ANTH 1 Final

Bergmann's and Allen's rules

*Best to have lots of volume and less surface area in cold climates" *Best to have less volume and lots of surface area in hot climates" For example, Neandertals were stockier and more robust but lived in cold climate. Modern H. sapiens are more gracile and longer.

Modern humans evolution (potential causes and effects)

- Global warming (from greenhouse gases) can lead to rapid climate change, especially warming of Earth's atmosphere (resulting in melting of ice masses, coastal flooding, drying in some areas), potential negative impact on food production, and promotion of disease vectors (e.g. mosquitoes, rodents, ticks, and the pathogens such organisms carry) - Population increase (from increased food availability, cultural and social factors, and natural fertility) can lead to increased demands on food production, declines in biodiversity, and appearance of new, population-dependent pathogens and associated diseases (made worse by global warming) - Technology can lead to an increasingly gracile skeleton, alteration in cranial form, and increased malocclusions, more osteoporosis, and other morbid conditions associated with aging (e.g. osteoarthritis, cancers, heart disease).

Occipital bun

A cranial feature of Neadertals in which the occipital bone projects substantially from the skull's posterior

Australopithecus africanus

A gracile australopithecine from South Africa that was contemporaneous with Au. aethiopicus, Au. garhi, and Au. boisei, and was likely ancestral to Au. robustus. Initially found in the limestone quarry Tuang site. It features a foramen magnum (hole where spinal cord enters the brain) at the bottom of its skull, indicating upright posture, and less slant of its forehead than great apes indicating that it is a hominid. It also has small canine teeth compared to great apes, large, broad molars, and a very small cranial capacity (volume of the brain case) that is still around 2 times larger than comparably sized apes. It is about 3-2 million years old.

Osteodontokeratic culture

A hypothesis that was developed by Prof. Raymond Dart (who identified the Taung child fossil in 1924), which detailed the predatory habits of Australopith species in South Africa involving the manufacture and use of bones, teeth, and horns of animals are tools. Dart envisaged Australopithecus africanus, known from Taung and Sterkfontein caves, and Australopithecus prometheus (now classified as Au. africanus) from Makapansgat, as carnivorous, cannibalistic predators who utilized bone and horn implements to hunt various animals, such as antelopes and primates, as well as other Australopiths.

Australopithecus robustus

A robust australopithecine from three sites in South Africa that may have descended from Au. afarensis, was contemporaneous with Au. boisei, and had the robust cranial traits of large teeth, large face, and heavy muscle attachments. It is 2-1.5 million years old.

Effects of agriculture and domestication on humans

Advantages: - support for larger numbers of people - creation of surplus food - long-term food storage, especially of grains Disadvantages: - increased demands on the environment (land degradation) - pollution - conflict between populations competing for the same lands - loss of wild species through overhunting - decline of biodiversity - health costs and quality-of-life implications

Evidence for early Homo sapiens sapiens

African fossils provide the best evidence for the evolutionary transition from Homo heidelbergensis to archaic Homo sapiens and then to early modern Homo sapiens. In terms of behavior, the earliest Homo sapiens had a relatively simple culture, although it was more advanced than any previous species. Rare evidence for symbolic behaviour appears at a number of African sites about 100,000 years ago, but these artistic expressions appear more of a flicker of creativity than a sustained expression. It is not until about 40,000 years ago that complex and highly innovative cultures appear and include behaviour that we would recognise as typical of modern humans today. Evidence includes tools, fire, clothing and personal adornments, art, settlement, burial, and diet.

Temporal lobe

An area on each hemisphere of the cerebral cortex near the temples that is the primary receiving area for auditory information

Australopithecus afarensis

An early australopithecine, gracile, from East Africa that has a brain size equivalent to a modern chimpanzee's and is thought to be a direct human ancestor. Since the early 1970s, fossils of it have been found in four main sites: Laetoli, in Tanzania, and Hadar, Korsi Dara, and Dikika, all in Ethiopia. It is around 3.5-2.6 million years old.

Homo erectus/ergaster

An early species of Homo and the likely descendant of H. habilis; the first hominin species to move out of Africa to Asia and Europe. In terms of morphology, it had large browridges, long and low skull, bigger brain, relatively short arms and long legs (much more like that of a living human in ratio of arm length to leg length), and was considerably taller than H. habilis. It existed between 1.8 million to 300,000 years before the present. It had bipedal locomotion like a modern human indicating that it had adopted a fully terrestrial life out of the trees. They lived in caves, used tools, and could hunt. The additional nutrition gained from hunting is likely what made them taller than H. habilis. The tools it used were much more advanced than before, and they have been dubbed the Acheulian Complex. The dominant tool was the handaxe, characterized by a sharp edge for both cutting and scraping. It is not for certain if they were able to make and control fire, but there is evidence that it was used for cooking (though H. erectus did not make the fire that was used). H. erectus had the widest range, so far, spanning from Africa, Asia, and Europe.

Anatomical vs. behavioral modernity

Anatomical modernity are things that we look like that make us distinct from older hominins. For example, large cranial capacity and small teeth. Behavioral modernity refers to technology and culture that makes us distinct from older hominins.

Origins of agriculture and domestication

Around 10,000 years ago, humans all over the world replaced nearly all wild animals and wild plants in their diet with domesticated animals and domesticated plants.

Who are the "Denisovans"?

Denisovans are another subspecies of Homo sapien that lives alongside Neanderthals and Homo sapiens sapiens. In much the same way that modern European descending humans share DNA with Neanderthals, present-day East Asians and Pacific-Islanders share DNA with Denisovans which suggests mating between our subspecies.

Neolithic technology

Domestication of plants and animals from 12,000 years ago by Homo sapiens

Homo floresiensis

Dubbed the "Hobbit" for its diminutive size, a possible new species of Homo found in Liang Bua Cave on the Indonesian island of Flores. It is significantly smaller than Homo sapiens of the time, but existed alongside them. The controversy is that it is possible that Homo floresiensis is not its own species, but a human with microcephaly which makes them abnormally small with underdeveloped brains.

Homo habilis

Earliest Homo species, a possible descendant of Au. garhi and an ancestor to H. erectus; showed the first substantial increase in brain size and was the first species definitively associated with the production and use of stone tools. In terms of morphology, it is the least similar to modern humans of all members of genus Homo. It was short and had disproportionately long arms compared with modern humans, but with a less protruding face than australopithecines. Its cranial capacity was less than half of the size of modern humans. Essentially, an australopithecine-like body with a more human-like face and smaller teeth. It existed 2.4-1.4 million years ago. It utilized stone as a tool and was more of a scavenger than a hunter. Its geographic range was the same as the australopithecines, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Malawi, and South Africa.

Omo 1 and 2

First modern peoples fossils

Australopithecus boisei

Formerly known as Zinjanthropus boisei; a later robust australopithecine from Olduvai Gorge in East Africa that was contemporaneous with Au. robustus and Au. africanus and had the robust cranial traits, including large teeth, large face, and heavy muscle attachments. It was the first accurately dated hominid fossil. It is 1.75 million years old.

Robust vs. gracile australopithecines

Gracile australopithecines refers to true members of the genus Australopithecus such as A. afarensis and A. africanus. Robust australopithecines, such as A. robustus and A. boisei, also known as paranthropus, are likely descendants of gracile australopithecines. It is believed that from various gracile australopithecines came both the genus Homo and the genus Paranthropus. The differences between them are differences in cranial capacity, differences in the shape of the brain case, differences in molar size, differences in the general robustness of bones throughout the body, and dietary differences (robust eat tough vegetation while gracile eat a varied diet). Generally, robust australopithecines are more heavily built than gracile australopithecines.

Retromolar gap

In Neandertals only is the presence on the rear of the mandible (bottom jaw) of a retromolar space between the third molar and the ascending ramus

Ulna

Inner bone of the forearm, attached to the wrist and located on the side of the little finger.

Homo sapiens neanderthalensis

Late archaic H. sapiens found throughout southern and middle Europe, the Middle East, Asia, and Africa that existed from 130,000 to 30,000 years before the present. In terms of morphology, they looked very similar to modern humans. They had round eye orbits, a wide space between the eye orbits, a wide nasal aperture, a protruding midfacial region, robust faces, and short, wide, and deep bodies that were adapted to the cold. Neanderthal stone tool technology, known as Mousterian, and were successful hunters proven by the fact that their diet was primarily made up of animal protein with some vegetables. They were also able to cook their food and consumed plants for medicinal purposes. They also buried their dead respectfully, likely could speak, and used symbols. It is likely that their disappearance after 30,000 years ago was not an extinction, but was instead more of assimilation into populations of modern humans as modern humans have neanderthal DNA. It is likely that they bred with modern human populations, which makes them a subspecies of human.

Homo sapiens sapiens

Modern humans, us. In terms of morphology, we have a vertical forehead, a high and round skull, reduced facial robusticity, smaller teeth, reduced midfacial prognathism, a large cranial capacity, and a small trunk and long limbs for a heat-adapted body morphology. The earliest modern homo sapiens date to 200,000 years ago. We are characterized by increased visible symbolic behavior, burial of deceased, decreasing hunting, and a plethora of technological advancements. Prior to 50,000 years ago, humans only lived in Africa, Asia, and Europe. They then spread to Australia and to the Americas 15,500 years ago.

Taung child

Most famous Australopithecus africanus

Upper Paleolithic technology

Old Stone Age of finely crafted stone tools and tools made with various functions from 10,000 years ago used by early modern Homo sapiens

Lomewki technology

Oldest stone tools from 3.3 million years ago used by Kenyanthropus platyops or maybe Australopithecus

Lucy

One of the most significant fossils: the 40% complete skeleton of an adult female Australopithecus afarensis, found in East Africa.

Out of Africa theory vs. Multiregional theory

Out of Africa hypothesis states that modern H. sapiens first evolved in Africa and then spread to Asia and Europe, replacing indigenous archaic H. sapiens populations (Neandertals) living on these two continents. Multiregional Continuity hypothesis regards transition to modernity as having taken place regionally and without involving replacement. From this point of view, African archaic H. sapiens gave rise to African modern H. sapiens, Asian archaic H. sapiens gave rise to Asian modern H. sapiens, and European archaic H. sapiens gave rise to European modern H. sapiens. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) reveals that humans are very homogenous and very little variation exists in the population. The highest level of genetic variation in mtDNA occurs in African populations. This implies that Homo sapiens arose first in Africa and has therefore had a longer period of time to accumulate genetic diversity. Additional, Y-chromosomal DNA also shows a similar ancestry.

Lucy's child

Recently, fossil remains of a three-year-old child were recovered and nicknamed "Lucy's baby."

Molars

Robust Australopithecines have huge molars

Mousterian/Levallois technology

Stone tools made using Levallois technique from 300,000 years ago used by Neandertals

Acheulean technology

Stone tools that were more refined than Oldowan tools, such as handaxes, from 1.7 million years ago used by Homo erectus

Oldowan technology

Stone tools, including primitive chopper tools, from 2.5 million years ago used by Homo habilis and possibly Australopithecus garhi

Shanidar

The best known of the Neanderthals is Shanidar 1, who survived several injuries during his life, possibly due to care from other members of his band, and Shanidar 4, whose body lay beside a flower that can either be explained as evidence of burial rituals or animal contamination.

Ribs

The bones in the chest that protect the heart and lungs (12 pairs)

Fibula

The lateral and smaller bone of the lower leg

La Chapelle aux Saints

This fossil was categorized as a "Neanderthal" and was discovered to be elderly, Missing post canine teeth, Alveoli resorbed, and Arthritic. It was discovered in France in 1908. It showed us that human ancestors lived longer than we thought they did.

Superorbital torus

This is above the eye orbits--the brow ridges.

Zygomatic arch

This is the cheekbone. Homo sapiens have thin and gracile cheek bones.

Prognathism

This is the forward protrusion of the lower face. The faces of Australopithecines jut out, where as the face of Homo sapiens is retracted under the skull.

Cranial vault

This is the height of the cranium above and behind the brow ridges--all the Australopithecines have a minimal cranial vault (you barely see a forehead) while in Homo sapiens sapiens the cranium vault is much more voluminous and hence is maximum in that they have a much higher forehead.

Saggital crest

This is the mohawk-like bone on the top of robustus and boisei's skull where the chewing muscles anchor to.

Cranial capacity

This stands for the size of the brain. It is usually measured in cubic centimeters (cc).

Turkana boy

Turkana Boy, also called Nariokotome Boy, is a nearly complete skeleton of a Homo erectus youth who lived at c. 1.5 to 1.6 million years ago. This specimen is the most complete early human skeleton ever found.

Post-orbital constriction

When you look behind the superorbital torus of the Australopithecines, the skull pinches in because their brain size is not much larger than a chimpanzee. There is no post-orbital constriction in Homo sapiens.

Tarsals

ankle bones

Occipital lobe

back part of cerebral cortex specialized for vision

Sacrum

bone formed from five vertebrae fused together near the base of the spinal column (above tailbone)

Sternum

breastbone

Zygomatic

cheek bone

Clavicle

collar bone

Orbit

eye socket

Phalanges

fingers, toes

Metatarsals

foot bones

Frontal skull

forehead

Metacarpals

hand bones

Innominate

hip bone

Patella

kneecap

Radius

lateral bone of the forearm

Lumbar vertebrae

lower back (5)

Mandible

lower jaw

Cervical vertebrae

neck (7)

Parietal lobe

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

Tibia

shin bone big

Scapula

shoulder blade

Coccyx

tailbone

Thoracic vertebrae

the second set of 12 vertebrae; form the outward curve of the spine and are known as T1 through T12

Femur

thigh bone

Humerus

upper arm bone

Maxilla

upper jaw

Carpals

wrist bones