Ant 301

What was Darwin's contribution to evolutionary theory? In what year did Darwin publish The Origins of Species?

- the struggle for existence -Organisms vary in a population, and variation affects the ability of an individual to survive and reproduce. (variation) -Variation is transmitted from parents to offspring (heritability) -3 Postulates of Natural Selection (heritability, variation, and differential reproduction) limited resources was added to this list. - Book published in 1859

Where does the idea for evolution arise?

-1735 Linnaeus made systema naturae which categorized species deduced that maybe all life is shared that is derived from one species that changed over time -Jean-Baptiste Lamarck - Darwin's theory of adaptation and natural selection -Alfred Russel Wallace

What is biological anthropology and how does it relate to other subfields in anthropology?

-Biological/behavioral aspects of humans, and their relation to non human primates and hominoid ancestors -providing a biological perspective of human beings social behavior

What is DNA? Where is it in the human body? How is it organized?

-Deoxyribonucleic acid -long strands of chromosomes (double stranded) that carry genetic info -4 nucleotides; two base pairs; adenine-thymine, cytosine-guanine -Contains genetic heritable information that is found in nucleus wound into chromosomes

What kinds of questions are addressed by biological anthropology?

-Where do we come from -Why do females carry the offspring? What does it mean to be and how did we become.

What are genes? Who coined the term? How do they relate to Mendel's principles?

-instructions (encoded in DNA) that code for a certain character -book says T.H. Morgan -Mendel knew that there was something from each parent that had equal chances of being passed to offspring

How big is DNA? How many genes are there in the human genome? How many base pairs?

2 meters long (6 ft.) 20,000-25,000 genes in human genome 3 billion base pairs in 23 pairs of chromosomes

What are some examples of altruistic behaviors in primates?

Alarm calls, grooming, sharing resources (mainly food), coalitions

What are the four main mechanisms or models of speciation and how do they compare to each other?

Allopatric: physical (as in natural body) barrier present; over time both populations will develop different genetic novelties Additional processes that increase isolation: -Character displacement: when competition over food, mates, or other resources increases morphological differences -Reinforcement: when selection favors behavioral or morphological adaptations that prevent matings between the two populations Peripatric: some barrier with genetic drift one group originated from main population genetically little differences due to changes Sympatric: occupy same space but selection introduced; somehow needs to introduce selective mating Parapatric: speciation along a gradient (hybrid zones introduced) e.g. an organism closer to a nuclear power plant is going to have higher resistance to the power plant's toxicity than species that are further away; as you get further and further, resistance gets lower and lower Adaptive radiation (perhaps worth mentioning) : when a single kind of animal or plant diversifies to fill many available niches, e.g. the extinction of dinosaurs led to elephants, killer whales, etc.

What was the history surrounding Mendel's discoveries? Were they recognized at the time he published them? How and when did they come to light?

Between 1856 and 1863, Mendel isolated traits in pea plants and watched how they worked. He published his work in 1866, only to have his ideas dismissed because he was a monk.

We discussed three main species concepts: the biological species concept, evolutionary species concept and the ecological species concept. How do they compare?

Biological: a species is a group of (potentially) interbreeding organisms that are reproductively isolated from other such groups of organisms **viable offspring must be produced** if novel allele arises in one population, cannot be spread to other population part of the group could go extinct; part could evolve more; it just matters if they can produce offspring Evolutionary: a species is a single lineage of ancestor-descendant populations which maintain its identity from other such lineages and which has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate. Ecological: opposite of biological, the absence of interbreeding is not required for the two populations to be considered separate species

What was the history for the development of natural selection? Who was its co discoverer

Both Darwin and Wallace (co-discoverer) were formulating natural selection.

What are the four types of dyadic interactions? Which are easily explained by natural selection? Which are harder to explain?

Case Actor Recipient Mutualistic Selfish Altruistic Spiteful I suppose the harder ones to explain would be where the actor is not benefiting from the interaction i.e. altruistic and spiteful.

What are the main categories of evolutionary constraints?

Correlated Characters/Pleiotropy: one gene affecting multiple traits, so if that one gene gets messed up, multiple traits could get messed up Ex: finch beak depth and beak width. The positive correlation effect is stronger than the selection on beak width, so selection proceeds to increase beak depth and width. (Thinner beaks, while favored by selection, are more unfit than wide, deep beaks) Disequilibrium: our bodies have a lag time in catching up to how society has evolved i.e. we still crave sugars/fats even though we have more than enough access to them now Our evolved diets are not yet optimal (our appetite causes health problems) Genetic Drift: eliminates genetic variability, especially in smaller populations; misrepresentative of the original population (sampling error); causes more rapid change in smaller populations Fitness Landscape: local vs. optimal adapts; natural selection pushes to optimal fitness for local best solution that might not be best overall; cannot go back; only moves forward; there are still maladaptive features from a correlated response Physical Constraints: have

Why did Darwin have trouble explaining the presence of variation in natural populations?

Darwin couldnt explain the mechanism in which variation occured because blending (which he believed) didnt fit. he had no genes or mutation

What is the geographical distribution of modern Primates? How was it different in the past?

Divided into two categories (nonhuman): Old World (Africa and Asia) and New World (South America)

What's an example of tool use in a nonhuman primate?

E.g., brown-tufted capuchin monkeys using rocks like a hammer to crack open seeds

How do males and females compare in their average reproductive success?

Females Depends on her ability to obtain enough resources to support herself and her offspring very young and very old females do not reproduce as successfully as middle-aged primates longevity is a major source of variation (why females live longer) high-ranking females tend to reproduce more than low ranking quality of social bonds may also influence reproductive success Males males are usually more successful than females because the sexual selection theory works harder on them

What did Darwin and his contemporaries know about the mechanisms of inheritance?

He knew that sexual reproduction asserted for better suited choiced but they didnt know why. They assumed genetics where blended but couldnt fathom basic genetics

What was Gregor Mendel's contribution to modern evolutionary theory? What were his two main principles?

He showed how variation is persevered bridged the gap about the nature of inheritance and the idea of a genotype and phenotype 1. The observed characteristics of organisms are determined jointly by two particles, one inherited from the mother and one from the father (genes) 2 .each of these two particles, or genes, is equally likely to be transmitted when gametes are formed (this is independent assortment)

What is the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium model? Why is it important? What are its assumptions?

If no forces like natural selection are working on a population, then the genotypic frequencies will stay the same in the next population. If something is strong enough to change them, then they will fix themselves in the following generation. Equation determines an ideal/random distribution of alleles...strong deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg implies a force is acting on the population (i.e. if gene frequency doesn't match the expected Hardy-Weinberg frequency then there isn't random/closed mating and an evolutionary force is pressuring the population's reproduction) determines frequency of genes in a population (p2+2pq+q2=1) p is frequency of dominant allele and q is frequency of recessive allele p2 is the frequency of homozygous dominant, 2pq is the frequency of heterozygous, and q2 is the frequency of homozygous recessive Assumptions: closed population (no natural selection) random mating patterns

How can behavior be influenced by genetics?

Individuals must differ in the ways they respond to the environment, and these differences must affect their ability to survive and reproduce, and some of these differences must be heritable this way the behavior to an environment will evolve the same way characteristics do

What is reciprocal altruism? What conditions are necessary for it to work?

Individuals take turns being actor and recipient - giving and receiving the benefit of altruism Altruism can become balanced between individuals and if it keeps happening it can evolve over time 3 conditions as stated by Robert Trivers Individuals (1) must have an opportunity to interact often, (2) be able to keep track of support given and received and (3) provide support only to those who help them.

How does neo-darwinism change our definition of evolution?

It is now the change in allele frequency in a population over time, as opposed to a continuous variation of traits forced by natural selection

What does Hamilton's Rule predict about altruistic behavior?

It predicts that altruistic behavior will be favored by selection if the costs of performing the behavior are less than the benefits discounted by the coefficient of relatedness between actor and recipient rb>c r - relatedness, b- sum of fitness benefits to all individuals, c - cost Rule leads to two insights: (1) altruism is limited to kin, (2) closer kinship facilitate more costly altruism

What is kin selection and how is it related to the idea of inclusive fitness?

Kin selection: a theory stating that altruistic acts will be favored by selection if the product of the benefit to the recipient and the degree of relatedness (r) between the actor and the recipient exceeds the cost to the actor.

What are the major ranks or levels in the classical Linnaean hierarchy?

Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

What is mitosis? What is meiosis? How do they differ?

Mitosis is normal cell division; creates two copies of exact replicas of the chromosomes meiosis is sex cell division (makes gametes) mitosis duplicates a chromosome and creates diploid daughter cell with homologous chromosome pair, while meiosis produces haploid gametes that are only one copy of each chromosome (zygote)

What are the expected degrees of relatedness between parents offspring, brothers, cousins etc.?

Parents -> offspring: 0.5 Full siblings: 0.5 Half-siblings: 0.25 Grandparents -> grandchildren: 0.25 First cousins: 0.125

How do primates recognize kin? What are examples of behavioral studies that support the idea of kin selection?

Primates use contextual cues to recognize maternal relatives phenotypic matching: smell of likeness to themselves paternal kin recognition most infants born at the same time have same father

Why do primates live in groups? What are the pros and cons?

Pros: Better able to protect themselves from predators find food care for young access to mates Cons: sharing food competition for mates disease social diseases (infanticide, incest, cannibalism)

What is altruistic punishment? What do psychological experiments reveal about biological nature of altruism?

Punishment for things that are morally wrong If the morally wrong thing is intentional, there is a high probability that one person will punish the other (even if there is a cost) Get rewarded when they enforce a normative behavior If the morally wrong thing is unintentional, there is a low probability that one person will punish the other

What are the mechanisms and sequence of events by which information in DNA is read and used to create proteins?

RNA polymerase attaches to gene, tears it in half and creates a strand of mRNA (transcription) goes outside of nucleus and is bound to ribosome tRNA carry amino acids to ribosomes and create polypeptide chain (protein) Central Dogma of Biology (DNA -[transcription]> RNA -[translation]> protein)

How are genes regulated? What are the implications for understanding the relationship between genes and phenotypes?

Regulatory DNA sequences ("regulatory genes") bind to proteins--such as "activators" and/or "repressors"--to control expression of ANOTHER gene that codes for a protein/enzyme. The DNA sequence determines when protein-coding genes will be expressed. Regulatory genes control expression of other genes that code for proteins/enzymes. Thus, the phenotype (protein/enzyme expression) is controlled by regulatory genes. This means that different regulatory DNA sequences create different phenotypes (and therefore increase variation). Both protein-coding and regulatory genes are subject to natural selection.

What is sexual selection theory? How does it compare to natural selection? Who developed sexual selection theory and when?

Sexual selection: Characteristics that increase male success in competition for mates will spread They use their dominance/displays to show sexual success; it's a branch of natural selection; it works faster, and it can be stronger developed by Charles Darwin in origin of species then further developed in The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex Differs from natural selection because traits are expressed more strongly in the sex whose access to members of the opposite sex is most limited

What are the main groups of primates and how do they differ from one another?

Strepsirrhines (includes lorises and lemurs) unfused mandible and frontal grooming claw rhinarium toothcomb Haplorhines (includes tarsiers, monkeys, and apes) fused mandible and frontal no toothcomb or claw mostly diurnal postorbital closure

How is the information encoded in DNA implemented to create proteins and tissues?

The central dogma of molecular biology explains that DNA codes for RNA, which codes for proteins. DNA is the molecule of heredity that passes from parents to offspring. It contains the instructions for building RNA and proteins, which make up the structure of the body and carry out most of its functions. DNA → transcription → RNA → translation → Protein

Is natural selection a random process? What aspects are random what aspects are not?

Though sexual selection and survival it selects organisms more tailored to their eviron Random: Mutation and Genetic Drift Not Random: Gene Flow and Natural Selection

How has the taxonomy and systematics of hominoids changed recently?

We were previously set apart from the other great apes but factually we are more closely related to chimps than chimps are to gorillas Cladistic vs. evolutionary taxonomy: Cladistic taxonomy (a new school of thought) classifies humans with chimpanzees, bonobos, and gorillas (p.104)

What are the major factors in a primate energy budget?

basal metabolic rate must be maintained: rate at which an animal expends energy to maintain life while at rest active metabolism: when you need more energy than the baseline--about double the bm rate growth rate: infants and juveniles need more their body weight reproductive effort: females have major energetic cost while child rearing--resources crucial to females because they are eating for two

What have we learned about tool use and manufacture in other, nonhuman primates?

been present for a multitude of years adapting to environment and uses what is available can learn from observation Non-human primates that use tools have a higher intelligence than those that don't use tools innovation and insight are important; they can create plan of action

whats evolution

change in allele frequencies in a population over time

What are cladogenesis and anagenesis?

cladogenesis: origin of new set of branches/clades (division in lineage) anagenesis: species formation without branching off of the evolutionary line of descent

How does predation pressure influence life history strategy?

class example: possums off georgia coast vs. mainland island: longer life due to minimal selection pressure (nothing is forcing them to change their survival strategy; minimal predators, away from cars/trucks mainland: shorter life due to strong selection pressure (increased number of threats on life) dying earlier=putting out more offspring and hitting reprod. earlier

What is a fitness landscape? Why is it important and who developed the concept?

constantly shifting based on local vs. optimal adaptations natural selection tends to push toward local adaptations visualize relations between genotypes and reproductive success who developed concept? According to wikipedia--> Sewall Wright

What is a dominance hierarchy? When do they occur? What is their effect on reproductive success?

dominance hierarchy: concept of a winner/loser which leads to ranking of group members in terms of most successful compared with each other occurs when increased levels of competition within group are exhibited effect on reproductive success? males: higher ranking males have more offspring and selection in mates (more chances to pass on genes through multiple offspring) females: higher ranking females chosen to mate with male and selection choice

What is the structure of a DNA molecule? What are its parts? How is DNA replicated?

double helix sugar phosphate backbone, nitrogen base (A,T(U in RNA); C,G) DNA is replicated by ripping the strands in two and making a copy unzip the double helix, DNA polymers bind the base pairs down the single strands,

What are the differences between the ecological and social hypotheses for intelligence?

ecological hypotheses for intelligence: how organisms navigate around food sources and obtain them (food dist, mental mapping, food processing, extractive foraging) social hypothesis for intelligence: intelligence arises to cope with complex social situations

What effects does rank have?

establishes a hierarchy and order within the group known social order minimalizes conflict affects vocalizations/displays one individual or another may have more control resources, mates, offspring

What are the main types of primate diets? What are their (and our) main nutritional needs?

faunivory/insectivory (other animals, insects) - tarsius frugivory (fruits) almost all primates folivory (leaves) gummivory (sap) seeds/flowers/woody stems Protein over carbs; sugar/fats essential to diet; water

Biologically, what defines a female and a male?

female: produces the larger gamete (egg) male: produces the smaller gamete (sperm)

What are the differences in male and female strategies for maximizing their fitness and reproductive success?

females: access to food, higher investment in raising offspring, mate selectivity, lower variability between individuals; need to balance giving kids attention then weaning them off males: access to females, lower investment in raising offspring, greater variability between individuals; males have more flexibility for mating

What features distinguish primates from other mammals?

grasping hands and feet with an opposable big toe (hallux) and thumb (pollex) nails instead of claws apical pads on the tips of the digits forward-facing eyes stereoscopy and a wide binocular visual field eye sockets ("orbits") completely encircled by bone (a postorbital bar) a large number of visual processing areas in the brain small litter sizes (usually just 1 offspring per birth) a long period of infant dependency molars are unspecialized

When are males more likely to have higher parental investment?

harder to find mates fitness of offspring raised by one parent is low when they have to mate-guard; limited amounts of females

What are the two type of sexual selection?

intra sexual (male competition): bigger displays, male-to-male combat for mate inter sexual (female choice): when the female chooses the mate so the sexual selection will give them traits that look more attractive to males

How does it explain continuous variation in physical traits?

it conserves rather than destroy genetic variation as it did in the blended trait theory continuously varying characters are affected by genes at many loci, each locus having only a small effect on phenotype It keeps recessive alleles in the genotype, promoting variation

How does evolutionary theory explain infanticide?

kill off unrelated offspring to get the female's reproductive cycle going again so her interbirth rate is shorter and he has an opportunity to have kids the main goal of an organism evolutionarily is to pass on it's own genes, so allowing the life of another offspring to live detracts from this goal infanticide wipes out all other competing genes against the individual shortens the interbirth interval most frequent when a new male takes over a group eliminates any other male competition through killing the infants

What effect does lactation have on the roles and degree of parental investment in males and females?

lactation ties female to high levels of parental investment energetic demand & high commitment required males : not so much energy being expended

What effects does increased calories (more food) have on female reproductive success?

meeting minimal nutritional level for ovulation, faster growth, earlier maturation and menarche, shorter interbirth interval, more fertile, healthier offspring fecundity (# of offspring one can have) : can increase depending on species

What are the main activity patterns of primates? What activity patterns are common in what groups?

nocturnal (prosimians)--streps diurnal (haplorhines)--haps cathemeral: irregular activity, can't fit into other three categories crepuscular: dawn & dusk

assumptions for hardy weinberg

organisms are diploid. only sexual reproduction occurs. generations are non overlapping. mating is random. population size is infinitely large. allele frequencies are equal in the sexes. there is no migration, mutation or selection.

What is the tree of life? What is a phylogeny? How are they related to the general idea of evolution? How are they related to speciation?

organisms classified hierarchically on the basis of similarities. Many such similarities are unrelated to adaptation phylogeny: arrangements of a group of species that share a common ancestor into a family tree knowing phylogenic relationships helps us understand why species evolved certain adaptations and not others speciation explains why organisms can be classified hierarchically b/c speciation is when they branch off underneath their family

What are the difference between r and K selected species? Where do primates and especially humans fit on the r to K spectrum? Pleiotropic, huntington's disease

r Selected Species recocial (ready to go at birth) early reproduction smaller body size smaller brains shorter gestation larger litters higher mortality rates shorter life spans K Selected Species altricial (need a lot of time after birth to acclimate) later reproduction larger body size larger brains longer gestation smaller litters lower mortality rates longer life span Humans & Primates fall under K selected species Pleiotropic: one gene -> many traits/features Huntington's Disease : shows around 35-40 y/o allows for reproduction; hence genes of this disease get passed down, hence lower selection acting upon carrier stronger natural selection for younger individuals rather than old

Why do we age?

senescence : deterioration of cells over time; cells stop being able to divide and replicate properly

What are the main types of primate social systems? For each social system can you think of one primate example?

solitary: orangutans familial/pair-bonded: gibbon single male/multi female: gorilla multi male/multi female (fusion society): chimps

What is the modern neo-darwinian synthesis? Who helped develop the synthesis and when?

the change in allele frequencies over time; unification of Mendelian genetics and Darwinian evolution created by Ronald Fisher around 1930 no blending of genes; just blending of phenotypes which then affects the genes Modern synthesis combines natural selection and genetics, then takes it a step further

What types of habitats do primates inhabit today?

the vast majority are found in forests (near trees)

What is a "theory of mind"- necessary for deception? How does it enable deception?

theory of mind: if you can understand someone else's mindstate, you can better affect their perception Your understanding of how they feel allows you to take advantage of that and manipulate them. it is necessary in addition to associative learning for manipulation to take place (according to her in lecture) 

What are alleles? How do they relate to genes?

they are found on a specific part of chromosomes; alleles are traits an allele is a specific characteristic of a gene (gene= hair color, allele= brown hair) different varieties of a single gene Alleles come together in genes; one gamete from each parent form a zygote; parents' traits come together

How do scientists reconstruct the tree of life?

understand evolutionary relationships and build classification that reflects them understand evolutionary constraints on adaptation in a lineage explore the history of adaptations and apply the comparative methods

How are diet and body size related?

usually the larger in body size requires a higher amount of food to sustain itself feed less often due to high intake amount smaller body sizes require less amounts of food at a given time feed more frequently due to small amounts

How do humans differ from other primates in their nutritional needs?

we need a whole lot more food to keep our brains functioning. The bigger the brain, the bigger the calorie intake