anatomy test one

Haploid-

(1n) a cell with 23 chromosomes which is half.

Breast Cancer

- 2nd most common type of cancer in woman. - Risk factors: maternal relatives with breast cancer, longer reproductive span, no pregnancies or pregnancies after the age of 35, and breast cancer genes (BRCA 1 and BRCA 2) - Treatment- chemotherapy, radiation, lumpectomy, mastectomy.

Amnion

- A membrane that develops from embryonic tissues; completely encloses the embryo in the fluid-filled amniotic cavity. - Is penetrated by the umbilical cord. - Secretes Amniotic Fluid

What are the three functions of protein binding?

- Allows hydrophobic hormones to be transported safety through the water blood. - Gives the body a reservoir of hormones that can be released when the need arises. - extends the life span of a hormone in the blood.

stages of oogenesis

- Before birth: female stem cells called oogonia complete their mitotic division. - Oogonia begin meiosis one between third and seventh month of fetal development; called primary oocytes. - Primary oocytes progress as far as prophase one and then arrested. - Childhood: primary oocytes remain in prophase one and do not develop until puberty. - Puberty to menopause: once a month after puberty, 20-30 primary oocytes are stimulated to continue development. - One or two primary oocytes complete first meiotic division to produce two haploid cells that differ in size. - The second oocyte (lager cell) proceeds to metaphase two and its development is again arrested. - If fertilized, secondary oocyte will complete second meiotic division and divide to form a second polar body.

Explain male puberty

- Begins in boys between 12 and 14. The hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to feedback inhibition caused by lower amounts of testosterone and androgens from adrenal cortex. - Uninhibited hypothalamus increases secretion of GnRH, stimulates activation of HPG axis. - Increases testosterones triggers spermatogenesis and appearance of secondary sex characteristics.

Methods of birth control

- Behavioral methods - Abstinence- avoiding intercourse - rhythm method- avoiding intercourse near time of ovulation. withdrawal- with drawling penis before ejaculation - Barrier method- prevents sperm from moving beyond vagina; include condoms, diaphragms, cervical cups, sponges. Many barrier methods use spermicides. - Hormonal method- oral contraceptives or birth control pills, contain synthetic estrogens and progesterone; inhibit release of FSH and LH. - Intrauterine methods- an intrauterine device (IUD) is a small T-shaped device made of plastic and capper that is placed in the uterus; prevents pregnancy by preventing implantation of fertilized ovum into uterine wall. - Release copper. - Intrauterine system- the t. - Permanent methods- sterilization methods render individual sterile. - Vasectomy- surgical procedure for sterilization of males that ligates or cauterizes vas deferens. - Tubule ligation- for females, ligates or cauterizes ends of uterine tubes.

ectopic pregnancy

- Blastocyst implants in a site different from uterus and the pregnancy continues. - Presents risk to mother because only uterus can expand and sustain growing conceptus.

What three ligaments hold the ovaries in place?

- Broad ligament- large, flat ligament that attaches to ovaries, uterine tubes, and uterus, connecting them to pelvis. - Ovarian ligament- connects medial surface of ovary to uterus, near attachment of uterine tube. - suspensory ligament- connects lateral surface o ovary to pelvic wall and provides support for ovarian artery and vein.

Chlamydia

- Caused by the bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis, typically asymptomatic. - Symptoms: painful urination, pain in pelvic region and testes, and vaginal or penile discharge. - Newborns can become infected in the birth canal. This can lead to respiratory tract issues, conjunctivitis, and blindness. - Left untreated in women, can spread to uterine and uterine tubes, causing scar tissue buildup and infertility.

placental barrier

- Composed of basement membrane and a thin layer of syncytiotrophoblast; keeps blood supply of mother and fetus separated - oxygen and nutrients diffuses from maternal blood into fetus for transport to tissues. - waste diffuses from fetus to maternal blood for removal.

Which hormones does the placenta produce by the third month of gestation?

- Corpus luteum relinquishes production of progesterone and estrogen. -placenta produces human placental lactogen and placental prolactin (helps prepare mammary glands for milk production), relaxin (relaxes bodies muscles, joints, and ligaments, and facilitates stretching during delivery).

What two layers do trophoblast divide into during fertilization?

- Cytotrophoblast or cellular trophoblast: inner cells that will remain intact. - Syncytiotrophoblast: outer cells whose plasma membranes disappear and their cytoplasmic contents merge to form a functionally single large multinucleated cell; begins to secrete enzymes to digest uterine cells almost immediately after formation. Also secrete Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG).

Effects of Chronic hyperglycemia.

- Damages blood vessels in heart and lower limbs causing decreased circulation to these tissues and increasing the risk for heart attack, nonhealing wounds, and amputation. - Damages peripheral nerves leading to peripheral neuropathy (numbness, tingling, and burning pain. - Can effect lens of eyes and capillaries of retina and kidneys. This could lead to blindness and kidney failure.

Explain the female sexual response

- During sexual excitement, vaginal mucosa, vestibule, and breast become engorged with blood. - Clitoris and nipples become erect and increased activity of vaginal mucosa and vestibular glands lubricates vestibule. - Tactile and physiological stimuli mediated by the autonomic pathways promote sexual excitement. - Orgasm is the period during which women experience intense feelings of pleasure without ejaculation. - Uterus experiences peristaltic waves of contraction and cervix pushes into vagina. This draws semen further into reproductive tract. There is no refractory period. - Female libido may be related to the androgen dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).

Explain the male sexual response

- Erection and Ejaculation are basic phases. - Parasympathetic reflex triggers release of nitic oxide from blood vessels. This relaxes arteriole walls. -Arterioles dilate allowing a larger volume of blood to enter tissue. - Erection is partially sustained by compression of veins that drain penis. - Corpus spongiosum does not become as rigid as cavernosa allowing sperm and semen to travel through urethra unblocked.

Explain the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis positive feedback loop for ovulation.

- First tier control: hypothalamus secretes gonadotropin-releasing hormone. -second tier control: GnRH causes anterior pituitary to release follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. - Third tier control: Ovaries are target organ of FSH and LH. LH stimulates the cells to secrete androgens which target granulosa cells. FSH stimulates granulosa cells to convert androgens to estrogen. FSH stimulates granulosa cells to secrete inhibin. -Effects: Estrogens stimulate a dominant follicle to stimulate into a vesicular follicle. The new vesicular follicle produces large amounts of estrogens, triggering LH surge. This leads to ovulation. - Corpus luteum produces additional progesterone, estrogens, and inhibin. The estrogen and inhibin cause negative feedback on hypothalamus and anterior pituitary. - Inhibin inhibits FSH and Estrogen inhibits GnRH and LH. - If fertilization occurs, progesterone from corpus luteum inhibits release of gonadotropins continuously for duration of ensuing pregnancy. - In absence of fertilization, corpus luteum degenerates into corpus albicans, estrogen, progesterone and inhibin levels decrease ; GnRH levels begin to rise and the cycle beings again.

What are the phases of the ovarian cycle?

- Follicular phase - Ovulation phase - Luteal phase

Stimuli that can initiate or inhibit hormone secretion.

- Hormonal stimuli- many endocrine cells increase or decrease their secretion in response to secretion of other hormones. - Humoral stimuli- many endocrine cells respond to concentration of a certain ion or molecule in blood or extracellular fluid. -Neural stimuli- some endocrine cells respond to signals from the nervous system.

cephalocaudal folding

- In head and tail regions - Creates future head and buttocks

Negative feedback loop for calcium ion homeostasis

- Involves Parathyroid hormone - Stimulus: Blood Calcium levels decrease below normal range. -Receptor- chief cells in parathyroid gland detect a low blood calcium ion level. -Control Center: Chief cells increase Parathyroid Hormone secretion. -Effector/Response- The effects of Parathyroid Hormone on target cells increase the blood calcium ion concentration.

Menopause

- Irregular menstrual cycles that normally occurs between the ages of 45 and 55 years. Point where mensuration has not occurred for a year. - Number of primary follicles left that can respond to LH and FSH is diminished after thirty or more years of ovarian cycles. - Atresia occurs. - Remaining follicles are less responsive to gonadotropins so less estrogen and progesterone are secreted. - As estrogen blood levels drop, the pituitary is no longer inhibited so LH and FSH continue being secreted. - Reduced levels of estrogen and progesterone alter female secondary sex characteristics.

What four ligaments provide structural support for the uterus?

- Lateral cervical ligaments: extends from cervix and superior vagina to lateral walls of pelvis. - Uterosacral ligaments- connects uterus to sacrum posteriorly. - round ligaments: connects uterus to anterior body - broad ligaments: support uterus laterally

What sex characteristics are stimulated by estrogen and progesterone?

- Maturation of sex organs and development of external genitalia. - maintenance of anatomical features unique to adult females such as breast development and fat accumulation around hips and thighs. - Progesterone is responsible for maintenance of pregnancy once fertilization has occurred. - Estrogens have effect on many other tissues including increasing bone density and increasing beneficial HDL cholesterol level. - Estrogen promotes blood coagulation that can lead to formation of blood clots in specific circumstances.

What are the phases of the uterine cycle?

- Menstrual phase: day 1-5: uterus sheds stratum functionalis, resulting in menstration. - Proliferative phase: day 6-14, a new stratum functionalis is generated with endometrial glands, spiral arteries, and veins. Begins to thicken (proliferate): these glands enlarge and veins and arteries increase in number; ovulation occurs around day 14. - Secretory phase: days 15-28, spiral arteries convert stratum functionalis into secretory mucossa and and endometrial glands secrete nutritious glycogen-rich fluid (uterine milk) into uterine cavity to sustain and embryo. - If pregnancy does not occur, cells of stratum functionalis die and on day 28 menstrual phase begins. - If pregnancy occurs, secretory phase continues amd uterus continues to develop in preparation for an embryo.

Compare mitosis and meiosis

- Mitosis occurs because cells are needed for tissue growth or repair, new cells are genetically identical to original; occurs by first making a complete copy of DNA and then dividing cells so that each cell gets one copy of DNA. You get diploid daughter cells. - meiosis- produces sperm and and ovum for reproduction. Cells need to have half chromosomes so that when they combine to form a new cell the chromosomes will not be doubled. Mixes up possible combinations of genes so each sperm or ovum will be genetically unique.

Pathway of blood flow between mother and fetus

- Oxygenated maternal blood flows to decidua basalis layer of uterus and then through maternal arteries into placental sinus. - Maternal blood touches placental barrier allowing diffusion of substances, but not passage of blood cells. - Once diffusion as taken place, maternal blood which is deoxygenated and carrying waste, flows into maternal veins and back to mother's cardiovascular system. - Deoxygenated fetal blood leaves fetus and enters two umbilical arteries where it then flows into placenta and moves into fetus capillaries in chronic villi, on fetal side of placental barrier. - Fetal blood then picks up oxygen and nutrients and delivers waste by diffusion, but no blood cells move though barrier. - Oxygenated blood leaves placenta and flows back to fetus through a single umbilical vein.

What are the three layers of the uterine wall?

- Perimetrium- Outer most layer and an extension of the parietal peritoneum. - Myometrium- The thick middle layer of the uterus composed of bundles of smooth muscle; contract rhythmically during orgasm and childbirth. - Endometrium- The innermost tissue layer of the uterus composed of simple columnar epithelium; forms a mucus membrane that rests on a thin layer of connective tissue called lamina propria.

Stages of Prenatal Development

- Pre-embryonic period: The period of human development from fertilization through implantation. Last for the 2 weeks after fertilization; zygote divides mitotically many times to produce a blastocyst (multicellular structure) which implants in endometrium of uterus. - Embryonic period: extends from week 3 to 8 of gestation; conceptus grows, folds, and forms rudimentary organ systems; now called an embryo. Gastrulation occurs and placenta forms. Other cells of the blastocyst form the extraembryonic membranes. Differentiation of germ layers results in organogenesis. - Fetal Period: Last from week 9 to 38 of gestation or until birth; conceptus is now a fetus; it grows larger and continues to develop until its organ systems can function without support from mother. Placenta completes its development and umbilical cord provides nutrients. - After birth, fetus is new born and the postnatal period begins.

What are the functions sustentacular cells preform to maintain normal spermatogenesis.

- Provide structural support for stem cells development and secrete testicular fluid; helps transport sperm in seminiferous tubule. - Provide nutrients for dividing cells and produce androgen binding protein (ABp) and inhibin, helps with regulation. -Phagocytizing damaged spermatogenic cells and excess cytoplasm released from maturing spermatids.

Luteal phase

- Ruptured follicle becomes an endocrine organ called corpus luteum. - Yellowish corpus luteum is formed by remaining granulosa cells and thecal cells; secretes progesterone and some estrogen; will persist for about three months and then degrade if pregnancy does not occur.

Ovulation phase

- Second stage in ovarian cycle - vesicular follicle erupts from ovary wall into peritoneal cavity ejecting its secondary oocyte and its granulosa cell layer, called corona radiata. - Vesicular follicle collapses and ruptured blood vessels bleed into antrum.

Meiosis II

- Separates sister chromatids. Cells will be haploid but with only one chromatids from original for copies in a pair of homologous chromosomes. Forms 4 genetically unique daughter cells each with 23 nonreplicated chromosomes which become sperm cells or ovum. - Prophase two- both cells from meiosis 1 go through this stage. The nuclear membrane breaks down, sister chromatids remains condensed, and spindle fibers form. -Metaphase 2- Each pair of chromatids aligns to form a single line along equator. Spindle fibers extend from the centrioles to each sister chromatids and attach to centromere. - Anaphase II- Sister Chromatids of each chromosome separate and are pulled to opposite ends of the cell by spindle fibers. Each sister chromatids is now a chromosome. Cytokinesis generally begins. - Telophase II- nonreplicated chromosomes are found at opposite ends of cells; nuclear membrane reforms, cytokinesis occurs, spindle fibers and centrioles disassemble.

What are the affects when a hormone activates cell surface or intracellular receptors?

- Stimulating secretion from an endocrine or exocrine gland. - activating or inhibiting enzymes -stimulating or inhibiting mitosis or meiosis - opening or closing ion channels in the cell's plasma membrane and or altering its membrane potential. -activating or inhibiting transcription of genes that code for RNA or proteins

Explain the negative feedback when blood glucose levels decreases.

- Stimulus- Blood glucose level decreases below normal range ingested proteins. - Control Center- alpha cells increase glucagon secretion, beta cells decrease insulin secretion. - Effector/response- glucagon triggers breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis) into glucose and formation of new glucose (gluconeogenesis) - Homeostatic range and negative feedback- as blood glucose levels returns to its normal range, negative feedback to alpha cells decreases glucagon secretion.

What are the two layers of the endometrium?

- Stratum functionalis: undergoes cyclic changes in response to ovarian hormones. It detaches from the uterine wall and is shed as discharge. - Stratum Basalis: thinner, deeper layer that does not thicken in response to ovarian hormones, but forms new stratum functionalis.

Meiosis 1

- The first meiotic division separates homologous pairs to produce haploid. - Early prophase one- DNA chromosomes have already been replicated and chromatin has condensed so that individual sister chromatids become visible. Nuclear membrane begins to break down. Spindle fibers begin to form. - Middle to late prophase 1- Homologous chromosomes pair up tightly together synapsis. Tetrode form when homologous chromosomes touch. Crossing over occurs resulting in genetically unique chromosomes, sister chromatids are no longer identical. - metaphase one- Sister Chromatids line up randomly on either side of equator. Spindle fibers branch out from centrioles and attach to sister chromatids at centromere. -Anaphase one- one set of sister chromatids from each homologous pair separates from its partner as they are pulled toward opposite piles of the cell. Independent assortment occurs. - Telophase one- Sister chromatids arrive at respective poles. The nuclear membrane sometimes reforms. Cytokinesis occurs resulting in two genetically different haploid cells with 23 individual homologous chromosomes.

Uterus

- The organ in which a conceptus implants and develops until birth. Pathway for sperm to enter uterine tubes. - Is a pear shaped, hollow organ located in the pelvis anterior to the rectum and posterior to the urinary bladder. - Composed of three regions: body (main region), fundus (rounded region superior to the entrance to uterine tubes), and cervix ( narrow neck or outlet of the uterus that projects into the vagina inferiorly.

What will the bilaminar embryonic disc become?

- The three primary germ layers. - ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

Vascular shunts

- Three circulatory short cuts present during prenatal development. - ductus venosus, foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus - After birth, these shunts and the umbilical vessels close, and a normal circulatory pattern begins within a year in most infants.

What two cell populations exists by the time the blastocyst is ready for implantation?

- Trophoblast cells: large flattened cells of the blastocyst that participate in forming the placenta. Forms an outer layer. Suppresses the mothers immune system, preventing it from attacking the conceptus. - embryoblasts/inner cell mass: inner cluster of rounded cells that form embryo proper (the developing body).

What happens to umbilical arteries and umbilical veins after birth?

- Umbilical arteries become medial umbilical ligaments - Umbilical vein becomes ligamentum teres

What are the female external genitalia?

- Vulva- external reproductive structures - mons pubis- fatty, rounded region overlying pubic symphysis, covered with hair after puberty. - Labia majora: pair of elongated fatty protective skin folds that lie posterior to mons pubis. - Labia minora: pair of thinner skin folds found within labia majora. - Vestibule: recess enclosed within labia minora, contains urethral orifice and vaginal orifice. - Paraurethral glands: in vestibule, discharge mucus into urethra. - Greater vestibular glands- secrete mucus into vestibule during intercourse. - Clitoris: anterior to vestibule; small protrusion composed of erectile tissue.

In vitro fertilization (IVF)

- Way to treat female infertility. - oocyte and sperm, from mother and father or donors, are fertilized in a laboratory and then implanted in mother's uterus.

What are the three zones of the adrenal cortex?

- Zone glomerulosa- Outer zone that consists of densely packed cells that produce mineralocorticoid hormones. - Zone fasciculata- middle zone that consists of cells stacked on one another in columns; secrete glucocorticoids and androgenic steroids. - Zona reticularis- inner zone that is composed of thin layer of cells arranged loosely in clusters; secrete glucocorticoids and androgenic steroids.

Three types of cells in pancreatic islet.

- alpha cells- cells of pancreatic islet that secrete glucagon -Beta cells- pancreatic islet cells that secrete insulin -Delta cells- Pancreatic islet cells that secrete peptide hormone somatostatin.

Ovulation

- an immature gamete called an oocyte is expelled from ovary; fimbriae sweep ovary surface to catch oocyte and direct it into uterine tube. - Uterine tube smooth muscle contractions, ciliated cells, and non-ciliated cells work together to move oocyte towards uterus. - Fertilization beings when a sperm cells binds to and penetrates oocyte plasma membrane; typically occurs in ampulla.

Gonarrhea

- caused by Neisseria gonorrhea. - Symptoms- painful urination and penile discharge - Women are usually asymptomatic, but can experience painful urinations and vaginal bleeding. - can lead to pelvic inflammatory disease and blindness in women.

Trichomoniasis

- caused by Trichomonas vaginalis - may cause itching, burning, or redness of genitals. . In women, can cause a greenish vaginal discharge with a strong odor. - can be asymptomatic - infection during birth can lead to premature birth and low birth weight.

Bacterial and Parasitic STIs

- caused by pathogenic bacteria and parasites; invade tissue and cause inflammatory reactions. - include chlamydia, gonorrhea, syphilis, trichomoniasis.

Virial infections

- caused by small nonliving virus that take over cellular organelles that are responsible for protein synthesis. - include Genital warts and genital herpes.

Explain mechanisms for temperature regulation for male genitals.

- counter current heat exchange- Blood vessels arranged so that heat transfer occurs as arteries and veins carry blood in opposite directions. -surface area of scrotum is minimized in cold weather to decrease heat loss; temperature increases. - surface area of scrotum increases when warm to increase heat loss; temp decreases.

Follicular phase

- first phase of the ovarian cycle. Follicle grows and develops in following maturation events: - Primordial follicle: single layer of squamous follicular cells surround primary oocyte; during childhood, many primordial follicles begin to develop into primary follicles. - Primary follicle: squamous follicular cells become cuboidal and are called granulosa cells; microvilli and thecal cells appear in primary follicle; forms region called zona pellucida. - Secondary follicle: Wall of follicle thickens and deeper granulosa cells secrete follicular fluid; forms small pockets and increases volume and size of follicle. Granulosa cells grow and stimulate cells in ovary to form a layer of thecal cells around follicle; in turn, granulosa cells provide estrogen from thecal cell secretion. - Vesicular follicle: small pockets of follicular fluid merge into a single large cavity called antrum; primary oocyte and its capsule of granulosa cells project into antrum on a stalk. Follicles continues to enlarge which creates a bulge in the ovary; primary oocyte completes mitosis one to form secondary oocyte and first polar body. Newley formed secondary oocyte arrests development in metaphase two and will only complete second division if fertilization occurs.

Explain the muli-tiered negative feedback loop for hormones of the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland.

- first tier: neuroendocrine cells of hypothalamus secrete releasing or inhibiting hormones in response to change in homeostatic variable. (tropic hormones). -second tier: involves hypothalamus tropic hormones' effect on anterior pituitary; stimulates or inhibits anterior pituitary hormone secretion. -third tier: involves actions of anterior pituitary hormones at target tissues; target tissue glands secrete hormones that can affect various homeostatic variables. - once homeostatic variable that stimulated activity at hypothalamus returns to a normal set point, change is detected at hypothalamus and it stops secreting tropic hormones. -Anterior pituitary changes its hormone secretion accordingly; target tissue follows suit and feedback loop is closed.

genital warts (human papilloma virus)

- genital warts are caused by 40 different types of HPV and represent most common STI. - warts appear on penis, perineum, or anus in males and cervix, vaginal wall, perineum, or anus in females. - respiratory papillomatosis- when warts re caused in throat of newborn where mother has warts in late pregnancy.

sexually transmitted disease

- group of infections caused by a number of different bacteria, viruses, and parasites that are spread through sexual contact. - most common cause of reproductive disorders. - often cause infertility in adults and deformities and death in a fetus.

tropic hormones

- hormones that control hormone secretion from other endocrine glands.

What are the effects of aldosterone?

- maintains concentrations of extracellular sodium and potassium ions within their normal range. - Regulates extracellular fluid volume: effects on sodium and chloride ions in kidney tubule cells create a concentration gradient. - Maintains blood pressure with other organs through a complex series of interactions called renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system(RAAS); functions to increase blood pressure and to preserve blood flow to heart, brain, and kidneys. - Maintains acid base homeostasis- activates hydrogen ion pumps in kidney tubules which pump hydrogen ions from ECF into fluid of tubules; excreted in urine, and thus lowering pH of blood.

Major events of fetal development by months.

- month 3 - body lengthens, head slowly grows, upper limbs grow, ossification begins. - Eyes are well developed but on lateral side of head, eyelids are fused, nose bridge develops, external ears are present. - month 4 - rapid baby growth, lower limbs lengthen, joints form - fetus has nipples and some hair - kidneys are well formed, digestive glands are forming, heart beat can be heard. - responds to reflexes like noise and light. -CRL= 14 cm - month 5 - growth slows, limbs proportional - hair grows on head, skin covered in lanugo, vernix caseosa secretions. Lanugo and vernix protect skin from amniotic fluid. - formation of brown fat = heat protection - mother can feel movements (quickening) -CRL=19 cm - month 6 - Fetus gains weight, eyebrows and eyelashes begin to appear, eyelids partially open. - skin is wrinkled and translucent - surfactant production - CRL = 23 cm - month 7 - eyelid completely open - fat deposited in sebaceous tissue - fetus in vertex position - testes begin to descend through inguinal canal. - CRL = 28 cm - months 9 and 8 - fetal nerves from network - blood cells form in bone marrow - digestive and respiratory systems complete development in 9th month. - fetal skin less wrinkled and lanugo is shed. - testes complete descent - 8th month CRL is 30 cm - 9th month CRL is 36 cm

infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS)

- most common in premature infants - develops in infants born before 24 weeks because there is no surfactant. - without surfactant, alveoli collapse during exhalation and are difficult too re-inflate due to alveolar surface tension. - treatment is synthetic surfactant

Female infertility

- most common reason is a problem with ovulation. Which can be caused by: - Polycystic ovarian syndrome- hormone imbalance due to excessive androgens, interferes with normal ovulation. - Primary ovarian insufficiency: occurs when a woman's ovaries stop working normally before age 40. - Blockage of uterine tube due to pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, or uterine fibroids. - Poor diet, overweight or underweight, smocking, excessive alcohol, stress, excessive athletic training, age. - Treatment: medications like synthetic gonadotropins, abdominal surgery to clear blockage, removal of endometriosis or fibroids, or in vitro fertilization (IVF)

What are the five stages of the Postnatal Period?

- neonatal period: extends from birth to one month of age. - Infancy: last from one month to 2 years of age. - Childhood: last until the period of sexual maturation or puberty - Adolescence: Begins at puberty and ends when the individual is capable of sexual reproduction. - Adulthood: End of adolescence until death. Development ends and senescence begins.

Implantation

- occurs approximately 4-7 days after fertilization when blastocyst begins to attach to endometrium of uterus. - Trophoblast invade stratum functionalist layer of endometrium by secreting digestive enzymes that catalyze reactions to degrade endometrial lining

cervical cancer

- occurs most often in women between the ages of 30 and 50, especially those with a history of STIs, cervical inflammation, or multiple pregnancies. - commonly caused by HPV. - Can test for this cancer through a pap smear test (scraping cells from inside of cervix). - can be treated by surgically removing tumor or a hysterectomy (removal of uterus.)

Transverse or lateral folding

- occurs when left and right sides of embryo curve and fold toward midline - creates future trunk region and creates primitive gut.

ductus arteriosus

- one of three vascular shunts - short passage that connects pulmonary trunk to aorta; allows blood to move from pulmonary trunk directly to aorta.

foramen ovale

- one of three vascular shunts - Hole interatrial septum that directly connects the right and left atria; allows blood to skip ahead and avoid pulmonary circulation by moving directly from right to left side of heart.

Erectile Dysfunction

- physiological influences are stress, depression, and anxiety. - physical influences are cardiovascular disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity, tobacco, alcohol, and certain medications. - older men are at higher risk. - Treatments include medication that allow blood vessels of penis to remain dilated, surgery, or insertion of penile implant.

Organogenesis

- process where three primary germ layers differentiate into organs and organ systems - When organogenesis begins, primary germ layers have undergone cephalocaudal and transverse folding and are beginning to differentiate.

ligamentum arteriosum

- remnant of ductus arteriosus - Pressure changes cause ductus arteriosus to close.

Stress response

- series of changes that maintains homeostasis when the body is faced with a stressor and mediated by the sympathetic nervous system.

mesoderm

- the middle germ layer - intermediate mesoderm forms gonads and kidneys. - Lateral plate mesoderm develops into spleen, adrenal cortex, most of the cardiovascular system, serous membranes of body cavities, and connective tissue components of limbs.

Chorion

- the outermost extraembryonic membrane that forms maternal and embryonic tissue. - Forms outgrowths called chorionic villi.

ectoderm

- the outermost germ layer - forms epidermis of skin and is responsible for forming the majority of the nervous system and sense organs. - through neurulation, becomes brain and spinal cord neural crest cells become cranial, spinal, and sympathetic ganglia; pigment cells of skin, cells of adrenal medulla, and connective tissue cells.

Explain the two processes in which a target cell can change the number of receptors for the hormone.

- up regulation- a process in which a target cell produces a greater number of receptors in response to a temporary increase in blood hormone levels. - Down regulation- a process in which target cells decrease the number of receptors in response to prolonged exposure to a high level of hormone in the blood.

genital herpes

- usually caused by herpes simplex virus type 2. - many individuals are asymptomatic while others suffer from painful blisters on external genitalia, thighs, and butt. - can be transmitted through skin to skin contact. - neonatal herpes- herpes in newborn and can be fatal. - increases risk for HIV and some cancers.

How long is a typical ovulation cycle?

-28 days - follicular phase 1-14 - Luteal phase: 14-28

Disorders and causes associated with adrenal insufficiency.

-Addison's disease- hyposecretion of both cortisol and aldosterone and render individual susceptible to adrenal crisis. - Adrenal crisis: results in fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base homeostasis disruptions. Adrenal insufficiency can be caused by abnormal development of adrenal glands , deficiency in certain enzymes required to produce steroid hormones, and destruction of adrenal glands by individual's immune system.

Explain the process of Fluid Homeostasis.

-At rest, while fasting- thyroid hormones determine basal metabolic rate; trigger processes that cause cells to consume ATP and stimulate gluconeogenesis; help maintain stable blood glucose levels during fasting states; glucagon and Growth Hormone also increase blood glucose levels during fasting. - At rest, while feeding- feeding causes increased blood glucose levels that increases insulin secretion; insulin lowers blood glucose level by increasing glucose uptake by cells and storage of excess glucose in glycogen and fat. Proteins in meals causes Growth Hormone and Insulin like growth factor one secretion. This stimulates protein synthesis with ingested amino acid. Proteins in meals cause glucagon secretion to prevent hypoglycemia. Insulin and leptin both promote satiety. - During exercise- catecholamines control metabolic rate and glucagon secretion increases; sympathetic nervous system catecholamine secretion from adrenal medulla. Catecholamines in blood increase metabolic rate of cells above basal metabolic rate set by thyroid gland. Increased metabolic rate requires more metabolic fuels; provided by increased glucagon secretion from pancreas.

Prostatic Cancer

-Causes enlargement of prostate. - Risk factors: genetics predisposition, African American heritage, age over 50, obesity, and poor diet. - To test, the do a digital rectal exam or check blood for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) -treatment: surgery, radiation, chemo, or hormone therapy.

Chromaffin Cells

-Cells of the adrenal medulla that secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system. They mediate the immediate response to a stressor.

Cortisol disorders

-Cushing's disease- over secretion from adrenal cortex, usually from a tumor. -Iatrogenic Cushing's disease- disorder caused by long-term administration of glucocorticoid containing products. -Symptoms regardless of cause - Lipolysis release fatty acids from upper and lower limbs, which become slim; deposited in adipose tissue in characteristic places like trunk, face, and back of neck. - Breakdown of protein in muscles leads to muscle wasting; released fats and amino acids are converted into glucose, causing hyperglycemia. - Slight mineralocorticoid effect causes hypertension; effect on leukocytes causes osteoporosis.

Explain the negative feedback loop for production of triiodothyronine and thyroxine.

-First tier involves thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from hypothalamus. -Second tier involves Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) from anterior pituitary. - Third tier, TSH stimulates production of triiodothyronine and thyroxine by follicle cells, secretion of T3 and T4 form follicle cells into blood stream, and growth and development of thyroid gland. -Secretion of TRH and TSH increases when levels of free T3 and T4 fall or when body is exposed to cold temperatures. -secretion of thyrotropin releasing hormone and thyroid stimulating hormone is inhibited by rising levels of free T3 and T4, TSH is also inhibited by somatostatin.

What happens after ejaculation?

-Five minutes after, the semen coagulates because of coagulates from the seminal vesicle and prostate. This prevents sperm from leaving female reproductive tract. -After 15-30 min- Prostate specific antigens and other antigens break down the clot, allowing sperm to go up female reproductive tract. -Prostaglandins stimulate contractions in female reproductive tract and possibly thin mucus. - Antimicrobial chemicals from prostate kill some bacteria.

What are three growth Hormone Disorders?

-Gigantism: Hypersecretion of Growth Hormone before epiphyseal plates have closed; leads to extremely tall individuals. Excess Growth Hormone increases size of heart. If there is no early intervention, individuals die of heart failure at an early age. -Acromegaly: Hypersecretion of growth hormone after epiphyseal plate closure; most affected are tissues of head, face, hands, and feet, as well as the heart and liver. Progressively distorts these various organs; can lead to heart failure. -Pituitary Dwarfism: a condition of Growth Hormone Hyposecretion; leads to individuals that are short in stature but otherwise proportional limbs and trunk.

Effects of Cortisol.

-Gluconeogenesis in the liver- amino acids and fat into glucose - release of amino acids from muscle tissue into blood that can be converted into glucose by gluconeogenesis. - release of fatty acids from adipose tissue by acting on adipocytes to make fuel or glucose. - Cortisol receptors are found all over the body, effects of this steroid hormone are widespread. - Anti-inflamitory decreases leukocyte levels.

Explain the negative feedback loop for testosterone.

-Gonadotropin-releasing hormone triggers secretion of Luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone. Luteinizing hormone stimulates testosterone synthesis and follicle stimulating hormone stimulates production of proteins that bind testosterone and concentrates in testes. -Elevated blood levels of testosterone inhibits Gonadotropin-releasing hormone secretion which closes the negative feedback

What are common thyroid disorders?

-Hyperthyroidism- weight loss, heat intolerance, disruptions in blood pressure and rhythms, and development of a goiter and exophthalmos. Graves disease- most common cause of hyperthyroidism; results from immune system producing abnormal proteins that mimic actions of Thyroid stimulating hormone on thyroid gland. -Hypothyroidism- Characterized by weight gain, cold intolerance, slow heart rate, low blood pressure, and a goiter; can be due to an immune system disorder or lack of available iodine. -Congenital hypothyroidism- develops when an infant is born with inadequate thyroid function; can lead to delayed physical and nervous system development; potentially mental retardation if left untreated.

adrenal glands

-Located on superior kidney; roughly pyramid-shaped; produce catecholamine and steroid hormones. - Divided into two regions -Adrenal Cortex- outer region, typical gland, produces steroid hormones like aldosterone. - Adrenal medulla- Inner portion, neuroendocrine organ, release epinephrine and norepinephrine when stimulated by sympathetic nervous system.

luteinizing hormone (LH)

-Male: stimulates production of hormone testosterone by testes under direction of hypothalamic hormone gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). - Female: stimulates production of estrogen and progesterone from ovaries in process of ovulation; also under direction of GnRH.

Explain the controversy behind Human Growth Hormone (hGH)

-People claim that hGH promotes fat loss and muscle growth, and is the "fountain of youth". hGH has become a popular supplement with body builders, those seeking weight loss, and individuals looking to stave off inevitable effects of aging. -Their assertions are half true. Growth Hormone does promote fat breakdown and protein synthesis and adults with Growth Hormone deficiency who are treated with HGH do lose fat and gain muscle, but their are problems with hGH supplementation. - Excess GH can cause hyperglycemia and growth of tissues such as tongue and bones of hands, face, and feet. - Because most hGH supplements are oral and GH is a protein hormone, it is destroyed by the acids in the stomach. You need to administer hGH through injection.

Calcitonin

-Produced and secreted by parafollicular cells; released when calcium ion level in blood increases above normal range. -Main target is osteoclast in bone. Inhibits osteoclast activity which allows osteoblast to work. - Unopposed osteoblast activity reduces blood calcium levels because ions are incorporated into bone matrix.

Explain the negative feedback response to increased blood glucose levels.

-Stimulus- blood glucose level increases above its normal range, in response to feeding or hormones such as cortisol. -Receptor- Beta cells of pancreas detect increased glucose concentration. - Control Center- Beta cells increase insulin secretion; alpha cells recuse glucagon secretion. -Effector/Response- insulin decreases blood glucose level by increasing glucose uptake by cells and storage of glucose, amino acids, and fats - Homeostatic range and negative feedback- as blood glucose level returns to its normal range, negative feedback to beta cells decreases insulin secretion.

endoderm

-The innermost germ layer. - Forms cavity of middle ear and auditory tube. - becomes internal epithelial layers of digestive, respiratory, and reproductive systems. - forms several glands and accessory digestive organs including thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, majority of lover, gall bladder, and pancreas.

Syphilis

-caused by Treponema pallidum; causes small painless lesion called a chancre up to six weeks after exposer, at this point, is transmittable. - Secondary syphilis- develops after chance heals and causes a pink body rash and join pain. - Tertiary Syphilis- produces destructive brain lesions and damages to cardiovascular organs, bones, and joints. - may be fatal.

ductus venosus

-connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava, blood bypassing the liver - one of three vascular shunts

The Bilaminar embryonic disc and trophoblast together produce what in the second week of development?

-extraembryonic membranes - Yolk sac, amnion, allantois, and chorion

infertiility

-inability to produce a pregnancy after one year of unprotected intercourse. - 40% of cases are male infertility - less that 15 million sperm results in infertility. - low sperm count can be due to testes damage like physical trauma, exposure to radiation, or disease, could also be due to development defects.

Effect of Chromaffin cells.

-increase heart rate and force of contractions and dilate bronchioles in lungs. - constrict blood vessels supplying skin, digestive organs, and urinary organs (increasing blood pressure). - Dilate blood vessels supplying skeletal muscles -Dilate pupils -Decrease digestive and urinary functions

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

-male: stimulates cells of testes to produce chemicals that bind and concentrate testosterone; under direction of Gonadotropin releasing hormone. -female: Follicle stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone together trigger production of estrogen; FSH also triggers maturation of ovarian follicles.

Explain the events of fluid homeostasis.

-normal conditions- low levels of antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone are secreted continually and lead to average urine output. - Decreased plasma volume and increased plasma solute concentration- Antidiuretic hormone and aldosterone secretion rises, leading to decreased urine output. - Increased plasma volume and decreased plasma solute concentration- Antidiuretic Hormone and aldosterone secretion declines and Atrial Naturalistic Peptide secretion increases, leading to increased urine output.

Androgenic Steroids

-steroid sex hormones that affect reproductive organs (gonads) as well as other tissues - Adrenal cortex synthesizes these hormones in small amounts; byproduct of cortisol synthesis pathway. - Same general effects as those made in gonads. - can be converted in circulation to androgen testosterone or female hormone estrogen.

List hormones from the posterior pituitary, their target tissues, and primary functions.

1. Antidiuretic Hormone: Targets the kidneys. Stimulates the kidneys to save water by reabsorbing it into the blood stream. 2. Oxytocin: Targets smooth muscle of the uterus and others. Stimulates smooth muscle for labor and delivery as well as milk let-down response with lactation.

List hormones from the pancreas, their target tissues, and primary functions.

1. Glucagon: Targets the liver, kidneys, and adipose tissue. Increases blood sugar and to a lesser extent other fuels. 2. Insulin- Targets muscle, adipose, and some other cells. Decreases blood sugar by stimulating these tissues to take up glucose from the blood.

List hormones from the anterior pituitary, their target tissues, and primary functions.

1. Growth Hormone: Directly and indirectly targets most body tissues. Stimulates Insulin Growth Factor 1 (ICF 1) production by the liver and increases growth of bones and muscles. Increases blood sugar. 2. Prolactin: Targets mammary glands. Stimulates milk production. 3. Thyroid Stimulating Hormone: Targets the thyroid gland, specifically the follicles. Stimulates the thyroid to release triiodothyronine and thyroxine release. 4. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)- Targets the adrenal cortex. Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids as part of the stress response. 5. Luteinizing- Targets ovaries and testes. Stimulates gonads to make steroid hormones. 6. Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)- Targets the ovaries and testes and stimulates gamete production.

Steps for the second messenger system (hydrophilic hormone mechanism for action)

1. Hydrophilic hormone (first messenger) bind to a receptor in the plasma membrane. 2. Receptors activate a peripheral protein ex.) g-protein 3. Peripheral protein activates an enzyme 4. Enzyme catalyzes formation of a second messenger. 5. The second messenger initiates a series of events in the cell that leads to the changes in its activity.

Steps for mechanisms of action of hydrophobic hormones (steroids and thyroid hormones) via binding to intracellular receptors.

1. Hydrophobic hormone diffuses into the target cell. 2. Hormone bind to an intracellular receptor and enters the nucleus of the cell. 3. Hormone receptor complex interacts with the DNA to initiate a cellular change.

Synthesis of Thyroid Hormone steps

1. Iodide ions and thyroglobulin (large thyroid hormone precursor protein) are secreted into colloid. 2. Iodide ions are converted to iodine atoms that attach to thyroglobulin. 3. Iodinate thyroglobulin enters follicle cells by endocytosis and is converted to Triiodothyronine and thyroxine by lysosomal enzymes. 4. T4 and T3 are released into the bloodstream. 5. Many target tissues can convert T4 to make more T3; T4 last longer in blood, so it acts as a reservoir for potential T3.

What are the two ways the hypothalamus influences the pituitary gland?

1. It sends releasing and inhibiting hormones through a short capillary circuit to the anterior pituitary gland. 2. Hypothalamic neurons produce two hormones that are stored in and released from the posterior pituitary gland.

Ovarian hormone levels during the ovarian cycle.

1. Ovarian hormones are low at the beginning of the mensural phase. Estrogen production rises around day 5, and continues to rise through the proliferative phase. 2. Progesterone levels rise after ovulation due to the corpus luteum. 3. Progesterone levels rise through the secretory phase, but drop around day 24 if fertilization does not occur. - If fertilization does not occur, the outer layer of the conceptus begins to secrete the LH-like hormone Human chronic gonadotropin.

What events must occur so fertilization between a sperm cell and oocyte can occur.

1. Sperm undergo capacitation as they migrate to the oocyte. 2. The acrosomal reaction releases enzymes from head of sperm. 3. The sperm binds to the plasma membrane of the oocyte. 4. Sperm entry stimulates the cortical reaction, which destroys sperm binding receptors. 5. Additional sperm cells are rejected. 6. The sperm nucleus swells to form a male pronucleus. 7. The oocyte completes meiosis 2 and the ovum's nucleus swells to form a female pronucleus. 8. A spindle forms between male and female pronuclei and the chromosomes intermix.

stages of spermatogenesis in the seminiferous tubules.

1. Spermatogonium differentiates into primary spermatocyte. 2. One primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis one to produce two haploid secondary spermatocytes. 3. The two secondary spermatocytes each undergo meiosis 2 to produce a total of four haploid spermatids. 4. Spermatids elongate as they begin spermiogenesis.

What are the seven primary organs of the endocrine system?

1. The anterior pituitary gland in the sphenoid bone of skull. 2. The thyroid gland in anterior neck. 3. Parathyroid glands on posterior thyroid gland. 4. Paired adrenal cortices on superior surface of kidneys. 5. Endocrine pancreas on the left side of the abdominal cavity posterior to the stomach. 6. Thymus in the superior mediastinum. 7. Ovaries or testes in the pelvic cavity.

List hormones from the thyroid gland, their target tissues, and primary functions.

1. Triiodothyronine and Thyroxine: Secreted by thyroid follicles and targets most body tissues. Increase body metabolism. 2. Calcitonin: Secreted by parafollicular cells and targets osteoclasts. Decreases Osteoclast activity, blood calcium is lowered due to more uptake of calcium into bone tissue.

Process of Antidiuretic hormone or oxytocin synthesis

1. hypothalamus makes either anti-diuretic hormone or oxytocin. 2. The hormones travel through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal- tract in the infundibulum. 3. Anti-diuretic hormone and oxytocin are stored in the axon terminals in the posterior pituitary 4. The hormones are secreted into the capillaries in the posterior pituitary when the hypothalamic neurons fire action potentials.

Explain the functional relationship between the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland. (steps)

1. hypothalamus neurons secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones into the hypothalamic capillary bed. 2. Hormones travel through the portal veins in the infundibulum. 3. Hypothalamic hormones exit the anterior pituitary capillary bed and bind to receptors on anterior pituitary cells. 4. Hypothalamic hormones stimulate or inhibit secretion of hormones from the anterior pituitary cells. (most hormones from the anterior pituitary are tropic except growth hormone).

Explain the general negative feedback loop that regulates hormone secretion.

1. stimulus: a regulated physiological variable deviates from normal range. 2. Receptor: Receptors on endocrine cells detect the deviation of the variable. 3. Control Center: The stimulated control center increases or decreases its secretion of a particular hormone. 4. Effector/response: the hormone triggers a response in its target cell that moves conditions toward normal range. 5. Homeostatic range: As the variable returns to its normal range, feedback to the control center decreases the effector decreases the effector response.

Gonadotropin hormone levels during uterine cycle.

1. when the menstrual phase begins, FSH and LH are starting to rise. By day 5, ovarian follicles increase estrogen production. 2. During the proliferative phase, estrogen levels rise and stimulate LH and FSH surges, which triggers ovulation. 3. During the secretory phase, levels of LH and FSH drop due to negative feedback on the anterior pituitary.

prostate secretions

20-30% of semen volume, milky, contains: citrate (sugar that sperm uses for ATP synthesis), Prostate specific antigen (PSA, breaks down the clot of semen that initially formed in female reproductive tract so sperm can move deeper), antimicrobial chemicals (inhibit some bacterial growth to decrease risk of bacterial infection in female reproductive tract). Basic pH.

How long is an ovulated secondary oocyte viable?

24 hours.

How many days till a fetus is considered full term?

266

How long is the window for sperm to fertilize?

3 days

How long can sperm remain viable?

5 days

How long does the process of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis take?

60-70 days

Diploid

A cell with 23 pairs of homologues chromosomes. One set of chromosomes are maternal and the other is paternal. Each member of a pair of chromosomes has the same genes.

amino acid based hormones

A chemical messenger consisting of one or more amino acids, most amino acid based hormones are hydrophilic and so they bind to plasma membrane receptors. Produced by the anterior pituitary gland, pancreas, thymus, thyroid, and parathyroid glands. Thy thyroid hormone is hydrophobic because it comes from the amino acid tyrosine.

Steroid hormones

A chemical messenger derived from cholesterol with a core of hydrocarbon rings; steroid hormones are hydrophobic, so they interact with plasma membrane or intracellular receptors. They are lipid soluble. Produced in the adrenal cortices, testes, and ovaries.

Hormone

A chemical messenger secreted into the blood that triggers changes within its target cells.

Minerolocorticoids

A class of hormones produced by the adrenal cortex that regulates fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance. Main one is aldosterone.

Osteoporosis and common treatments

A decrease in mineral density of bones; results in weak bones; significantly increases risk for bone fractures. One common treatment is a calcitonin nasal spray that increases bone mass by slowing bone breakdown. Another treatment is a drug that mimics Parathyroid hormone. This is weird because PTH stimulates bone breakdown, but that only occurs when calcium ion concertation falls below normal range. When calcium ion levels are normal, PTH increases calcium ion concentration through effects on gut and kidneys.

anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)

A hormone produced by the hypothalamus continuously in low amounts. and stored in the posterior pituitary that causes the insertion of aquaporin channels in the cells of the distal tubule in the kidney to allow water reabsorption.

Human Chronic Gonadotropin (HCG)

A hormone produced by the outer layer of the developing embryo that keeps the corpus luteum from degrading.

What is hormone half life?

A hormones half life is the amount of time it take for the plasma concentration of the hormone to be reduced by half. Hydrophobic hormones have the longest half life. Hydrophilic hormones have the shortest halflife.

semen

A mixture of sperm and fluids from the testes, seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral and urethral glands. Is somewhat sticky and makes up 5% of semen volume.

zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT)

A new zygote is placed into woman's uterine tube; zygote will then need to develop into blastocyst and implant.

homologous chromosomes.

A set of maternal and paternal chromosomes with some genes. Matching genes on these chromosomes may have different alleles.

Will the epiblast or hypoblast become the amniotic cavity?

A small cavity appears within the epiblast and will enlarge to become amniotic cavity.

Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system

A specialized blood supply; allows both hypothalamus and pituitary to deliver their hormones directly to their target cells. - Tiny capillaries merge in hypothalamus to form larger portal veins that travel through infundibulum -Portal veins lead to a second group of capillaries in anterior pituitary gland.

primitive streak

A thin grove on dorsal surface of epiblast that forms on cephalic-caudal line. Establishes the head and tail regions, right and left sides, and dorsal and ventral surfaces of embryo.

ductus deferens

A tube that carries semen from the epididymis through the inguinal canal into the pelvic cavity. Begins at tail of epididymis where ductus epididymis widens. Can store sperm for several months.

Leptin

Able to cross blood-brain barrier where it interacts with neurons in hypothalamus, its main target tissue. Actions of leptin is to induce satiety. Leptin production is closely related to adipose tissue quantity; only a component in complex mechanisms that regulate feeding. Secreted by adipocytes and stimulates gonadotropin secretion

Seminal vesicles

Accessory gland of male reproductive system that produces seminal fluid, a component of semen. Parried exocrine glands found posterior surface of urinary bladder near ampulla of ductus deferens. Duct of seminal vesicle converges with ductus deferens to form ejaculatory duct.

Adipose tissue

Adipocytes produce protein hormone leptin.

List hormones from the adrenal gland, their target tissues, and primary functions.

Adrenal Cortex: 1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone): Released from the zona glomerulosa and targets kidney tubules (tubule of nephron). Increases sodium reabsorption at kidneys to increase blood pressure. 2. Glucocorticoids (cortisol): Released from the Zona fasciculata and targets the liver, muscles, and adipose tissue. Increased availability of fuels in the blood (increased sugar, protein, and fat breakdown). 3. Androgens: Released from the Zona reticularis and targets and targets multiple body tissues. Causes the development of sex characteristics. Adrenal Medulla: 1. Epinephrine and a little norepinephrine: Targets most body tissues and cells. Causes a sympathetic nervous system response.

Duct system

After leaving the testes, sperm travel through a system of ducts: the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra. Sperm is nourished by semen as it moves through ducts. Involved in ejaculaiton.

What are the effects of thyroid hormone?

Almost every cell in the body has thyroid hormone receptors, making their effects widespread. - Regulation of metabolic rate and thermoregulation: the thyroid hormones set the basal metabolic rate by increasing rate of ATP consumption, increasing gluconeogenesis, and by initiating energy-requiring reactions in these same target cells; heat is generated, which is critical for core body temperature homeostasis. -Promotion of growth and development- thyroid hormones are required for normal bone growth, muscle growth, and nervous system development. -Synergism with sympathetic nervous system: increases in thyroid hormone level act on target cells of sympathetic nervous system and increases receptors for sympathetic neurotransmitters; affect regulation of blood pressure, heart rate, and other sympathetic activities.

What are the two classes of hormones?

Amino acid based hormones and steroid hormones.

Prostate

An accessory gland in the male reproductive system that produces prostatic secretions- a component of semen. Surrounds ejaculatory duct and urethrae.

Crossing over

An exchange of segments of DNA between homologous chromosomes.

secondary oocyte

An oocyte in which the first meiotic division is completed. The second meiotic division usually stops short of completion unless fertilization occurs.

mammogram

An x-ray of breast, can detect small areas of increased tissue density. Can detect small malignances not detectable in self exams.

External Penis

Base of penis is the root; body, or shaft, terminates at glans penis where external urethral orifice is located. Loose skin of penis forms circular fold called prepuce which can be removed through circumcision.

Where are the receptors on target cells for hydrophobic hormones.

Because they can cross the plasma membrane they interact with receptors found in the cytosol or nucleus.

Where are the receptors on target cells for hydrophilic hormones?

Because they can not cross the plasma membrane, hydrophilic hormones interact with receptors in the plasma membrane.

Postnatal period

Begins at birth and continues through all life stages. Rapid developmental changes continue to occur in postnatal period.

Urethra

Belongs to both reproductive and urinary systems as it connects urinary bladder to external body surface; transports both sperm and semen. - Prostate Urethra- surrounded by prostate gland. -membranous urethra- passes through external urethral sphincter. -Spongy urethra- extends through penis and terminates at external urethral orifice. - The mucosa of urethra contains small, mucus-secreting urethral gland that contributes semen.

Fraternal twins

Birth occurs when more than one vesicular follicle release its secondary oocyte.

testiculary artery

Branch from abdominal aorta; provides testis with arterial blood.

Efferent Ductules

Carry sperm from rete testis to epipidymis; first portion of duct system.

Zygote

Cells that divides to form all of the cells in a new individual. Must contain the correct number of chromosomes- 46.

interstital cells

Cells that produce and secrete androgens, testosterone, into surrounding interstitial fluid. Located between semiferous tubules.

hyperglycemia

Condition where blood glucose levels are too high; common cause of chronic hyperglycemia. Can cause Type one diabetes mellitus or Type two diabetes mellitus.

Hypoglycemia

Condition where blood glucose levels are too low ,can be caused by elevated insulin levels. Causes weakness, dizziness, rapid breathing, nausea, and sweating. In severe cases, can lead to confusion, hallucinations, seizures, coma, and death.

Lactiferous sinus

Deep to areola, dilated region of lactiferous duct, milk accumulates during nursing

Senescene

Degeneration of tissues and organs. Will lead to death without specific disease state.

Prenatel period

Development stage that occurs approximately 38 week duration within mothers womb; referred to as pregnancy. Events from conception to birth.

alleles

Different variations of the same gene

Type two diabetes mellitus

Disease in which insulin's target tissues become insensitive to insulin and target cells do not initiate proper responses to increases in blood glucose. Development of this disorder is connected to hereditary and obesity.

Pancreas

Endocrine and exocrine organ, located inferior and posterior to the stomach, club shaped, secretes hormones for digestion, insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin. Has two groups of cells, Pancreatic islet and acinar cells.

thyroid gland

Endocrine gland located in the anterior neck that produces thyroid hormone and calcitonin. Butterfly-shaped gland consists of right and left lobes connected by the isthmus. Microscopically, the gland is composed of multiple spheres known as thyroid follicles.

What are the three basic signaling pathways for the endocrine system?

Endocrine- hormones are secreted through the blood and affect distant cells. Paracrine- chemicals secreted into ECF to influence nearby target cells. Autocrine- A chemical messenger secreted into ECF that affects the function of the same cell or cell type that produced and secreted it.

Ampulla

Expansion at distal end that connects uterine tube to infundibulum

Ovaries

Female gonads, site of ova production and estrogen and progesterone.

fimbriae

Finger like ciliated projections that extend from edges of infundibulum. Catch oocyte.

Primordial follicles

First follicles formed in the female fetus. Each one contains a primary oocyte. - Matures into primary follicles and then into secondary follicles.

Negative feedback loop that regulates cortisol production levels.

First tier- Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) is secreted daily from the hypothalamus in a rhythmic fashion, with peak CRH levels in morning. Second tier- CRH simulates Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release from anterior pituitary. ACTH stimulates cortisol production and secretion from the adrenal cortex. -Elevated cortisol levels suppress release of CRH and ACTH, closing negative feedback loop.

Isthmus

Found at proximal end of uterine tube; constricted region that connects to uterus.

ketone bodies

Four carbon molecules formed during fatty acid metabolism; released into bloodstream and taken up into skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle cells. During starvation, glucagon promotes rapid ketone body formation and overwhelms cells and they accumulate in blood. Accumulation can lead to the lowering of blood pH (ketoacidosis).

How can hormones travel through the blood?

Freely or bound. Free hormones- small, amino acid based, hydrophilic hormones that can freely associate with water. Bound hormones- usually hydrophobic and form complexes with binding proteins in the plasma. - Some hydrophilic hormones, like growth hormone, are also protein bound.

infundibulum

Funnel shaped opening at distal end of uterine tube

What is the start of the embryonic period?

Gastrulation- the rearrangement and migration of the cells of the bilaminar embryonic disc to form the three germ layers. Begins after primitive streak has developed

Amniotic Fluid

Helps protect embryo from trauma, drying out, regulate temperature, allows freedom of movement to allow muscle growth, and prevents body parts from adhering to each other. Secreted by amnion.

Growth Hormone

Hormone produced by the anterior pituitary gland that promotes fat breakdown and gluconeogenesis. Secreted by somatotrophs throughout the day, with peak release during sleep. Regulates growth of cardiac and skeletal muscle, adipose, liver, cartilage, and bone. Has short and long term effects.

Somatostatin

Hormone produced by the hypothalamus that inhibits the release of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary gland. Also inhibits Thyroid Stimulating Hormone.

antagonist

Hormones that act on the same target cell but have opposite effects.

Synergists

Hormones that can act on the same target cell to exert the same effect.

Areola

Hyperpigmented region just below center of each breast; surrounds a nipple through which milk exists.

What are aldosterone disorders?

Hypersecretion of aldosterone (hyperaldosteronism) can lead to hypokalemia (low blood potassium ion levels, high blood sodium ion level (hypernatremia), and hypertension (high blood pressure).

sponataneous abortion

If for some reason conceptus is not viable- like a chromosomal abnormality is present- the pregnancy will end.

Parafollicular cells

In spaces between adjacent thyroid follicles; large cells that produce hormone calcitonin.

What factors regulate aldosterone synthesis and secretion?

Increase aldosterone release- elevated blood potassium ion concentration, a decrease in blood pH, and a hormone called angiotensin-II. In the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis), corticosteroid-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates the release of Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) from anterior pituitary, which then stimulates production and release of aldosterone.

What inhibits and increases glucagon secretion?

Inhibits- elevated blood glucose level and somatostatin. A carbohydrate rich meal. Increased- decrease in blood glucose, sympathetic nervous system stimulation, circulating catecholamines of adrenal medulla, ingested protein.

benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH)

Is prostate is noncancerous but expands to point of compressing urethra.

Why is sperm small and motile?

It must travel a long distance to reach oocyte.

Explain leptin and obesity.

Leptin has been researched for its possible pharmaceutical application in weight loss; hypothesis was that leptin supplement would suppress appetite, which would lead to weight loss. Research has shown that leptin was not affective for this. Has not stopped manufactures form making over the counter dietary supplements that contain leptin.

ductus epididymis

Long, coiled tube lined with pseudostratified epithelial cells; display nonmotive microvilli called stereocilia. The microvilli absorb excess testicular fluid, provide nutrients to sperm, and complete maturation processes for sperm. Length allows sperm to be stored for months until they are ejaculated or reabsorbed.

Aldosterone

Main mineralocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex. Regulates concentration of certain minerals (sodium and potassium) in the body. Functions to increase sodium reabsorption.

Testes

Male gonads, site of sperm and testosterone production. Ovoid structure located outside abdominopelvic cavity in a saclike structure composed of skin, smooth muscle, and connective tissue called scrotum. Each testes is divided into two lobules and contains seminiferous tubules. Testes produce sperm cells and secrete androgen hormones, mostly testosterone.

Neuroendocrine organ

Many secondary endocrine organs; are organs that consist of nervous tissue but also secretes hormones. ex.) hypothalamus and adrenal medulla.

List hormones from the pineal gland, their target tissues, and primary functions.

Melatonin: Targets the reticular formation and other tissues. Regulates the sleep wake cycle.

premature menopause

Menopause before age 40

myoid cells

Muscle like cells that surround seminiferous tubules, contract to push sperm and testicular fluid through tubules.

Rete Testis

Network of tubules in posterior testis, transport sperm to efferent ductules. Sperm moves from seminiferous tubules.

secondary endocrine organs

Not considered part of the endocrine system but produce hormones. they are the heart, kidneys, small intestine, adipose tissue, and even cancer cells.

Cleavage

Occurs around 30 hours after fertilizations. Is a series of rapid mitotic divisions that produce small, genetically identical cells called blastomeres. These divisions occur so quickly that cell number increases, but cell size does not. Each subsequent division takes less time than the previous one. By the second day there are 4 cells and at the end of the third day there are 16 cells. (morula)

What are the internal female genitalia?

Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina.

corpora cavernosa

Paired dorsal erectile bodies of spongy connective tissue and smooth muscle filled with vascular spaces in the penis. Connects penis to ischial rami.

List hormones from the parathyroid gland, their target tissues, and primary functions.

Parathyroid hormone: Targets osteoclasts, kidneys, and intestines. Increases blood calcium levels by increasing by increasing bone resorption, calcium reabsorption at the kidneys, and increased Vitamin D production for improved absorption of dietary calcium.

Kidneys

Play several roles: - Production of erythropoietin which is secreted by certain kidney cells in response to decreased blood oxygen levels. Acts on red bone marrow to stimulate development of new erythrocytes, which increases oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. - Specific kidney cells secrete renin; converts plasma protein angiotensinogen to angiotensin I; vital component of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, which maintains blood pressure. - Vitamin D made in response to sunlight in skin is converted to its active form in kidneys under influence to parathyroid hormone.

Epididymis

Portion of the male duct system that is the site of sperm maturation and storage. One superior and inferior portion of testes. Contains head, body, and tail. Sperm from head to narrow body then to small inferior tail. Sperm moves from efferent ductules into a single ductus epididumis that passes through all regions of epididymis.

Insulin

Primary antagonist of glucagon; produced and secreted from beta of pancreatic islets. Has effects on liver, cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, and parts of the brain. Promotes uptake and storage of ingested nutrients, synthesis of glycogen in liver, promotes satiety.

Thymus

Primary endocrine gland found in mediastinum. Location where T Lymphocytes mature. Secretes hormones thymosin and thymopoietin; function mainly as paracrine signals that assist in T lymphocytes maturation.

Pineal Gland

Primary endocrine; component of epithalamus (posterior region of diencephalon of brain): - Secretes neurohormone melatonin, appears to be related to light and dark cycles; secretion increases in dark. - melatonin's main target tissues are sleep-regulation centers in reticular formation of brainstem; appears to adjust sleep/wake cycle in some individuals.

gonads

Primary organ in the reproductive system, produces gametes and hormones like estrogen and testosterone. Testes and ovaries. Produce gametes. The male gamete is sperm and female is ova.

Gonads

Primary organs of reproductive system, produce gametes and hormones, male is testes and female is ovaries.

Spermiogenesis

Process of sperm maturation, changes size and shape of sperm. - Beings at the testes as spermatids elongate and shed excess cytoplasm -Development of acrosome. - Spermatids separate from sustentacular cells and are released into seminiferous tubule lumen. - Spermatids developed head, midpiece, and tail as they mature into sperm cell.

atresia

Process that causes follicles to die and then stop maturing. The first oocyte dies and then the follicle collapses.

Ejaculation

Process to expel semen from penis; under sympathetic control. To stages: - Emission, movement of sperm, testicular fluid, and prostate and seminal vesicle secretions into urethra. - Expulsion, Occurs as semen, sperm, and fluids from other regions of reproductive system accumulate in urethra.

Alveoli

Produce milk when woman is lactating.

glucagon

Produced and secreted by alpha cells in pancreatic islets; major target tissues are cells of liver, muscle, and adipose tissue; promotes reactions that increase blood glucose levels and metabolic fuels in blood. Initiates breakdown of glycogen (glycogenolysis), gluconeogenesis, break down of proteins in muscle tissue to release amino acids, release of fats from adipose tissue, formation of ketone bodies in liver.

Oxytocin

Produced by the hypothalamus and stored in the axon terminals of the anterior pituitary gland. - functions primarily focused on reproduction, target cells are mammary glands of breast tissue and smooth muscle of uterus. In nursing mothers, suckling stimulates oxytocin release; causes mammary glands to contract resulting in milk ejection. Causes contractions of the uterus.

Triiodothyronine (T3)

Produced by the thyroid gland, contains three iodine atoms, higher physiological activity in promoting growth and development, regulates heat and metabolic activity, promotes the effects of the sympathetic nervous system on target cells.

Thyronine (T4)

Produced by thyroid gland, contains 4 iodine atoms, less active for of hormone, can be converted to T3 when needed.

Glucocoticoids

Produced in zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Helps mediate body's response to stress. Most potent is cortisol.

What helps with sperm migration?

Prostaglandins + female orgasm

Colloid

Protein rich, gelatinous material that contains precursor for thyroid hormone and high concentration of iodine atoms; both important for thyroid hormone synthesis.

Why is the second oocyte relatively large?

Provides cellular machinery necessary for first week of development.

internal iliac arteries

Provides internal penile arteries; supply blood to penis. Gives rise to dorsal arteries and deep arteries. The dorsal arteries supply skin, fascia, and corpus spongiosum. Deep arteries supply the corpora cavernosa.

Developmental Biology

Science that studies changes in form and function from fertilized egg through old age.

independent assortment

Second shuffling of alleles which increases genetic variability.

Progesterone

Secretion peaks after ovulation and during pregnancy; physiological effects include body preparation for pregnancy and support of fetal development during pregnancy. Has effects on smooth muscle tissue, body temperature, blood clotting, bone tissue, and metabolism.

ejaculatory duct

Short duct, and the next structure to receive sperm from ductus deferens ampulla where an accessory organ called seminal vesical is located. Duct travels through accessory gland called the prostate gland on its way to urethra.

What are the short and long term effects of Growth Hormone?

Short-term effects: generally metabolic; include promotion of fat breakdown, generation of new glucose in liver, inhibition of glucose uptake uptake by muscle fibers, all of which increase blood glucose and fatty acid levels. Long-term effects: Not all directly mediated by Growth Hormone. Growth hormone acts on liver and other target tissues to promote the production of insulin-like growth factor (IGF). -Affects almost all cells in the body; triggers rapid protein synthesis and cell division leading to increased longitudinal bone growth and muscle development in children. -Decreases blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose uptake by cells; in opposition to initial actions of growth hormone. -Growth hormone plus insulin like growth factor promote muscle development and regulation of body mass in adults.

paraneoplastic syndrome

Signs and symptoms of hormone secretion from cancer cells. Many different types of cancer cells can cause paraneoplastic syndrome but most common are cells of lung and gastrointestinal cancers. Effects can be imbalances in fluid, calcium ions, and sodium ion homeostasis.

What are the similarities and differences between the nervous and endocrine systems?

Similarity- Both systems use chemicals to communicate with other cells. Differences- The nervous system uses a series of neurons that effect target cells directly through neurotransmitters, and effects are almost immediate but short. The endocrine system cells do not come into contact with their target cells. Instead, it does hormone secretion by distribution through blood. Endocrine hormones are longer lasting, but the time in which the hormone takes effect can vary.

Pituitary gland

Small organ that sits in Sella turcica of sphenoid bone; composed of the anterior pituitary gland and posterior pituitary gland.

Wharton's jelly

Soft, connective tissue that insulates and protects arteries and vein; external surface is covered with amniotic membrane.

The heart

Specific cardiac muscle cells contain stretch-sensitive ion channels that open more widely when blood volume inside heart increases; stimulates cardiac muscle to secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT)

Sperm and oocytes are placed into woman's uterine tube. Fertilization and development steps must occur naturally.

Intrauterine (artificial) insemination

Sperm that have been washed and concentrated are placed directly into woman's uterus at time of ovulation; sperm must then swim up uterine tube.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

Stimulates development of thyroid gland and secretion of thyroid hormones. Thyroid stimulating hormone is stimulated by the hypothalamic hormone Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH).

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

Stimulates release of Growth Hormone ; secretion increases during exercise, fasting, and stress, and after eating a protein rich meal.

Testosterone

Stimulates spermatogenesis and development of male characteristics, females make a small amount in adrenal glands. Is hydrophobic, binds to intracellular receptors, has anabolic effects by stimulating bone growth and muscle mass increase. Has androgenic effects by causing development of male secondary sex characteristics.

Umbilical cord

Structure that connects the center of the placenta to the umbilicus of the embryo or fetus; contains two umbilical arteries and an umbilical vein.

Embryology

Study of events that occur approximately 38 weeks of development inside mothers womb.

The inner cell mass separates from trophoblast and differentiates into which two layers?

Superior epiblast and inferior hypoblast which together form a flat bilaminar embryonic disc.

What type of hormone Triiodothyronine (T3) and Thyroxine (T4)?

T3 and T4 are both amino acid based hormones but they are on exception. They are hydrophobic. These two hormones do not interact with the plasma membrane bound receptors. Instead, diffuse into target cells and bind with receptors that activate or inhibit specific gene transcription.

Why do testicular injuries so painful?

Testes contain a large number of nociceptors and thermoreceptors.

Perineum

The diamond shape area on the pelvic floor bordered by the pubic symphysis anteriorly, the ischial tuberosities laterally and the coccyx posteriorly. Divided into urogenital triangle and anal triangle.

Menstruation

The discharge if blood and other materials from the vagina that occurs when a secondary oocyte is not fertilized.

mitosis

The division of somatic cells that results in two identical daughter cells. Daughter cells are genetically identical to mother cells.

Ovaries

The female gonads; the site of ova production and hormone secretion. Found on lateral wall of pelvic cavity. - Hormones secreted are estrogens, progesterone, inhibin, and relaxin.

Vagina

The female organ of copulation that receives the penis and semen during sexual intercourse; it is also the passageway for delivery of an infant and for menstrual flow. - Vaginal fornix: recess where superior end of the vaginal canal surrounds external os of the cervix. - Rugae: vaginal ridges that stimulate penis during intercourse. - mucus from cervix provides lubrication. -Epithelial cells secrete glycogen into vaginal lumen; metabolized by resident bacteria; generates lactic acid that helps maintain acidic pH of this region.

Yolk Sac

The first extraembryonic membrane; forms part of the digestive tract and is the source of the first blood cells, blood vessels, and first germ cells.

Endocrine system

The group of organs that secretes hormones, which influence the functions of other cells.

Ovarian cycle-

The monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an oocyte and its follicle in an ovary. Begins at puberty and is controlled by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis

The multi tiered feedback loops of the hormones of the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary and gonads. Regulates hormones involved in testosterone production and testicular function. -First tier, Gonadotropin-releasing hormone from hypothalamus. Second tier, anterior pituitary detects GnRH, and stimulates secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and Luteinizing hormone. - Third tier, Testes are the target organ. LH stimulates interstitial cells to produce testosterone. FSH stimulates sustentacular cells to secrete androgen-binding protein and inhibin. - Testosterone stimulates spermatogenesis and development of male characteristics. - Elevated testosterone and inhibin levels are sensed in hypothalamus and anterior pituitary causing negative feedback loop to close. - Inhibin decreases release of follicle stimulating hormone, testosterone decrease gonadotropin releasing hormone.

Gestation Period

The period that extends from the mother's last mensural period until birth, which is around 40 weeks.

Oogenesis

The process of female gamete or ova production.

Spermatogenesis

The process of sperm cell development. Regulated by hormones from hypothalamus. Begins at puberty and occurs in seminiferous tubules by spermatogonia cells.

Ejaculate

The semen expelled during one ejaculation. Contains 40-750 million sperm.

Uterine cycle

The series of cyclic changes that the uterine endometrium goes through each month as it responds to the fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones. - Uterine changes are coordinated with estrogen and progesterone levels released during ovarian cycle. - Under control by gonadotropins released by kidney.

ejaculation

The sperm is expelled from the penis

thyroid follicles

The spherical subunit of the thyroid gland in which thyroid hormones are produced and stored; follicles found at outer edge of follicles produce and secrete thyroid hormones.

Sister Chromatids.

The two identical copies of a replicated chromosome. Connected in the center by a centromere.

Fertilization

The union of sperm and ovum (secondary oocyte) to form a zygote.

Firtilization

The union of sperm and ovum to form a zygote.

List hormones from the thymus, their target tissues, and primary functions.

Thymopoietin and Thymosin: targets lymph organs and stimulates lymphocyte maturation.

What are the five tropic hormones of the anterior pituitary gland?

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Prolactin, Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).

Orgasm

Time period during which feelings of pleasure are experienced; coincides with ejaculation.

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

Triggers relaxation of smooth muscle cells in blood vessels; increases vessel diameter (vasodilation). Enhances excretion of sodium ions from kidneys, an effect called natriuresis; enhances water excretion from kidneys; creates a concentration gradient that water follows into kidney fluid by osmosis. Vasodilation and natriuresis, decrease blood volume and lower blood pressure.

Anterior pituitary gland

True gland composed of hormone secreting glandular epithelium; produces many tropic and growth hormones.

Uterine tubes

Tubes that transmit and oocyte from the ovaries to the uterus. Extend medially from ovary to superior and lateral region of uterus; covered by peritoneum; supported by a portion of the broad ligament.

Parathyroid gland

Typically 3-5 separate glands; on posterior surface of thyroid gland; secrete parathyroid hormone from chief cells.

Hymen

Vascular portion of mucosa near distal vaginal orifice; commonly ruptured during first sexual intercourse.

corpus spngiosum

Ventral erectile body of spongy connective tissue and smooth muscle filled with vascular spaces in the penis. Extends to form bulb of penis at base. Connects Penis to pelvic bones.

How should someone discontinue corticosteroid therapy?

When discontinuing treatment, dose of corticosteroids must be tapered of gradually over a period of time. This is necessary because high doses of corticosteroids for a long time halt the production of Corticotropin Releasing Hormone and Adrenocorticotropic hormone via negative feedback, this is known as HPA axis suppression. This makes the patients body unable to produce adequate amounts of cortisol for a time after discontinuation. HPA axis suppression can lead to a adrenal crisis.

polyspermy

When more than one sperm enters secondary oocyte. Development cannot occur because the fertilized oocyte is triploid (3n) which is fatal to the embryo.

second messenger system

When the hormone binds to its receptor, it activates one or more proteins associated with the plasma membrane and begins a cascade if enzyme catalyzed reactions. The end result is the formation of a compound inside the target cell called a second messenger. The hormone is the first messenger. Most use G-proteins. Can lead to signal amplification.

Corpus albicans

Whitish knot of scar tissue that marks end of one ovulation cycle; remnants of previously active corpus luteum is degraded by macrophage.

Blood testis barrier.

a barrier formed by sustentacular cells that prevents immune cells in the bloodstream from encountering the new antigens formed on the genetically unique sperm cells

acromosome of sperm

a membrane enclosed sac at the head of the sperm cell that contains digestive enzymes. Covers nucleus and helps with the fertilization of female gametes.

Scrotum

a saclike structure located outside the abdominopelvic cavity of the male that contains the paired testes. Divided by a midline called septum that makes a compartment for each testis. The raphe is the visible midline that denotes septum.

Capacitation

a series of functional changes that make sperm fully motile and modify its plasma membrane so it can fuse with oocyte

Polar body

a small cell containing little cytoplasm that is produced along with the oocyte and later discarded

ovarian follicles

a small structure inside an ovarian cortex that contains the developing oocyte.

Placenta

a temporary organ that forms within the uterus to allow the exchange of nutrients, oxygen, and waste products between the mother and fetus without allowing maternal blood and fetal blood to mix

Seminal Fluid

a yellowish secretion that makes up 60-70% of semen volume. Contains fructose (sugar used to make ATP), Prostaglandins ( stimulate smooth muscle contractions in both genders reproductive tract to increase sperm validity), coagulating proteins and enzymes (from prostate, combine to form a temporary clot of semen in female reproductive tract. Th pH is basic to reduce acidity.

bulbourethral glands

an accessory gland in the male reproductive system that secretes thick alkaline fluid that helps neutralize acidic urine remaining in the urethra prior to ejaculation. Found at the base of the penis on either side of the membranous urethra. Helps lubricate glans penis during intercourse.

What are the primary endocrine organs?

anterior pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal cortices, endocrine pancreas, and thymus.

Accessory sex glands of male reproductive system

are exocrine glands that produce the liquid portion of semen. Composed of seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands.

exophthalmos

bulging eyes

What layer surrounding the ovulated secondary oocyte must the sperm penetrate

corona radiata

female perineum

diamond-shaped region located between pubic arch anteriorly, coccyx posteriorly, and ischial tuberosities laterally

type one diabetes mellitus

disease caused by destruction of beta islet cells that produce and secrete insulin. Target cells can not take in glucose. Glucose is over produced in liver because of unopposed actions of glucagon which leads to elevated levels of ketone bodies. Leads to glucose and ketones in urine.

Diabetes insipidus

disease caused by the lack of anti diuretic hormone secretion or activity, causes extreme thirst and signs of dehydration because the body is unable to conserve most water consumed.

pampiniform venous plexus

drains blood from testes into testicular veins

complementary actions

each hormone interacts with a different target cell in order to accomplish a common goal. ex.) hormones of adrenal gland and pancreas work together to maintain homeostasis during exercise.

Pancreatic islet

endocrine portion of the pancreas that secrets insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin.

Goiter

enlargement of the thyroid gland

Milk let-down reflex

example of a positive feedback loop; suckling induces lactation causing more suckling and more milk release; loop ceases when satisfied infant stops suckling.

adenylate cyclase

example of an enzyme activated by a G-protein second messenger system; activated enzymes catalyze formation of second messenger cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).

Acinar cells

exocrine cells clustered around small ducts, secretes enzymes and other products for the digestive tract.

menarche

first episode of menstrual bleeding that occurs approximately 2 years after onset of puberty. You need 15-17% body fat for this to occur.

Resolution

follows orgasm and ejaculation; blood vessels in erectile tissue and blood sinuses constrict, forcing blood out of penis.

parathyroid hormone (PTH)

helps maintain blood calcium ion concentration; secreted in response to declining calcium ion levels in blood; triggers following effects: - Increases release of calcium ions from bone by stimulating osteoclast activity. - Increases absorption of dietary calcium ions by small intestine. - Acts on kidneys to convert inactive Vitamin D into its active form, calcitriol; increases absorption of dietary calcium ions from small intestine. - Increases reabsorption of calcium ions from fluid in kidneys.

Hyperglycemia

high blood sugar

Prostaglandins

in semen and are thought to stimulate uterine contractions that help with moving sperm farther into reproductive tract.

episiotomy

incision made in tissue of perineum to prevent natural tearing during childbirth; tearing is more difficult to heal.

Internal Penis

includes three cylindrical erectile bodies covered by dense fibrous connective tissue. Has corpora cavernosa and corpus spongiosum.

Trophic hormones

induce growth in target cells

Ovarian medulla

inner region that has blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves of the ovary

Chromatin

long piece of DNA and its associated proteins. This is the form DNA is in when it is not undergoing division. As cell division begins, chromatin threads coil tightly and condenses into bar like chromosomes.

posterior pituitary gland

made of nervous tissue; stores anti diuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin produced in the hypothalamus.

Cortisol

main glucocorticoid steroid hormone secreted by adrenal cortex; stimulates gluconeogenesis and fat and protein breakdown, inhibits inflammatory response.

Penis

male compilatory organ that organ that delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract.

Estrogen

males produce a small amount in the adrenal glands. Estrogen stimulates development of secondary female sex characteristics, regulates menstrual cycle, and has multiple effects on other tissues and organs.

What are the two forms of cellular division that take place in all animals?

mitosis and meiosis

mammary glands

modified sweat glands, composed of integumentary system whose primary biological role is to produce milk for new born infant. - Found within hypodermis and enclosed within a rounded skin covered breast. - composed of 15-25 lobes that radiate and open into nipple.

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

most or all steps of pre-embryonic period are completed outside female reproductive tract. Oocytes are incubated with sperm cells to allow fertilization and first stages of development to occur before transferring embryos into woman's uterus, where they must implant naturally.

What is the first major event of organogenesis?

neurulation- formation of spinal cord from cells of the ectoderm, forms brain and primary brain vesicles: forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

early menopause

occurrence of menopause before age of 45.

refractory period

occurs after ejaculation and varies in duration, where a man can not achieve another orgasm.

decidua

one placentation begins, stratum functionalist is known as this.

Chronic villi

outgrowths of the chorion that grow in the direction of the stratum functionalist layer of the endometrium.

male climacteric

period in which reproductive function begins to decline in men; changes typically occur gradually sometime in the 5th decade of life but vary. - Size and weight of testes may decrease as number of sustentacular and interstitial cells decline. - Sustentacular cells secrete less inhibin and interstitial cell produce less testosterone. -GnRh increases. - Testosterone decrease is associated with decrease in sperm production, depressed mood and fatigue, loss of muscle mass and bone density. - Prostate gland hypertrophy can occur.

Placentation

process of forming disc-shaped placenta; attaches to uterine wall and to embryo or fetus through umbilical cord. Begins during implantation, but majority of placental growth occurs in fetal period.

decidua basalis

region of endometrium that lies beneath the embryo

decidua capsularis

region that surrounds the uterine cavity

ligamentum venosum

remnant of ductus venosus

fossa ovalis

remnant of foramen ovale of fetal heart when flaps in interatrial septum seal.

identical twins

results from fertilization of a single oocyte by a single sperm followed by separation of dividing cells during development.

Human Chrionic Gonadotropin Hormone (hCG)

secreted by the EMBRYO and maintains the CORPUS LUTEUM which secretes estrogen and progesteones. Prevents spontaneous abortions by INHIBITING the anterior pituitary from releasing FSH & LH stopping cycle (no period), hCG is found in the urine to detect pregnancy

genes

segments of DNA that code for specific proteins

gamtes

sex cells. sperm and ova.

Hypothalamus

small anteroinferior portion of diencephalon; connected to pituitary gland by stalk called infundibulum. Vital for many processes like thirst, hunger, fluid balance, body temperature, sleep/wake cycle, and certain reproductive functions. Produces Anti diuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin.

Allantois

small out pocket of caudal wall of yolk sac; forms base for umbilical cord and ultimately will become part of urinary bladder.

cremaster muscle

smooth muscle that controls height of testes; enters pelvic cavity via external lingual ring and terminates at the inguinal canal.

female puberty

starts between ages 9-11, when secetions of estorgen and progesterone from ovaries increases. - Before puberty, low levels of GnRH keep LH and FSH levels low; keep estrogen and progesterone levels low. - At puberty, hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to low levels of estrogen and progesterone, and GnRH levels increase. -Elevated levels of GnRH stimulate HPG axis and blood levels of estrogen and progesterone increase; results in development of female secondary sex characteristics. - First signs of puberty in girls is budding breast and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

spermatogonia

stem cells that begin the process of spermatogenesis. Diploid cells with 46 chromosomes. Located in basement membrane of seminiferous tubules. Before puberty, divide by mitosis to produce more spermatogonia. After puberty, divided by meiosis.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

stimulates development of adrenal gland and synthesis of various steroid hormones. ACTH release is stimulated by hypothalamus hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone.

Prolactin (PRL)

stimulates growth of mammary gland tissue, initiates milk production after childbirth, and maintains milk production for duration of breastfeeding; PRL release is stimulated by hypothalamic hormone prolactin-releasing hormone; inhibited by dopamine.

Teratogren

substance that can cause birth defects or death

ovarian cortex

superficial region where oogenesis occurs within sac-like follicles develop & mature along with gametes

myoepithelial cells

surround alveoli and contract to help propel milk towards the nipple.

sustentacular cells

surround spermatogenic cells extend from basal lamina to the lumen tight junctions between cells --blood testis barrier. Provide support.

Which division of the autonomic nervous system innervate testes?

sympathetic and parasympathetic.

What is the main hormone involved in regulating spermatogenesis and male retrodictive physiology.

testosterone

Synapsis

the pairing of homologous chromosomes to form tetrads during meiosis.

Seminiferous Tubules

tightly coiled tubes inside the testes that are the site of sperm production. Contains sperm forming spermatogenic cells and supporting sustentacular cells.

What are the two thyroid hormones?

triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4)

Spermatic chord

tube extending from scrotum; contains ductus deferens, blood and lymph vessels, and nerves; leads to pelvic cavity. Contains the cremaster muscle.

What are unique cardiovascular structures present during prenatal development?

umbilical arteries, umbilical vein, vascular shunts.

signal amplification

when a single hormone binds to a receptor, it can lead to the formation of hundreds of second messenger molecules. This is how the second messenger system can inhibit or activate thousands of other chemicals downstream.

When is an infant considered premature?

when born 3 weeks before due date.