Ancient Rome

Forum

Central business district of a Roman town.

Trinity

Christian religious beliefs in three forms of God

Dictator Perpetuus

Dictator for life. the office held by Julius Caesar from 26 January or 15 February of the year 44 BCE until his death on 15 March. By abandoning the time restrictions usually applied in the case of the Roman dictatura, it elevated Caesar's dictatorship into the monarchical sphere.

Twelve tablets

Early set of Roman laws that gave protections to all citizens.

Vandals

East Germanic tribe that established kingdoms in Spain and later North Africa in the 5th century.Expanding into Dacia during the Marcomannic Wars and to Pannonia during the Crisis of the Third Century, were confined to Pannonia by the Goths around 330 AD, where they received permission to settle by Constantine the Great. Around 400 were pushed westwards again, this time by the Huns, crossing the Rhine into Gaul along with other tribes in 406.

Visigoths

Emerged from earlier Gothic groups who had invaded the Roman Empire beginning in 376 and had defeated the Romans at the Battle of Adrianople in 378. Invaded Italy under Alaric I and sacked Rome in 410. Their long history of migration led to compare themselves to the Biblical Hebrew people who purportedly wandered for forty years in the Sinai Desert. After sacked Rome, they began settling down, first in southern Gaul and eventually in Spain and Portugal, where they founded the Kingdom

Emperor Theodosius

Emperor made Christianity the OFFICIAL religion of the Roman Empire. He banned the practice of all other religions.

Parts of the Roman Republic

Executive: Enforced law, supervises running of govt. Legislative: Writes the laws and decrees. Judicial: Interprets the law.

Marius' reforms of the military

1 - Poor Roman citizens can now serve in the military 2 - Weapons and armor will be issued to recruits 3 - A standing army 4 - Professional army (paid) 5 - Volunteer army must give 20 years of service - - - - - early d/c if wounded or bad conduct 6 - soldiers assigned to specific units 10 cohorts = 500 troops

Five good emperors

Five rulers who led Rome for almost 100 years during the Pax Romana.

Foederati

Name applied to barbarian tribes living on the fringes of the Roman Empire and who formed an alliance by treaty with Rome.

Pope Leo I

Negotiated with Attila the Hun for his withdrawal

Pope

Popes Bishops of Rome; were seen as Peter's spiritual heirs. (pg. 187)

Arius

Priest, was the one who came up with Arianism.

Persecution of Christians

Refusal to worship Roman gods; used by some Roman rulers as scapegoats for political and economic troubles

Cult of the saints

Relics, the remains of the holy dead, were thought to have miraculous powers that could convert pagans and cure the sick. Consequently, the great desire to obtain relics led to the commercial exchange and even theft of them

Conquered peoples

Remained free and treated with generosity a) provinces would supply the empire with needed raw materials, buy Roman goods, pay taxes b) learned Latin and worshiped Roman gods

Lucius Cornelius Sulla

Roman consul, he battled Gaius Marius in a civil war, (138-78 BC) Roman general and politician; he became consul in 88 BC, led a civil war against Marius and his followers, emerged victorious, and became dictator.

Aqueducts

Roman engineers designed these to bring water into cities and towns.

Gaius Marius

Roman general (107 B.C., during internal war) following Gracchus Reform on Roman politics. He was a member of the Populares party (for the people vs. Optimates which were wealthy Patricians for the Senate). Significance is that he required the Senate to change policy about the requirement that a man own land to serve in the military. (Note: "Internal War", see the slide with the timeline for the Roman Republic, was when the republic had gotten so large that people's loyalty was shifting from the Senate in Rome to the military leaders who were out among the people)

Scipio Africans

Roman general who commanded the invasion of Carthage in the second Punic War and defeated Hannibal at Zama (circa 237-183 BC) persuaded centuriate assembly to give him his fathers command *broke big units into small ones Changed the military used roman trickery

Pax Romana

Roman peace.

Battle of Zama

Romans defeated the Carthaginian army under Scipio; Hannibal got there to late to stop it

Claudius

Ruled after Caligula

Caligula

Ruled after Tiberius. He had mental illness which caused him to act strangely and to treat people cruelly. He had many people murdered, wasted a lot of money, and even gave his favorite horse the position of consul. Eventually, the Praetorian Guard killed him.

Roman Monarchy

Ruled by an Etruscan king -Romulus was the first king, according to Roman legend

SPQR

Senatus Populasque Romanus OR The Senate and the People of Rome Resulted from discontent of tyrannical Etruscan monarchy. This means the government is ruled by the elites (aristocracy, obligarchy, democracy). The Roman Republic consisted of constant tension and feuds between the Patricians and the Plebeians

The principate

The form of government established by Octavian is characterized by a concerted effort on the part of the Emperors to preserve the illusion of the formal continuance of the Roman Republic. Augustus gives himself republican framework but still rules. Replaced by the Dominate after the Crisis of the Third Century.

Fall of the Republic

The growing discontent among the lower classes of society and a breakdown in military order

Early Christianity

The monotheistic religion based on the life, teachings, and death of Jesus.

Reforms of Diocletian

The political and military reforms of Diocletian and Constantine greatly enhanced the army and civil service institutions, but drained most of the public funds.

Inflation

The rapid increase in prices

Germanic Tribes

They were fleeing the Huns, who had moved into their lands and began destroying everything. When they were running away from the Huns, the Germanic people moved through the Roman provinces of Gaul, Spain and North Africa

Praetorian Guard

This force consisted of about 9,000 men in charge of guarding the emperor. (Augustus)

Battle of Milvian bridge

Took place between the Roman Emperors Constantine I and Maxentius. It takes its name from the Milvian Bridge, an important route over the Tiber. Constantine won the battle and started on the path that led him to end the Tetrarchy and become the sole ruler of the Roman Empire. Maxentius drowned in the Tiber during the battle.

Gladiators

Trained fighters, usually slaves, who fought in arenas as entertainment.

Alaric I

Was the King of the Visigoths from 395-410. Is most famous for his sack of Rome in 410, which marked a decisive event in the decline of the Roman Empire. In 394 led a Gothic force of 20,000 that helped the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius defeat the Frankish usurper Arbogast at the Battle of Frigidus.

Franks

Were a confederation of Germanic tribes occupying land in the Lower and Middle Rhine in the 3rd century. Some raided Roman territory, while other tribes joined the Roman troops in what was called Gaul (currently France). formed a kingdom on Roman-held soil that, after 357, was acknowledged by the Romans. After the collapse of Rome in the West, the tribes were united under the Merovingians who succeeded in conquering most of Gaul in the 6th century. Became very powerful after this.

Arianism

What: Form of Christian belief introduced by the priest Arius, who taught that Christ the Son was subordinate to God the Father; Condemned at the Council of Nicaea in 325. Who: Arius was the one who came up with Arianism. When: 320s CE Where: Roman Empire Why: Arianism is important to know because it greatly differed from the idea of Christianity: that there was a holy trinity and that God, Jesus, and the holy spirit were on the same field. Arianism taught that Jesus was different in nature from God and therefore subordinate.

Slave rebellions

created fear among landowners

"First Among Equals"

princeps

Reforms of the Gracchi brothers

redistribution of land

Gaius Gracchus

reform the juries of the standing courts- the jurors would now be drawn from the equestrian class rather than the senatorial class -he killed himself after the senate issued an SCU (Senatus Consulum Ultimum) against him. - legislate that publicani were to collect taxes in Asia Minor to make it more difficult for Roman senators to enrich themselves by extortion of allies in Asia Minor -to curb senatorial abuses

Causes for the Fall of the Roman Empire

a) Weak government (corruption) b) Social problems (famine, disease) c) Declining economy (inflation, wealthy not paying taxes)

Lombards

Justinian's reconquest of Italy didn't endure; in 568 invaded Italy and established a kingdom in the Po valley, with became Lombardy; defeated by Frankish king Charlemagne

Tarquin the Proud

King of Rome. Sends his son Sextus on political mission

Equestrian

Knight class, belonged to the second rank of the Roman imperial society. Many were promoted by the emperors into the senatorial class. They, like the senators, were landowners. They also had business interests but would not be the ones managing the day-to-day operations. From their ranks were recruited military officers below the rank of general, many of the governors of minor provinces, special agents of the emperor, administrators below the rank of senator, as well as other government posts.

Augustine

Late empire: Hippo/ decline in secular learning as a results of German migration; but flowering of literature and theology among Christians; Augustine wrote The City of God, presenting a linear conception of time and sense of history guided by providence; encouraged Christians to learn what is useful from pagan philosophy

Rome

"Modern" Conveniences -Fountains brought water to neighborhoods -Sewers -Adqueducts (ex: Aqua Appia, built in 312 BCE) used to transport water from rivers or springs into the city -Public baths: like a gym/spa, had sports, stream baths, massage services, bath/pool

Princeps

"leading citizen"

Story of Lucretia

(end of the 500s BCE) -Tarquin the proud, King of Rome. Sends his son Sextus on political mission -On the way, Sextus rapes her, a chaste/good wife of a Roman official. -She begs fellow Romans for justice, then kills herself After, Romans rally around her abuse and suicide and rebel against Etruscan overlords -509 BCE- The last kings of Rome, Tarquin in the Proud deposed -Etruscan monarchy toppled. Leads to the creation of a Roman Republic. -Distrust of a monarch develops. -System of elected magistrates and representatives established

Sicily

- Carthage controlled the West while in the East, Syracruse dominated. -Under Hiero, mercenaries composed most of the Syracrusan army. -In 284 BCE when Hiero refused to pay them, these men called the Mamertines, left Syracruse, and seized the city of Messina.

Saguntum

- a roman Semi-Ally - Hannibal Barca besieges city of Saguntum, which is clearly south of Ebro River - However, Rome claims that it is a violation of the treaty since Saguntum is "north of the Ebro" -Carthage refuses to leave, so Second Punic Wars begin

Roman citizens

-Allies - allowed intermarriage, their children gaining Roman citizenship. -Allowed to conduct business and make legally binding contracts. -Municipia - local run goverments under the supervision of Rome. -Civitas optimo iure - Citizenship with the highest legal rights. -Civitas sine suffragio - Citizens without the right to vote. -Socii - Military alliance. Commonly required to place military forces at Rome's disposal and Rome would not impose taxes among them.

Roman Empire

-Established close links between other Mediterranean regions -As they conquered other lands the Romans enabled merchants, missionaries, and others to travel throughout the Mediterranean basin and parts of southwest Asia -The early Christians encountered harsh opposition and persecution from Roman officials -Eventually Christianity became official religion of the Roman empire

Roman expansion

-Established military colonies -Often exempted conquered peoples from taxation -Allowed self-rule in a lot of regions -Had right to trade / marry Roman citizens -Possibility of gaining citizenship -Had to provide soldier

Roman Republic

-Etruscan monarchy toppled. Leads to the creation of this -Distrust of a monarch develops. -System of elected magistrates and representatives established -After overthrow of Etruscan monarchy, Romans develop a Republic -Power rests in the hands of an assembly of the people -Roman constitution constantly evolving -Parts of the Republic -Consuls: 2 individuals elected, 1-year term -Senate: a body of elder statesmen, advised consuls -Dictator: single leader, elected of limit duration during times of crisis -Praetor- administrated justice/law -Quaester- handled finances -S.P.Q.R. -Senatus Populusque Romanus (meaning "The Senate and the Roman People") -Refers to the government of Rome during the Repub -Not Citizens: -Women -Alien peoples/Non Romans -Slaves -Two main social categories -Patricians: socially superior, traditionally wealthier/more affluent upper class; minority of population -Plebian: working people; majority of population

Year of Four Emperors

-Vitellius and Vespasian's forces went to war with one another. -Eventually Vespasian was victorious and Vitellius was killed in Rome. -On December 21, 69 CE,Vespasian was declared emperor by the Senate and would begin the Flavian Dynasty.

Height of the Roman Empire

-Wealthy people decorated their houses with morals and mosaic. wealthy poeples home were built around a courtyard. non-wealthy peoples home were arranged along narrow streets -Christianity Very Wealthy: 50 million people, 9.1 million square km.

Third Punic War

149BCE-146BCE Carthage is completely defeated. Rome becomes an unrivalled power and gains many allies. Rome then extends into Greece, Egypt and Asia Minor.

Emperor Decius

201 - 251 AD Roman Emperor from 249 to 251. In the last year of his reign, he co-ruled with his son Herennius Etruscus until they were both killed in the Battle of Abritus. political program was focused on the restoration of the strength of the State, militarily opposing the external threats, and restoring the public piety with a program of renovation of the State religion

second Punic War

218BCE-202BCE Rome wins and the Carthaginian's pay to repair Rome and they are forced to dismantle their navy.

First punic war

264BCE- 241BCE Rome wins and Carthaginian's pay Rome 3,300 talents of silver and surrender to Sicily where Rome founded it's first province.

Edict of Milan

313 CE Constantine makes Christianity the primary religion of the Roman Empire. Caused the Christians to stop being persecuted and were free to practice their religion.

Emperor Gratian

375-383, disinterested in ruling, the eldest son of Valentinian I, during his youth accompanied his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Upon the death of Valentinian in 375, brother Valentinian II was declared emperor by his father's soldiers. led a campaign across the Rhine, the last emperor to do so, and attacked the Lentienses, forcing the tribe to surrender. That same year, his uncle Valens was killed in the Battle of Adrianople against the Goths - making essentially ruler of the entire Roman Empire.

Patrician

A member of the noble families who controlled all power in the early years of the Roman Republic.

Etruscans

800 BCE- group of settlers called the Etruscans appear in Italian peninsula -From Asia Minor originally -Heavenly influence later Roman people -Trade with other Mediterranean cultures -Surviving artwork -Greeks disgrace them in these account By the 6th century, now command most of the settled Italian peninsula -Etruscan women seem to have more rights, freedoms than other contemporary cultures -Not segregated from public -Around 750 BCE-Villages around Tiber River unite to form a city, Rome -Initially Romans governed by a monarchy -Ruled by a king -Romulus was the first king, according to Roman legend

Constantinople

A place previously known as Byzantium which became the capitol of the Roman Empire or "new Rome"

Ricimer

A Romanized Germanic general who effectively ruled the remaining territory of the Western Roman Empire from 456 until his death in 472. Deriving his power from his position as Magister militum of the Western Empire, exercised political control through a series of puppet emperors. His military office and his dominance over the empire led to historians such as J.B. Bury to conclude that he was a link between previous magistri militum, such as the Vandal Stilicho, and the Germanic King of Italy, Odoacer. Odoacer deposed Western Emperor Romulus Augustulus in 476, in an act often considered to mark the fall of the Roman Empire.

Pleiban

A common farmer, trader, or craftworker in ancient Rome.

Struggle of the Orders

A great social conflict that developed between patricians and plebeians; the plebeians wanted real political representation and safeguards against patrician domination.

Pantheon

A large, domed shaped temple built in ancient Rome to honor many gods and goddesses.

Second Triumvirate

After Caesar's death, civil war broke out. Caesar's 18 year old grandnephew Octavian joined Caesar's top generals Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus and formed the second Triumvirate. Lepidus soon retired from politics.

Aeneas

After the Trojan War, a Trojan prince escapes Italy, founds Rome -Much later myth, told by poet Virgil in the ___ -To amend legend with Romulus-Remus one, called an ancestor of Rhea Silvia

Senate

Aristocratic representative body with 300 members.

Hannibal

Carthaginian general who led his army from the Pyrenees to Italy winning many battles during the second Punic War

Ambrose

Bishop of Milan who served as an imperial administrator before becoming a bishop forced emperor Theodosius to do public penance and ex-communicated him from the church after executing citizens in a riot

Marcus Aurelius

Brought the empire to the height of economic prosperity and defeated invaders, also wrote philosophy

Council of Nicaea

Called together by Constantine to decide on and provide one set of beliefs for Christianity

Carthage

City located in present-day Tunisia, founded by Phoenicians ca. 800 B.C.E. It became a major commercial center and naval power in the western Mediterranean until defeated by Rome in the third century B.C.E. (p. 107)

Fall of Rome

Climate change began to force farmers in Asia to move south and west in search of more arable land. In doing so, Attila and the Huns pushed numerous Germanic tribes into Rome. First the Visigoths led by Alaric and then the Vandals conquered Rome. Finally, in A.D. 476, Germanic Chief Odoacer conquered and became the first Germanic King of Rome.

Theodoric I

Coalition led by the Roman general Flavius Aëtius and this Visigothic king at the Battle of Chalons

Constantine

Constantine Roman emperor who founded Constantinople as the new eastern capital of the Roman Empire

Julius Caesar

Gave citizenship to many people living in Roman territory, created jobs for the unemployed, organized new settlements for landless laborers, and commanded landowners to use less slave labor and hire more workers. Caesar introduced a new calendar. Many Romans thought Caesar was a wise leader. Others hated him and believed he only wanted to be king. Caesar's enemies, led by senators Brutus and Cassius plotted and eventually killed him as he entered the Senate on March 15. This day is known as the Ides of March in the Julian calendar.

Crassus

General who defeated Spartacus. Crucified 6,600 slaves on the Alpennine way. Richest man in Rome who shared command with Caesar and Pompey until he was killed in battle in 53 B.C.

Barracks Emperors

Generals who seized power, held it briefly, and they lost it when they were displaced by rivals or their own mutinous troops significance: led to turmoil in Rome

Assemblies

Governmental body in which all citizens serve. The democratic side of the government.

Spartacus

Had about 70,000 men. Planned to reach the Alps and set his men free. Were crushed by Roman army. Spartacus was killed in battle and 6,000 of his men were crucified.

Nero

He ruled after Claudius. He was also a vicious man. Among those he had killed were his mother and two wives. He is best remembered for having "fiddled while Rome burned." According to legend, he was playing music miles from Rome when a fire destroyed much of the city in A.D. 64. Eventually, he committed suicide.

Vespasian

He was a general and one of Nero's proconsuls, who later took the throne. He restored peace and order. He put down several rebellions in the empire, including the Jewish rebellion in Palestine.

First Triumvirate

In 60 B.C., three men (Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar) ruled the Roman Empire. These men formed the first Triumvirate to rule Rome. Each member commanded a military post in an outlying area of the Roman Republic. Pompey commanded Spain. Crassus commanded Syria. Caesar commanded Gaul. There, Caesar fought the Celts and invaded Britain. Won the admiration and support of the lower classes. By 50 B.C., the triumvirate had dissipated. Crassus had died in battle.

Tribal assembly

In roman republic gov, Ordinary citizens (plebeians). Served for life. Elects tribunes

Hadrian

Made Roman laws easier to understand.

Trajan

Made money available so poor children could receive an education. Emperor Trajan expanded Rome to its maximum size. Extended to Britain in the north and Mesopotamia in the eas

Octavian Augustus

Octavian Augustus 63BC-14AD. Charismatic & good leader, Julius Caesar's grandnephew. By defeating Mark Antony, he gained rule of all Roman lands. He was Rome's first true emperor. Patron of the arts, enlarged empire, restored order, starts Pax Romana.

Romulus and Remus

Once adults, prophecy fulfills itself-twins kill their uncle, avenge their grandfather -Found Rome -Brothers fight in the process. One kills the other

Marc Antony

One of Caesar's generals, Falls in love with Cleopatra, He and Cleopatra declare war on Rome in 31 BC which they lose, member of second triumvirate.

Apostles

One of the followers of Jesus who preached and spread his teachings.

Consuls

One of two elected officials of the Roman Republic who commanded the army and were supreme judges. These elected officials had veto power.

Orthodoxy vs. Heresy

Opinion of doctrine, persecution by one Christian group against another. Doctrines sanctioned by imperial government- orthodoxy (right teaching). Doctrines w/o that support- heresy (sectarianism). Heresy= crime.

Optimates

Optimates Political faction established during the Gracchus Reform (133 B.C./ Roman Republic) The "Senate's party" mostly wealthy Patricians. Were the opposing conservative force, defending the traditions of Rome and the existing order.

Battle of Carthage

Originally a Phoenician colony in northern Africa; became a major port and commercial power in the western Mediterranean; fought the Punic Wars with Rome for dominance of the western Mediterranean, City located in present-day Tunisia, founded by Phoenicians ca. 800 B.C.E. It became a major commercial center and naval power in the western Mediterranean until defeated by Rome in the third century B.C.E. (p. 107)

Pompey

Part of first Triumvirate; Roman general and statesman who quarreled with Caesar and and was forced to flee with his army to Egypt (after the battle of Pharsalus) where he was murdered (106-48 BC)

Ledipus

Part of the 2nd Triumvirate, but is the least remembered member; joins forces with Antony at Mutina. Controls the Roman army

Populares

Political faction established during the Gracchus Reform (133 B.C./ Roman Republic) to challenge the power of the Senate. Were the "People's party", the comman man. Were for the extension of citizenship to provincials, for the cancellation of debt, and for the distribution of land.

Cleopatra VII

Sister of Ptolemy XIII, Queen of Egypt, relationships with Caesar and Antony

Battle of Actium

Skirmishing; no clear resolution. Antony and Cleopatra escape separately to Alexandria while their fleets and soldiers surrender to Octavian. Antony and Cleopatra both break through with their fleets but for some reason just keep going and that's what octavian gets their fleets. Octavian had all civilians in the west swear loyalty to him and the war was declared against cleopatra not antony so people wouldn't see it as a civil war.

Roman slavery

Slaves They were people who did rich people's work, they were prisoners from war or poor people. They were treated badly, also worked in public buildings/places like the bathhouses. They also sat the farthest away in the arena during gladiator fights and shows and they wore plain grey clothes with no specialties. They were very important in Roman society.

Jesus

The Savior of the World. He traveled and preached throughout Judaea and Galilee The teachings of Jesus was based on the transformation of the inner person. Love your god with all your heart, soul, mind and strength Love your neighbor as yourself Also preached basic ethical concepts- humility, charity, and love towards others

Great fire in Rome

a huge fire that burnt down the lower class housing, did not reach the upper class housing, was said to be set by the Emperor Nero, Nero took land and made his second palace there causing many lower class to become homeless, Nero blamed the fire on the Christians.

Martyrs

a person who chooses to die for a cause he or she believes in

Vestal Virgins

an ancient line of priestesses of the goddess of the hearth, Vesta. A vestal entered service at about 6 - 10 yrs. old and served for 30 years. After age 30, a vestal was free to marry -- though few did. They oversaw a number of rituals.

Tetrarchy

departures from the ideals of the principate to a "dominate" -Diocletian realized the empire was too large for him to rule solely on his own -2 Senior rulers (Augustus) -2 junior associates (Caesar) -empire divided between the east and the west -meant to stabilize and secure Roman Empire -able to deal with problems more quickly, because there was representation where needed -massive increase in the number of government employees (increased burden on the government payroll) -restore status of traditional pagan cults & roman gods (ID'd selves with Jupiter and Hercules) -persecution of other religious practices -303 AD: Diocletian issued an edict demanding the destruction of churches and burning of scriptures; Christians in office stripped of rank (seen as a threat to the food supply) -Christians purged from army, bishops in prison -Christians in Egypt, N. Africa and the East much more affected than in the West

Emperor Diocletian

emperor of Rome (284-305) who divided the Roman empire into east and west (286) in an attempt to rule the territory more effectively, appointed two rulers for each section with direct sub-rulers for each, appointed a co-emperor which lead to power struggle, army leader and the son of a slave who tried to restore order to the empire ...Reforms 1. doubled the size of the army to secure the borders 2. all sons had to take over their fathers businesses to guarantee economic stability 3. price and wage controls to try and beat inflation 4. ordered persecution of Christians to restore faith in Roman gods 5. presumed manners of Persian king 6. split the empire into east and west to improve administration... Not successful but stopped decline of the empire

Rhea Silvia

gets pregnant by Roman god of war Mars, has set of twin boys (Romulus and Remus) -Prophecy says that the twins would overthrow their uncle, who had overthrown Rhea Silvia's father -To avoid prophecy coming true, twins abandoned, left to die; found and raised by she-wolf. -Later taken by a shepherd and his wife

Coliseum

huge amphitheatre-in central Rome built by Vespasian

Tiberius Gracchus

main reform: distributing public land to poor Romans -Was from wealthy political family -office held attempting to enact his reforms was the tribune of the plebs - died because he was beaten to death by a chair leg

Magister militium

masters of the army, commanded comitatus mobile field armies

Nicene Creed

outlines basic beliefs of the church. written in 325 at Nicaea.

Huns

pagan group from central Asia established empire over several German tribes under Attila (433-453 "Scourge of God");

Septimius Serverus

was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. Enlarged the imperial palace.

Odoacer

was a Germanic soldier, who in 476 became the first King of Italy (476-493). His reign is commonly seen as marking the end of the Western Roman Empire. Italy no longer ruled by Romans.