Antarctic GeoScience 125 Sec 700 Exam #4
Fossil fuels and uranium currently provide most of our energy resources -Elaborate
Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, take tens to hundreds of millions of years to form. Their abundance will make them the dominant source of energy for the near future. New sources, such as methane hydrates, are being explored.
Water shapes landscapes -Explain
Flowing water in streams strongly shapes the land surface through weathering, erosion, transport, and deposition. Water participates in both the dissolution and formation of Earth's materials
Earth scientists and engineers develop new technologies to extract resources while reducing the pollution, waste, and ecosystem degradation caused by extraction -give an example
For example, land reclamation can partially restore surface environments following surface mining.
BIG IDEA 6. Life evolves on a dynamic Earth and continuously modifies Earth. Fossils are the preserved evidence of ancient life How?
Fossils document the presence of life early in Earth's history and the subsequent evolution of life over billions of years.
Life on Earth began more than 3.5 billion years ago How do we know this?
Fossils indicate that life began with single-celled organisms, which were the only life forms for billions of years. Humans have existed for only a very small fraction (0.004%) of Earth's history.
"Climate Variability"
The range of values, such as temperature and precipitation, for climate at a particular location can take over time.
Earth's water cycles among the reservoirs of the atmosphere, streams, lakes, ocean, glaciers, groundwater, and deep interior of the planet -Briefly explain it's distribution, rate, and cycle
The total amount of water at Earth's surface has remained fairly constant over geologic time, although its distribution among reservoirs has varied
BIG IDEA 4. Earth is continuously changing Earth's geosphere changes through geological, hydro- logical, physical, chemical, and biological processes that are explained by universal laws -How do these changes vary?
These changes can be small or large, continuous or sporadic, gradual or catastrophic.
BIG IDEA 8. Natural hazards pose risks to humans Natural Hazards result from natural Earth processes -such as...
These hazards include earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, droughts, landslides, volcanic eruptions, extreme weather, lightening-induced fires, sinkholes, coastal erosion, and comet and asteroid impacts
Human activities can contribute to the frequency and intensity of some natural hazards -including?
These hazards include flash floods, landslides, droughts, forest fires, and erosion
Insolation
solar energy measured at earth's surface
The water (hydrologic) cycle describes the movement of water between...
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and geosphere.
Why is Earth Science Literacy Important?
-Earth is our home. We rely upon it for our existence in many different ways. Its resources feed us and provide the materials of our way of life. Even modest changes to Earth's systems have had profound influences on human societies and the course of civilization. Understanding these systems and how they interact with us is vital for our survival. -Earth Science Literacy is especially important at this time in history. ere are many challenges facing humanity—dwindling energy and mineral resources, changing climates, water short- ages—directly relating to the Earth sciences. ere are many difficult decisions that governments, local and national, will have to make concerning these issues, and how well humans survive the twenty-first century will depend upon the success of these decisions. We need governments that are Earth science literate. -Human history is a record of the creativity and ingenuity of people solving difficult problems. e solutions to the current Earth-science-related challenges will also come from human creativity, as individuals or corporate businesses. However, as our modern society and its needs have become increasingly complex, so have the solutions. It will take a deep and subtle understanding of Earth's systems for future generations to be able to feed, clothe, house, and provide a meaningful existence for all humans. We need citizens and businesses that are Earth science literate.
BIG IDEA 3. Earth is a complex system of interacting rock, water, air, and life. The four major systems of Earth are the geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and the biosphere. -give the definition of each
-The geosphere includes a metallic core, solid and molten rock, soil, and sediments. -The atmosphere is the envelope of gas surrounding Earth. -The hydrosphere includes the ice, water vapor, and liquid water in the atmosphere, the ocean, lakes, streams, soils, and groundwater. -The biosphere includes Earth's life, which can be found in many parts of the geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Humans are part of the biosphere, and human activities have important impacts on all four spheres.
An Earth-science-literate person:
-Understands the fundamental concepts of Earth's many systems -Knows how to find and access scientifically credible information about Earth -Communicates about Earth Science in a meaningful way - Is able to make informed and responsible decisions regarding Earth and its resources
A climate-literate person:
-understands the essential principles of all aspects of the Earth system governing climate patterns that are presented in this document; • knows how to gather information about climate and weather, and how to distinguish credible from non-credible scientific sources on the subject; • communicates about climate and climate change in a meaningful way; • and makes scientifically informed and responsible decisions regarding climate.
"Climate Forecast"
A forecast for how rainfall or temperature in a coming season is likely to be different from climatology (see definition). Climate forecasts are generally based on the chances (or probability) that an event will occur, for example that rainfall or temperature will be either below normal, near normal, or above normal.
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences 2) WE INCREASE OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE CLIMATE SYSTEM THROUGH OBSERVATION AND MODELING
A. Climate science is based on the assumption that Earth's climate system is understandable and, therefore, that many important aspects are predictable. B. Our understanding of climate differs in important ways from our understanding of weather. Thus, climate scientists' ability to predict climate patterns months, years, or even decades into the future is not constrained by the limitations meteorologists face in forecasting weather on much shorter timescales (days to weeks into the future). C. We gain understanding of climate and how it has changed over time from observational data from weather stations, buoys, satellites, radars, ice and ocean sediment cores, tree rings, cave deposits, native knowledge, and other sources. D. Observations, experiments, and theory used to construct and refine computer models and develop scientific explanations lead to better understanding of the linkages between the atmosphere-ocean system and how it relates to the overall climate system's behavior. As a result, more reliable projections of future climate changes will develop over time. E. Fundamental characteristics of the climate system have been researched and are understood well enough to make reasonably accurate predictions about the climate system and, therefore, to support decision making, even though research continues into many aspects of climate change.
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences 7) EARTH'S CLIMATE SYSTEM IS INFLUENCED BY COMPLEX HUMAN DECISIONS INVOLVING ECONOMIC COSTS AND SOCIAL VALUES
A. Decisions about human activities that affect climate and climate change should involve weighing scientific evidence against uncertainties about future economic growth, energy use, ecosystem integrity, costs and opportunities, probabilities and risks, moral values, and cultural norms. B. Identification and understanding of facts and assumptions about climate change are essential to informed decision making to solve related problems. C. Climate information can be used to reduce the vulnerability/enhance the resilience of human communities and ecosystems; the importance of continuing to improve understanding of climate system is crucial. D. Industrialization has the potential to improve the quality of life in the short-term but also creates long-term challenges, including increased energy demand and the resultant adverse impacts on ecosystems and the climate system. E. The atmosphere covers the entire surface of Earth; thus, activities that effect climate (e.g., energy use leading to greenhouse gas release into the atmosphere) in one region affect human beings and other species worldwide. F. Decisions of one generation both provide opportunities and limit the range of possibilities open to the next generation. G. Decisions about energy use and adapting to the effects associated with climate change are made at all levels, from the individual to the global. H. Individuals as well as community, government, business and industry leaders can contribute to climate mitigation and adaptation. I. Slowing or reversing human impact on climate change trends might be accomplished by combining short-term strategies -- such as conservation, more efficient use of resources, and the switch from carbon-intensive energy to renewable sources -- with long-term investments in technology research and implementation, and by adopting sustainable development strategies, such as building alternative energy infrastructure and a "green" economy.
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences 4) EARTH'S WEATHER AND CLIMATE SYSTEMS ARE THE RESULT OF COMPLEX INTERACTIONS
A. Energy differences within and between the land, ocean, ice cover, and atmosphere result in energy flows that drive weather and climate variations. B. Earth's atmosphere, oceans, land, and ice are dynamic, but change at different rates. Significant changes in any of these are likely to influence all other components of the climate system in complex ways. C. Water cycling on Earth is fundamental to weather and climate. D. The carbon cycle influences climate in a variety of ways, including seasonal interactions between the atmosphere, biosphere, and hydrosphere, and the formation and consumption of fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide, an important greenhouse gas, is removed from the atmosphere in the ocean and other parts of the Earth system through biologic and geologic processes. E. Changes in the oceans impact the atmosphere and climate patterns around the globe. In turn, changes in the atmosphere impact the ocean temperatures and currents. The dominant pattern of natural climate variability - ENSO - provides an example of the dynamic coupling between ocean and atmosphere. F. Circulation in and evaporation of water from the oceans regulate the temperature of Earth. Changes in deep ocean circulation in the past have produced large and rare, abrupt changes in climate. G. Relatively small increases in amounts of greenhouse gases—such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and some refrigerants—can magnify the greenhouse effect. H. Interactions between components of the Earth's climate system result in changes to the system and produce emergent phenomena unique to the system. Human beings are an integral part of Earth's climate system. Human activities such as fossil fuel burning or deforestation can affect climate and alter the equilibrium of the climate system.
Studying other objects in the solar system helps us learn about Earth's history. -How?
Active geologic processes such as plate tectonics and erosion have destroyed or altered most of Earth's early rock record. Many aspects of Earth's early history are revealed by objects in the solar system that have not changed as much as Earth has.
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences 6) EVIDENCE INDICATES HUMAN ACTIVITIES ARE IMPACTING THE CLIMATE SYSTEM
A. Human beings are an integral component of Earth's climate system. B. Human activities have affected the land, oceans and atmosphere and have altered regional and global climate. These activities include burning fossil fuels, releasing chemicals into the atmosphere, reducing the amount of forest cover, and rapidly expanding farming, development and industrial activity. C. Some changes resulting from human activities have decreased the capacity of the environment to support various species. D. The increased burning of fossil fuels since the start of the industrial revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Because carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for many years (hundreds to thousands of years) before being removed by natural processes, this has contributed to Earth's warming. E. The preponderance of scientific evidence indicates that the observed increase in global average temperatures since the latter part of the 20th century is very likely due to documented increases in human-induced greenhouse gas concentrations, primarily from the burning of fossil fuels. F. Evidence indicates that changes in many physical and biological systems are linked to human caused warming.
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences 3) THE SUN IS THE PRIMARY SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR THE CLIMATE SYSTEM
A. Solar energy heats Earth's surface and thus the atmosphere, causing movements of air masses and introducing water in the global water cycle. B. Daily variations in solar energy over Earth, caused by the planet's spherical shape, influence many weather and climate processes. C. The tilt of Earth on its axis causes solar energy to fall more directly on different parts of Earth during different times of the year, resulting in seasonal changes. D. Gradual changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun over tens of thousands of years alter the spatial distribution and intensity of solar energy received on Earth, causing long-term warming and cooling trends, such as ice ages and the warm periods in between them. E. Gases in the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide and water vapor, temporarily trap infrared radiation from the warmed surface of Earth. The additional warmth in the atmosphere created by the greenhouse effect allows liquid water and other life-supporting processes to exist on much of Earth's surface. F. Sunlight is the ultimate source of most of the energy used by humans. The energy in fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas and coal comes from energy captured long ago from the sun. G. Earth's climate is remarkably sensitive to changes in the planet's energy balance.
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences 1) LIFE ON EARTH HAS BEEN SHAPED BY, DEPENDS ON, AND AFFECTS CLIMATE
A. The evolution of organisms can be driven by specific climatological conditions, including but not limited to temperature, humidity, precipitation, and sunlight. B. Changes in one or more of these climate conditions can produce damaging changes in ecosystems. C. Changes in environmental conditions can affect the survival of individual organisms as well as entire species. D. Human societies have developed interconnected food, energy, transportation, and socioeconomic systems that take advantage of existing climate conditions and, thus, are vulnerable to climate changes. E. Human systems have developed during an unusually stable period in Earth's climate history. F. Life on Earth, including microbes, plants, and animals such as humans, can influence climate substantially and has throughout the evolution of life on the planet.
The Essential Principles of Climate Sciences 5) EARTH'S WEATHER AND CLIMATE VARY OVER TIME AND SPACE
A. Weather is understood as the atmospheric conditions at any given time or place. Such conditions include temperature, precipitation, humidity, air pressure, cloudiness, and wind speed and direction. B. Climate is understood as the atmospheric conditions (i.e., weather variables) averaged over a long period of time (season, year, or longer) and over a large area (region, continent, or larger). C. Weather and climate variations, such as the seasons or El Niños and La Niñas, can be described by their duration, magnitude or frequency. These variations range from a fraction of a second to many years. D. The temperature of a specific place on Earth's surface tends to rise and fall in a somewhat predictable pattern every day and over the course of a year. E. Differences in the intensity of sunlight warm Earth's surface and produce daily, seasonal and long-term variations in temperature. F. Earth's climate has changed in the past, is currently changing, and is expected to change in the future. G. The consensus of scientific opinion is that the natural processes driving Earth's long-term climate changes cannot entirely explain the rapid changes observed in recent decades, nor do they solely predict those projected for coming decades.
Human activities accelerate land erosion -provide examples
At present, the rate of global land erosion caused by human activities exceeds all natural processes by a factor of 10. These activities include urban paving, removal of vegetation, surface mining, stream diversion, and increased rain acidity
Earth's crust has two distinct types: continental and oceanic -Explain
Continental crust persists at Earth's surface and can be billions of years old. Oceanic crust continuously forms and recycles back into the mantle; in the ocean, it is nowhere older than about 200 million years.
Evolution, including the orientation and extinction of species, is a natural and ongoing process -What is the outcome of this dynamic process?
Changes to Earth and its ecosystems determine which individuals, populations, and species survive. As an outcome of dynamic Earth processes, life has adapted through evolution to new, diverse, and ever-changing niches
WHAT IS CLIMATE LITERACY?
Climate Literacy is an understanding of the climate's influence on you and society and your influence on climate
Earth's systems are dynamic, they continually react to changing influences -elaborate
Components of Earth's systems may appear stable. change slowly over long periods of time, or change abruptly with significant consequences for living organisms.
Humans cause global climate change through fossil fuel combustion, land- use changes, agricultural practices, and industrial processes -What are the consequences?
Consequences of global climate change include melting glaciers and permafrost, rising sea levels, shifting precipitation patterns, increased forest fires, more extreme weather, and the disruption of global ecosystems
Earth's interior is in constant motion through the process of convection, with important consequences for the surface -What is convection? -How does it effect the movement of the continents and the oceanic crust?
Convection in the iron-rich liquid outer core, along with Earth's rotation around its axis, generates Earth's magnetic field. By deflecting solar wind around the planet, the magnetic field prevents the solar wind from stripping away Earth's atmosphere. Convection in the solid mantle drives the many processes of plate tectonics, including the formations and movements of the continents and the oceanic crust.
"Climate Change"
Refers to long-term changes in the climate. Climate change can be natural, or might be caused by changes people have made to the land and atmosphere (e.g., urbanization, pollution).
Earth formed from the accumulation of dust and gas, and multiple collisions of smaller planetary bodies. -How?
Driven by gravity, Earth's metallic core formed as iron sank to the center. Rock surrounding the core was mostly molten early in Earth's history, and slowly cooled to form Earth's mantle and crust. e atoms of different elements combined to make minerals, which combined to make rocks. Earth's ocean and atmosphere began to form more than 4 billion years ago from the rise of lighter materials e Grand Canyon represents one of the most awe-inspiring landscapes in the United States. At the deepest parts of the out of the mantle.
BIG IDEA 5. Earth is the water planet Water is found everywhere on Earth, from the heights of the atmosphere to the depths of the mantle -How?
Early in Earth's history, surface water accumulated through both outgassing from its interior and the capture of some extra-terrestrial ice. Water vapor in the atmosphere condensed and rained out as the planet cooled
What is Earth Science Literacy?
Earth Science Literacy is an understanding of Earth's influence on you and of your influence on Earth. Earth Science Literacy Principles are defined by the scientists who carry out active research in many areas of Earth science and explain the complexities of how our planet works. Earth Science Literacy is shaped by science educators, who can best translate the big ideas of Earth science into language and learning opportunities that can be understood by all. Earth Science Literacy is an ongoing process, continually reshaped and rewritten by new discoveries in the areas of Earth science and learning theory.
Earth exchanges mass and energy with the rest of the Solar System -elaborate
Earth gains and loses energy through incoming solar radiation, heat loss to space, and gravitational forces from the sun, moon, and planets. Earth gains mass from the impacts of meteoroids and comets and loses mass by the escape of gases into space
Human activities significantly alter the biosphere -elaborate
Earth is experiencing a worldwide decline in biodiversity-a modern mass extinction-due to loss of habitat area and high rates of environmental change caused by human activities. The rates of extinctions are now comparable to the rates of mass extinctions in the geologic past
Water is essential for life on Earth Why?
Earth is unique in our Solar System in that water has coexisted aEarth's surface in 3 phases (solid, liquid, gas) for billions of years, allowing the development and continuous evolution of life
Earth scientists use their understanding of the past to forecast Earth's future by...
Earth science research tells us how Earth functioned in the past under conditions not seen today and how conditions are likely to change in the future.
Water resources are essential for agriculture, manufacturing, energy production, and life -List some issues on our large dependability on water resources
Earth scientists and engineers find and manage our fresh water resources, which are limited in supply. In many places, humans with- draw both surface water and groundwater faster than they are replenished. Once fresh water is contaminated, its quality is difficult to restore.
Earth scientists use a large variety of scientific principles to understand how our planet works by...
Earth scientists combine study of Earth's geology with aspects of biology, chemistry, physics, and mathematics in order to understand the complexities of the Earth system.
Earth science investigations take many different forms such as....
Earth scientists do reproducible experiments and collect multiple lines of evidence. is evidence is taken from field, analytical, theoretical, experimental, and modeling studies.
BIG IDEA 2. Earth is 4.6 billion years old. Earth's rocks and other materials provide a record of its history -Explain
Earth scientists use the structure, sequence, and properties of rocks, sediments, and fossils to recon- struct events in Earth's history. Decay rates of radioactive elements are the primary means of obtaining numerical ages of rocks and organic remains. Understanding geological processes active in the modern world is crucial to interpreting Earth's past.
BIG IDEA 1. Earth scientists use repeatable observations and testable ideas to understand and explain our planet. Earth scientist's find solutions to society's needs by...
Earth scientists work on challenging problems that face humanity on topics such as climate change and human impacts on Earth. Earth scientists successfully predict hazards to humans and locate and recover natural resources, making possible the flourishing of humans on Earth.
Natural resources are limited -elaborate on their importance and life span
Earth's natural resources provide the foundation for all of human society's physical needs. Most are nonrenewable on human time scales, and many will run critically low in the near future.
Regions where organisms actively interact with each other and their environment are called ecosystems -What do they provide?
Ecosystems provide the goods (food, fuel, oxygen, and nutrients) and services (climate regulation, water cycling and purification, and soil development and maintenance) necessary to sustain the biosphere. Ecosystems are considered the planet's essential life-support units.
Humans affect the quality, availability, and distribution of Earth's water through the modification of streams, lakes, and groundwater -list examples
Engineered structures such as canals, dams, and levees significantly alter water and sediment distribution. Pollution from sewage runoff, agricultural practices, and industrial process reduce water quality. Overuse of water for electric power generation and agriculture reduces water availability for drinking
Earth scientists use the geologic record to distinguish between natural and human influences on Earth's systems -Describe where the records are found
Evidence for natural and human influences on Earth processes is found in ice cores and soils, and in lake, estuary, and ocean sediments
Natural hazards shape the history of human societies -population size ? migration? explain
Hazardous events can significantly alter the size of human populations and drive human migrations. Risks from natural hazards increase as populations expand into vulnerable areas or concentrate in already-inhabited areas.
Geology affects the distribution and development of human populations - give examples
Human populations have historically concentrated at sites that are geologically advantageous to commerce, food production, and other aspects of civilization.
BIG IDEA 9. Humans significantly alter the Earth Human activities significantly change the rates of many of Earth's surface processes -give brief explanation
Humankind has become a geological agent that must be taken into account equally with natural processes in any attempt to understand the workings of Earth's systems. As human population and per capita consumption of natural resources increase, so do our impacts on Earth's systems
Human activities alter the natural land surface -Provide details
Humans use more than 1/3 of the land's surface not covered with ice to raise or grow their food. Large areas of land, including delicate ecosystems such as wetlands, are transformed by human land development. These land surface changes impact many Earth processes such as groundwater replenishment and weather patterns
Life changes the physical and chemical properties of Earth's geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere -Explain
Living organisms produced most of the oxygen in the atmosphere through photosynthesis and provided the substance of fossil fuels and many sedimentary rocks. the fossil record provides a means for understanding the history of these changes
Natural hazards can be local or global in origin -elaborate
Local events can have distant impacts because of the interconnectedness of both human societies and Earth's systems. For example, a volcanic eruption in the Pacific Ocean can impact climate around the globe
Humans cannot eliminate natural hazards, but can engage in activities that reduce their impacts -list how
Loss of life, property damage, and economic costs can be reduced by identifying high-risk locations and minimizing human habitation and societal activities in them, improving construction methods, developing warning systems and recognizing how human behavior influences preparedness and response
Mass extinction occur when global conditions change faster than species in large numbers can adapt -what follows this pattern?
Mass extinctions are often followed by the origination of many new species over millions of years as surviving species
Microorganisms dominated Earth's early biosphere and continue today to be the most widespread, abundant, and diverse group of organisms on the planet -elaborate
Microbes change the chemistry of Earth's surface and play a critical role in nutrient cycling within most ecosystems
Earth's tilt and orbit cause the annual cycle of seasons and associated temperature changes. Cyclical, long-term changes in Earth's orbit and tilt is called...
Milankovitch Cycles
Fresh Water is less than 3% of the water at Earth's surface -Where does the rest of Earth's water reside?
Most of this fresh water is stored as glaciers in Antarctica and Greenland. Less than 1% of Earth's near-surface water is drinkable liquid fresh water, and about 99% of this water is in the form of ground water in the pores and fractures within soil, sediment, and rock
Earth's tectonic plates consist of the rocky crust and uppermost mantle, and move slowly with respect to one another -How do the tectonic plates form and spread? and at what rate?
New oceanic plate continuously forms at mid-ocean ridges and other spreading centers, sinking back into the mantle at ocean trenches. Tectonic plates move steadily at rates of up to 10 centimeters per year.
Biological diversity, both past and present, is vast and largely undiscovered -How is the biological diversity interrelated?
New species of living and fossil organisms are continually found and identified. All of this diversity is interrelated through evolution
Many active geologic processes occur at plate boundaries -What interactions/processes occur at these plate boundaries?
Plate interactions change the shapes, sizes, and positions of continents and ocean basins, the patterns of ocean circulation and climate, the locations of earthquakes and volcanoes, and the distribution of resources and living organisms.
Earth scientists help society move toward greater sustainability -How?
Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, and geothermal, are being developed. ey will replace fossil fuels as those become scarcer, more expensive to retrieve from Earth, and undesirable due to environmental damage. Earth scientists foster global coop- eration and science-informed stewardship that can help to ensure the availability of resources for future generations.
Resources are distributed unevenly around the planet -What implications are tied with the distribution?
Resource distribution is a result of how and where geologic processes have occurred in the past, and has extremely important social, economic, and political implications.
Earth materials take many different forms as they cycle through the geosphere -What 3 processes form igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks?
Rocks form from the cooling of magma, the accumulation and consolidation of sediments, and the alteration of older rocks by heat, pressure, and fluids. These three processes form igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
How Does the Scientific Process Work?
Science is an ongoing process of discovery of the natural world. Earth science is part of this process. Science draws upon the innate sense of curiosity that all humans share. We see it in a child's excitement in the discovery of her world. Millions of scientists formally pursue the process of discovery by making observations, testing hypotheses, and refining scientific models. Scientific understanding advances through many stages of prep- aration and review. Like medical doctors, scientists go through many years of professional training and practice. Scientific research projects are funded through a highly selective review process conducted by experts in the field. Results from scientific research are only published in journals if they satisfy a rigorous process that includes presentations at professional meetings, debates at scientific workshops, and written "peer" reviews by established experts in the field. e power of the scientific process is seen in its relentless march toward better explanations of how the laws of the universe operate. e complex tech- nology of the modern industrial world, including cell phones, space exploration, and cures to many diseases, is a tribute to the success of the process of scientific discovery.
Soil, rocks, and minerals provide essential metals and other materials for agriculture, manufacturing, and building -What are some causes of our large consumption of these materials?
Soil develops slowly from weathered rock, and the erosion of soil threatens agriculture. Minerals and metals are often concentrated in very specific ore deposits. Locating and mining these ore deposits provide the raw materials for much of our industry. Many electronic and mechanical devices have specific requirements for partic- ular rare metals and minerals that are in short supply.
Life occupies a wide range Earth's environments, including extreme environments -provide example and closest relatable conditions in other environments
Some microbes live in rocks kilometer beneath the surface, within glacial ice, and at seafloor vents when hot fluids escape from the oceanic crust. Some of these environments may be similar to the conditions under which life originated, and to environments that exist on other planets and moons
Our Solar System formed from a vast cloud of gas and dust 4.6 billion years ago -Elaborate
Some of this gas and dust was the remains of the supernova explosion of a previous star; our bodies are therefore made of "stardust." is age of 4.6 billion years is well established from the decay rates of radioactive elements found in meteorites and rocks from the Moon.
Over Earth's vast history, both gradual and catastrophic processes have produced enormous changes. -Summarize
Super-continents formed and broke apart, the compositions of the atmosphere and ocean changed, sea level rose and fell, living species evolved and went extinct, ice sheets advanced and melted away, meteorites slammed into Earth, and mountains formed and eroded away.
"Likely and Very likely"
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change defines Likely and Very likely terms to indicate the assessed likelihood, using expert judgment, of an outcome or a result: Virtually certain > 99% probability of occurrence, Extremely likely > 95%, Very likely > 90% and Likely > 66%.
"Climate"
The atmospheric conditions (i.e., weather variables) averaged over a long period of time (season, year, or longer) and over a large area (region, continent, or larger) as well as the climatic extremes.
"Weather"
The atmospheric conditions at any given time or place. Such conditions and others include temperature, precipitation, humidity, air pressure, cloudiness, and wind speed and direction.
"Climate System"
The five physical components (atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere) that are responsible for the climate and its variations.
Earth's climate is an example of how complex interactions among systems can result in relatively sudden and significant changes -List some of these interactions and changes
The geologic record shows that interactions among tectonic events, solar inputs, planetary orbits, ocean circulation, volcanic activity, glaciers, vegetation, and human activities can cause appreciable, and in some cases rapid, changes to global and regional patterns of temperature and precipitation.
Changes in part of one system can cause new changes to that system can cause new changes to that system or to other systems, often in surprising and complex ways -explain these changes
These new changes may take the form of "feedbacks" that can increase or decrease the original changes and can be unpredictable and/or irreversible. A deep knowledge of how most feedbacks work within and between Earth's systems is still lacking.
Water's unique combination of physical and chemical properties are essential to the dynamics of all of Earth's systems -What are the manners of these properties?
These properties include the manner in which water absorbs and releases heat, reflects sunlight, expands upon freezing, and dissolves other materials
Earth's systems interact over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales -define
These scales range from microscopic to global in size and operate over fractions of a second to billions of years. These interactions among Earth's systems have shaped Earth's history and will determine Earth's future.
Earth scientists construct models of Earth and its processes that best explain the available geological evidence Elaborate...
These scientific models, which can be concep- tual or analytical, undergo rigorous scrutiny and testing by collaborating and competing groups of scientists around the world. Earth science research documents are subjected to rigorous peer review before they are published in science journals.
Oil and natural gas are unique resources that are central to modern life in many different ways -List these different ways
They are the precursors to chemicals used to make numerous prod- ucts, such as plastics, textiles, medications, and fertilizers. Petroleum sources are needed to manufacture most indus- trial products.
Hazardous events can be sudden or gradual -What changes can cause these events?
They range from sudden events such as earthquakes and explosive volcanic eruptions, to more gradual phenomena such as droughts, which may last decades or longer. Changes caused by continual processes such as erosion and land subsidence can also result in risks to human populations, as with the increased risk of flooding in New Orleans
Technological advances, breakthroughs in interpretation, and new observations continuously refine our understanding of Earth by...
This Earth Science Literacy frame- work must be a living document that grows along with our changing ideas and concepts of Earth.
Earth scientists are continually improving estimates of when and where natural hazards occur -briefly explain
This analysis is done though continuously monitoring Earth, increasing our understanding of the physical processes that underlie its changes, and developing scientific models that can explain hazard-related scientific observations
More complex life forms and ecosystems have arisen over the course of Earth's history -Explain the correlation between evolution and adaptions
This complexity has emerged in association with adaptations to new and constantly changing habitats. But not all evolution causes greater complexity; organisms adapting to changing local environments may also become simpler
All Earth processes are the result of energy flowing and mass cycling within and between Earth's systems -Explain the cycle
This energy is derived from the sun and Earth's interior. The flowing energy and cycling matter cause chemical and physical changes in Earth's materials and living organisms For example, large amounts of carbon continually cycle among systems of rock, water, air, organisms, and fossil fuels such as coal and oil.
Earth, like other planets, is still cooling, though radio- active decay continuously generates internal heat -How does the Earth continuously generate internal heat?
This heat flows through and out of Earth's interior largely through convection, but also through conduction and radiation. The flow of Earth's heat is like its lifeblood, driving its internal motions.
Landscapes result from the dynamic interplay between processes that form and uplift new crust and processes that destroy and depress the crust -What is the dynamic interplay affected by?
This interplay is affected by gravity. density differences, plate tectonics, climate, water, the actions of living organisms, and the resistance of Earth materials to weathering and erosion
An Earth-science-literate public is essential for reducing risks from natural hazards -list pros
This literacy leads to the promotion of community awareness about natural hazards and to the development of scientifically informed policies that reduce risk
Shorelines move back and forth across continents, depositing sediments that become the surface rocks of the land -What fluctuations cause shorelines to advance and recede by hundreds of kilometers.?
Through dynamic processes of plate tectonics and glaciation, Earth's sea level rises and falls by up to hundreds of meters. This fluctuation causes shorelines to advance and recede by hundred of kilometers. The upper rock layers of most continents formed when rising sea levels repeatedly flooded the interiors of continents.
CLIMATE CHANGES
Throughout Earth's history, climate has changed. Sometimes change has been slow, over centuries and millennia, influenced by changes in the Earth's orbit or movement of tectonic plates. Sometimes change has been abrupt, caused by sudden events such as volcanic eruptions, collisions with meteors or shifts in ocean currents. Organisms and ecosystems have either adapted to the changes or perished.
Weathered and unstable rock materials erode from some parts of Earth's surfaces and are deposited in others -Under what influences and atmospheric pressure are they eroded?
Under the influence of gravity, rock fall downhill. Water, ice, and air carry eroded sediments to lower elevations, and ultimately to the ocean
Water plays an important role in many of Earth's deep internal processes - List these processes
Water allows rock to melt more easily, generating much of the magma that erupts as lava at volcanoes. Water facilitates the metamorphic alteration of rock and is integral to plate tectonic processes
Ice is an especially powerful agent of weathering and erosion -Explain
Water expands as it freezes, widening cracks and breaking apart rocks. Movement of massive glaciers can scour away land surfaces. The flowing ice of glaciers covers and alters vast areas of continents during Ice Ages
BIG IDEA 7. Humans depend on Earth for resources Earth is our home; its resources mold civilizations, drive human exploration, and inspire human endeavors that include art, literature, and science -List a few ways we are tied with our home (Earth)
We depend upon Earth for sustenance, comfort, places to live and play, and spiritual inspiration.
Earth scientists must use indirect methods to examine and understand the structure, composition, and dynamics of Earth's interior. explain...
With the exception of wells and mine shafts drilled into Earth, direct observa- tions of Earth's interior are not possible. Instead, Earth scientists observe the interior of the planet using seismic waves, gravity, magnetic fields, radar, sonar, and labora- tory experiments on the behavior of materials at high pressures and temperatures.
Ecosystems play an important role in....
energy cycling and climate regulation.
Climate may vary over small or large temporal and spatial scales. This variability is the result of changes in _________ within the Earth system.
energy flows