common disorders that affect the appendicular skeleton.

Hip fracture: the term hip fracture most commonly applies to a break in the bones associated with the hip joint—the head, neck, or trochanteric regions of the femur, or the bones that form the acetabulum. Hip fractures often require surgical treatment, the goal of which is to repair and stabilize the fracture, increase mobility, and decrease pain. Sometimes the repair is accomplished by using surgical pins, screws, nails, and plates to secure the head of the femur. In severe hip fractures, the femoral head or the acetabulum of the hip bone may be replaced by prostheses (artificial devices). The procedure of replacing either the femoral head or the acetabulum is hemiarthroplasty. Replacement of both the femoral head and acetabulum is total hip arthroplasty. The acetabular prosthesis is made of plastic, and the femoral prosthesis is metal; both are designed to withstand a high degree of stress. The prostheses are attached to healthy portions of bone with acrylic cement and screws

Describe the structure and functions of the two types of cartilaginous joints.

Like a fibrous joint, a cartilaginous joint lacks a synovial cavity and allows little or no movement. Here the articulating bones are tightly connected by either hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. The two types of cartilaginous joints are synchondroses and symphyses. - A synchondrosis is a cartilaginous joint in which the connecting material is hyaline cartilage. An example of a synchondrosis is the epiphyseal (growth) plate that connects the epiphysis and diaphysis of a growing bone. Functionally, a synchondrosis is an immovable joint (synarthrosis). When bone elongation ceases, bone replaces the hyaline cartilage, and the synchondrosis becomes a synostosis, a bony joint. Another example of a synchondrosis is the joint between the first rib and the manubrium of the sternum, which also ossifies during adult life and becomes an immovable synostosis (synarthrosis), or bony join. The synchondroses are easily seen in X-Rays as thin dark areas between the white-appearing bone tissue -A symphysis is a cartilaginous joint in which the ends of the articulating bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, but a broad, flat disc of fibrocartilage connects the bones. All symphyses occur in the midline of the body. The pubic symphysis between the anterior surfaces of the hip bones is one example of a symphysis. This type of joint is also found at the junction of the manubrium and body of the sternum and at the intervertebral joints between the bodies of vertebrae. A portion of the intervertebral disc is composed of fibrocartilage. A symphysis is a slightly movable joint (amphiarthrosis).

Describe the disorders that affect joints.

Rheumatism is any painful disorder of the supporting structures of the body—bones, ligaments, tendons, or muscles—that is not caused by infection or injury. Arthritis is a form of rheumatism in which the joints are swollen, stiff, and painful. Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease in which joint cartilage is gradually lost. It results from a combination of aging, obesity, irritation of the joints, muscle weakness, and wear and abrasion. Osteoarthritis is a progressive disorder of synovial joints, particularly weight-bearing joints. Articular cartilage deteriorates and new bone forms in the subchondral areas and at the margins of the joint. The cartilage slowly degenerates, and as the bone ends become exposed, spurs (small bumps) of new osseous tissue are deposited on them in a misguided effort by the body to protect against increased friction. These spurs decrease the space of the joint cavity and restrict joint movement. osteoarthritis affects mainly the articular cartilage, although the synovial membrane often becomes inflamed late in the disease. Two major distinctions between osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis are that osteoarthritis first afflicts the larger joints (knees, hips) and is due to wear and tear, whereas rheumatoid arthritis first strikes smaller joints and is an active attack on the cartilage. Osteoarthritis is the most common reason for hip- and knee-replacement surgery. Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system of the body attacks its own tissues—in this case, its own cartilage and joint linings. RA is characterized by inflammation of the joint, which causes swelling, pain, and loss of function. Usually, this form of arthritis occurs bilaterally: If one wrist is affected, the other is also likely to be affected, although they are often not affected to the same degree. The primary symptom of RA is inflammation of the synovial membrane. If untreated, the membrane thickens, and synovial fluid accumulates. The resulting pressure causes pain and tenderness. The membrane then produces an abnormal granulation tissue, called pannus, that adheres to the surface of the articular cartilage and sometimes erodes the cartilage completely. When the cartilage is destroyed, fibrous tissue joins the exposed bone ends. The fibrous tissue ossifies and fuses the joint so that it becomes immovable—the ultimate crippling effect of RA. Growth of the granulation tissue causes the distortion of the fingers that characterizes hands of RA sufferers. Gouty Arthritis: Uric acid (a substance that gives urine its name) is a waste product produced during the metabolism of nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) subunits. A person who suffers from gout either produces excessive amounts of uric acid or is not able to excrete as much as normal. The result is a buildup of uric acid in the blood. This excess acid then reacts with sodium to form a salt called sodium urate. Crystals of this salt accumulate in soft tissues such as the kidneys and in the cartilage of the ears and joints. In gouty arthritis, sodium urate crystals are deposited in the soft tissues of the joints. Gout most often affects the joints of the feet, especially at the base of the big toe. The crystals irritate and erode the cartilage, causing inflammation, swelling, and acute pain. Eventually, the crystals destroy all joint tissues. If the disorder is untreated, the ends of the articulating bones fuse, and the joint becomes immovable. Treatment consists of pain relief (ibuprofen, naproxen, colchicine, and cortisone) followed by administration of allopurinol to keep uric acid levels low so that crystals do not form. Lyme Disease- causes nerve damage and paralysis A spiral-shaped bacterium called Borrelia burgdorferi causes Lyme disease. The bacteria are transmitted to humans mainly by deer ticks (Ixodes dammini). Ticks are VECTOR Strain and Sprain: A sprain is the forcible wrenching or twisting of a joint that stretches or tears its ligaments but does not dislocate the bones. It occurs when the ligaments are stressed beyond their normal capacity. Severe sprains may be so painful that the joint cannot be moved. There is considerable swelling, which results from chemicals released by the damaged cells and hemorrhage of ruptured blood vessels. The lateral ankle joint is most often sprained; the wrist is another area that is frequently sprained. A strain is a stretched or partially torn muscle or muscle and tendon. It often occurs when a muscle contracts suddenly and powerfully—such as the leg muscles of sprinters when they spring from the blocks. Initially sprains should be treated with PRICE: protection, rest, ice, compression, and elevation. Tenosynovitis is an inflammation of the tendons, tendon sheaths, and synovial membranes surrounding certain joints. The tendons most often affected are at the wrists, shoulders, elbows (resulting in tennis elbow), finger joints (resulting in trigger finger), ankles, and feet. The affected sheaths sometimes become visibly swollen because of fluid accumulation. Tenderness and pain are frequently associated with movement of the body part. The condition often follows trauma, strain, or excessive exercise. Tenosynovitis of the dorsum of the foot may be caused by tying shoelaces too tightly. Gymnasts are prone to developing the condition as a result of chronic, repetitive, and maximum hyperextension at the wrists. Other repetitive movements involving activities such as typing, haircutting, carpentry, and assembly line work can also result in tenosynovitis. A dislocation or luxation is the displacement of a bone from a joint with tearing of ligaments, tendons, and articular capsules.

Explain the procedures involved in arthroplasty, and describe how either a shoulder replacement, knee replacement, or a total hip replacement is performed. (know one by heart)

Shoulder Replacement: Everything is exposed. 1. They then cut off the head of the humerus and remove excess buildup. 2. After they go to the glenoid cavity, then they clean that up until they get to healthy bone. 3. They take a cup called a glenoid capsule and attach it to the glenoid cavity. 4. Once they insert the capsule, they interest a rod and compress the bone with the rod. 5. They place the artificial head and move it around to make sure it will functionally work.

Describe the anatomical components of the elbow joint and the movements that can occur at this joint.

The elbow joint is a hinge joint formed by the trochlea and capitulum of the humerus, the trochlear notch of the ulna, and the head of the radius. The elbow joint allows flexion and extension of the forearm.

Describe the development of the skeletal system.

The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and a good deal of the clavicles (collarbones) are formed via intramembranous ossification, while bones at the base of the skull and the long bones form via endochondral ossification. Intramembraneous Ossification process that forms flat bones (skull and mandible)- medial clavicle from mesenchyme and harden fetal fontanels after birth -------------- Endochondral Ossification: The formation of long bones and other bones which include a hyaline cartilage precursor. - Endochondral ossification is essential for the formation of long bones [bones like femur which are longer than wide] and the ends of flat and irregular bones[like ribs,vertebrae). - Endochondral ossification involved in natural growth and lengthening of bone. It is also involved in natural healing of bone fractures. - The primary endochondral ossification is distinguished from intramembranous ossification is the fact that cartilage is present during endochondral ossification - Formation of long bones has two centers of ossification: The first site of ossification occurs in the primary center of ossification, which is in the middle of diaphysis [shaft] and secondary center of ossification which appear around birth at both ends of long bones [epiphysis]. Intramembranous ossification Intramembranous ossification is type of bone ossification where the bone tissue is created directly over the mesenchymal tissue [and not on cartilage as in endochondral ossification]. - It occurs in healing of bone fractures and the initial formation of the flat bones of our skull. This process is also responsible for forming our jaw and clavicles, or collar bones _____________ Endochondral ossification of the limb bones begins by the end of the eighth week after fertilization. By the twelfth week, primary ossification centers are present in most of the limb bones. Most secondary ossification centers appear after birth.

Describe the anatomical components of the hip joint and the movements that can occur at this joint.

The hip joint (coxal joint) is a ball-and-socket joint formed by the head of the femur and the acetabulum of the hip bone. The hip joint allows flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, lateral rotation medial rotation, and circumduction of the thigh . The extreme stability of the hip joint is related to the very strong articular capsule and its accessory ligaments, the manner in which the femur fits into the acetabulum, and the muscles surrounding the joint. Although the shoulder and hip joints are both ball-and-socket joints, the hip joints do not have as wide a range of motion.

Describe the main anatomical components of the knee joint and explain the movements that can occur at this joint.

The knee joint (tibiofemoral joint) is the largest and most complex joint of the body. It is a modified hinge joint (because its primary movement is a uniaxial hinge movement) that consists of three joints within a single synovial cavity. The knee joint allows flexion, extension, slight medial rotation, and lateral rotation of the leg in the flexed position

Describe the six subtypes of synovial joints, the types of movements associated, and examples of each type.

The shapes of the articulating surfaces vary; thus, many types of movements are possible. Synovial joints are divided into six categories based on type of movement: plane, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, and ball-and-socket. Plane Joint: Description: Articulated surfaces flat or slightly curved. Functional Classification. Many biaxial diarthroses (freely movable): back-and-forth and side-to-side movements. Some triaxial diarthroses: back-and-forth, side-to-side, rotation. Example:Intercarpal, intertarsal, sternocostal (between sternum and second to seventh pairs of ribs), and vertebrocostal joints. Hinge Joint: Description:Convex surface fits into concave surface. Functional Classification: Uniaxial diarthrosis: flexion-extension. Example: Knee (modified hinge), elbow, ankle, and interphalangeal joints. Pivot Joint: Description:Rounded or pointed surface fits into ring formed partly by bone and partly by ligament. Functional Classification: Uniaxial diarthrosis: rotation. Example: Atlanto-axial and radioulnar joints. Condyloid Joint: Description: Oval-shaped projection fits into oval-shaped depression. Functional Classification: Biaxial diarthrosis: flexion-extension, abduction-adduction. Example: Radiocarpal and metacarpophalangeal joints. Saddle Joint: Description: Articular surface of one bone is saddle-shaped; articular surface of other bone "sits" in saddle. Functional Classification:Biaxial diarthrosis: flexion-extension, abduction-adduction. Example: Carpometacarpal joint between trapezium and metacarpal of thumb. Ball and Socket Joint: Description: Ball-like surface fits into cuplike depression. Functional Classification: Triaxial diarthrosis: flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, rotation. Example: Shoulder and hip joints.

Describe the anatomical components of the shoulder joint and the movements that can occur at this joint.

The shoulder joint is a ball-and-socket joint formed by the head of the humerus and the glenoid cavity of the scapula. It is also referred to as the humeroscapular or glenohumeral joint. The shoulder joint allows flexion, extension, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, and circumduction of the arm

Compare the structural and functional classifications of joints.

The structural classification of joints is based on two criteria: (1) the presence or absence of a space between the articulating bones, called a synovial cavity, and (2) the type of connective tissue that binds the bones together. Structurally, joints are classified as one of the following types: • Fibrous joints: There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held together by dense irregular connective tissue that is rich in collagen fibers. • Cartilaginous joints: There is no synovial cavity, and the bones are held together by cartilage. • Synovial joints The bones forming the joint have a synovial cavity and are united by the dense irregular connective tissue of an articular capsule, and often by accessory ligaments. The functional classification of joints relates to the degree of movement they permit. Functionally, joints are classified as one of the following types: • Synarthrosis: An immovable joint. The plural is synarthroses. • Amphiarthrosis: A slightly movable joint. The plural is amphiarthroses. • Diarthrosis: A freely movable joint. The plural is diarthroses. All diarthroses are synovial joints. They have a variety of shapes and permit several different types of movements.

The function of the hyoid bone/ the relationship of the hyoid bone to the skull.

the hyoid bone supports the tongue, providing attachment sites for some tongue muscles and for muscles of the neck and pharynx.