ANTH6 FINAL

Eugenics

"race improvement" through forced sterilization of members of some groups and encouraged reproduction among others. Taken to the extreme by the Nazis

Evolutionary theories of aging

(1) Mutation accumulation theory- you accumulate more mutations over the course of your lifetime Medawar, 1952: Aging a matter of neglect; most organisms will die in nature so no need to put lots of energy ingot maintenance; random, detrimental mutations gradually occur and accumulate into adverse effects in old age (2) Antagonistic pleitropy theory- genes or traits that are beneficial in early life are costs as you get older Williams, 1957: Pleitropy is when one gene effects more than one trait; antagonism implies that selection for some traits that are potentially beneficial in early life will have costs in later life (3) Disposable soma theory- if you invest more energy in reproduction you have less for body maintenance so eventually you age and die Kirkwood, 1977: Finite amount of time/energy tradeoffs; primary tradeoff between reproduction and maintenance.

Encephalization quotient

(EQ): allows you to assess whether brain size is greater than would be expected for a given body size -Important to keep in mind that both brain AND body size are selected for -Selection for increased body size would lead to lower EQ...if you're over 1 you have a bigger brain for your body, under 1 then smaller

Homo erectus

**1. Increased body size 2. Increasing brain size ** 3. Modern human body proportions 4.Dietary changes and skull changes. 5.Migration out of Africa. 6.Technological advances. 7.Sexual division of labor? 8.Running? 9.Throwing? 10.Cooking? 11. Talking? •Time range: 1.8 mya - 50,000 years ago (over 1 million years!) •Locations: Africa, Asia, SE Asia (first hominin to leave Africa!) •Geographic variation in terms of morphology •Success results from behavioral capacities (i.e. tool use) and physical changes (larger) •African form sometimes termed H. ergaster

Taurodontism

**enlarged pulp cavity (Neandertal teeth- big rectangles, can produce more dentine, keeps teeth hard)

Settlement patterns

*first hominin to leave Africa: erectus....we think AMH left Africa ~100,000 years ago...the paths*Settlement of the New World and the Pacific Islands -The Americas --Bering Land Bridge --Clovis culture -The Pacific-most recently colonized* --Sunda and Sahul (low sea levels allowed for ocean crossings between these two areas 50,000 years ago) --Lapita culture --Polynesia (beginning 3,500 years ago)

Reciprocal altruism

-"You scratch my back and I'll scratch yours" -Do something nice for someone in expectation that they will do something nice back for you in return -Explains why unrelated individuals help each other -More likely when expect repeated encounters between same individuals --Tit for tat

Piltdown man - dentition or encephalization first?

-1908 to 1915 hominid fossils found at Piltdown, England by Charles Dawson -large skull, apelike jaw, teeth worn flat -1953: exposed as a hoax using fluorine analysis...skull of modern human, jaw of an orangutan -had derived skull size and ancestral teeth, so early beliefs say large brain/ encephalization first but ACTUALLY dentition first...brain size doesn't really change until genus homo

Ardipiths

-4-7 mya -(root apes) -Three different kinds: 1) Sahelanthropus, 2) Orrorin 3) Ardipithecus -Africa -Chimpanzee-sized brains -reduced canines and canine dimorphism -bipedal? facultative -tree climbers? yes

Ardipithecus ramidus "Ardi"

-4.4 mya -Aramis, Ethiopia -"Ardi"- 4.4 million year old female partial skeleton -Adult female -50 kg -4 ft tall -chimp sized brain -small canines -more flexible hand than what a chimp possesses but not knuckle walker

Orrorin tugenensis

-6 mya -Kenya -Arm and femoral fragments may suggest bipedalism -thick enamel (derived) -small teeth -large upper canines -may be among the oldest of the hominins, although its taxonomic position is still debated

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

-7-6 mya -Chad -less prognathic face -large brow-ridge -smaller canines (apical wear) -Anterior foramen magnum -Small brain -U-shaped arcade -Thin enamel -skull is argued to be the earliest of the hominins and one of the only two species known from western Africa

Laetoli footprints

-A. Aferensis footprints in Laetoli, Tanzania -Laetoli locomotion pattern more similar to contemporary bipedal human pattern than bent knee bipedal pattern...very similar to how we walk now, indicative of bipedal locomotion...more humanlike than chimp-like

Homo ergaster*

-African form of Homo erectus sometimes termed Homo ergaster

Homo floresiensis

-Age: 60,000-100,000 years old -Location: Flores, Indonesia -Number of individuals: 11 -Number of skulls: 1 -Found in association w/ stone tools + animal bones -Liang Bua 1: Full grown adult female, Brain: 417 cc, Height: ~3 feet, Age: ~60,000 years old. -Island Dwarfism -Surviving australopithecine Microcephalic -The foot is almost as large as yours and mine -Though LB1 is HALF the height. -Aspects of the foot unusual for late Homo. -Long toes. =Midfoot like an Australopithecus or early Homo

Sociobiology

-Application of evolutionary theory to understanding patterns in behavior -Introduced by E.O. Wilson (1975): Sociobiology: The New Synthesis Rough history: (1) Critique that sociobiologists view behavior as genetically determined (2) Controversial studies (Inevitability of male dominance, Extra-marital affairs, Xenophobia and competitiveness)***

Osteodontokeratic culture

-Australopithecine culture....dated approach to understand their culture, not tons of evidence --no evidence of stone tools, just simple tools --osteodonokeratic (bone-tooth-horn) Possibly used bone or horn digging tools

Lucy*

-Australopithecus afarensis -3.9-2.9 mya -Bicondylar (valgus) angle -Sexually dimorphic

Socially-defined groups vs. genetically-defined groups

-DNA cannot be used to identify tribal membership -There is a lot of genetic variation among tribally affiliated people. -Not a genetically defined group, but a social, cultural, political one. -Tribes may use various genealogical, ancestor-descendent, and/or legal kinship criteria to define their members -Because tribes define who is indigenous, DNA cannot be used to make tribal claims

Types of ancestry tests, tradeoffs and key distinctions between them*

-DNA from Y chromosome (mitochondrial DNA)...or DNA from Nuclear DNA, you're really only getting a narrow view of your ancestry because it's either patrilineal or matrilineal so you're missing one line of your ancestry..you can get different results submitting to three different companies• The Genographic Project, ancestry.com, 23andMe • Mitochondrial DNA o Small, circular piece of DNA o Inherited through maternal line o Historically the most widely used test o Only ~1% of the genome • Y Chromosomal DNA o Inherited through paternal line only ~1% of the genome

Melanin, UV radiation, folate degradation, cancer, Vitamin D synthesis

-Dark skin helps avoid: •Melanoma (skin cancer) •Folic Acid Deficiency...folate is important when you're pregnant, for fetal development -Lighter skin helps avoid: •Vitamin D Deficiency -Sexual Selection •Women lighter because need more Vitamin D

Cultural responses to diseases

-Development of vaccinations -Shunning/quarantine...Lepers were often quarantined to avoid infecting others

Hyoid bone

-Differences in shape between humans & apes may reflect adaptation for speech. -Neandertal hyoid bone similar to humans, suggesting possible capacity for speech

Homo habilis

-Earliest species of Homo •Habilis = "handy man" because used tools (associated with Oldowan) •Named by L. Leakey, P. Tobias, and J. Napier on basis of remains from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in 1964 •Where: East & South Africa •When: 2.5 - 1.5 MYA •Significance: -Stone tool user -Expanded brain (600-700 cc) -Reduction in molar size -Found in East and South Africa, same time as robust Australopithecines -Key anatomical features of Homo habilis include **reduced facial size, a parabolic palate, and some brain enlargement**

Pastoralism and lactase

-Frequencies of lactose intolerance vary in interesting patterns across populations -Adult decline in lactase activity is ancestral condition -Cultural history of pastoralism and milk consumption favors lactase persistency alleles -Populations with history of pastoralism now have lactase persistence and those without have lactose intolerance in adulthood...pastoralism- raising animals, so you drank their milk and you would be able to process it.....if you can tolerate lactose you have a mutation/your ancestors drank milk for some reason

ALDH2*2

-Genetic variation in the metabolism of alcohol. -Hypothesis that people with two copies of ALDH gene are less likely to become alcoholics because their bodies do not process alcohol efficiently enough for them to become dependent.

Skeletal markers of Ancestry

-Geographic conditions in which our ancestors evolved influence the anatomy of their descendants -less accurate than determining age or sex -base ancestry assessments are made by comparing specimen with skeletal populations of known ancestry, head binding

Estimating height and weight

-Height (Stature): based on summing the heights of all the bones in the skeleton that contribute to overall height (Fully Method) Common for not all bones to be available in forensic or bioarchaeology context. In that case long bones, particularly leg bones, best for estimating stature. -Weight: Difficult to estimate. Formulas exist for predicting the approximate weight of an individual from his or her weight-bearing joints

Geographic distribution of H. erectus/ergaster

-Homo erectus •Asia •thicker cranial bones and more pronounced brow ridges -Homo ergaster •Africa and Europe •thinner cranial bones and less pronounced brow ridges

Human behavioral ecology

-How behavior evolves in relation to ecological conditions 1) See how variation in ecological conditions predicts variation in behavior (between-species, between-individual, within-individual) 2) Fitness consequences of behaviors -**Humans able to adapt remarkably quickly to new niches - faster than genetic change would facilitate** topics of HBE: Altruism Kinship Cooperation Mating Foraging Reproduction Parenting Risk taking Aggression Senescence Host-parasite interactions Life history Communication

Evolutionary psychology

-Human brain consists of specialized psychological mechanisms that have evolved in response to recurrent selection pressures on our ancestors -Environmental of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA) -Relatively limited capacity for cultural evolution

Intergenerational transmission of stress hormone states*

-Infants of women with greater deprivation had higher cortisol reactivity in infancy (P = 0.006) -Children of women who experience ethnic discrimination have higher cortisol reactivity in infancy (P = 0.04) -Generation 1: Higher evening cortisol in pregnancy -> Generation 2: Higher cortisol reactivity

Game theory

-John Maynard Smith: Applied game theory to evolutionary biology -Introduced Hawk-Dove game; combination of Prisoner's Dilemma and the game of "Chicken", depending on how cost and benefits are assigned -Purpose of these models are to predict how different strategies can evolve and co-exist within a group or population

Anatomically modern humans: defining physical traits, cultural practices (toolkits, manuports/trade, symbolism, art, ritual burial, New World and Pacific)

-Large and gracile skull -Rounded cranium -Large, pyramidal mastoid process -Smaller face -Canine fossa -Chin -Long lower limbs

Depression and natural selection

-Minor depression as an adaptation --Reaction to challenging environment? -Major depression --A natural reaction to unreachable goals?

Dis/continuous variation*

-Most phenotypic variation is continuous rather then discrete; extremes are found among populations at greater geographical distances & in response to strong selection pressures -Biological variation tends to be continuous (clinal) rather then discrete....height is continous, blood type is discrete

Levallois technique

-New production method -More uniform tools -Greater control over flake size/shape -Greater productivity & innovation from core materials -300 kya -Prepared core technique -Thin flakes, large cutting edges -More precise tool making symbolic of complex thinking -Microwear evidence of hafting (stone attached to handle or strap)

Altruistic punishment

-People are willing to punish others at a cost to themselves to prevent unfair outcomes/sanction unfair behavior -Ultimatum game (what you just played): Proposals giving the responder <25% are likely to be rejected

Theories for evolution of bipedalism

-Reduction of Heat Stress: Reduces surface area exposed to direct, overhead sun -Predator Avoidance: If standing can see farther -Weapons and tools: Being bipedal frees hands...carrying tools, food, infants -ecological influences: traveling between trees or seeing over tall grass -preadaptation from a change in feeding postures -provisioning family -energy efficiency -Aquatic Ape Hypothesis: Humans began walking upright because part of our evolutionary history was in the water where it is easier to walk bipedally (note: this theory is not supported)

Sex differences in brain size

-Sexual dimorphism ->sex differences in brain size & EQ between the sexes -Males often have larger absolute brain size but smaller EQ -Unlikely these differences relate to differences in cognitive ability -Demonstrates limitations of EQ as a measure

Field recovery process

-Similar to Archaeology -Context is Critical! Carefully survey site -GPR or cadaver dogs may be used -mapping, photography, and excavation

Skin color variation: geography, gender

-Skin color influenced by genes + environment -Melanin produced by melanocytes -Number of melanocytes dictates how dark you can get • Northern latitudes: new selective pressures, where you get more sun you're darker usually... but basically depends on climate and resources available to you • UVB importance for synthesis of Vitamin D • Importance of vitamin D to reproductive success? • Sex differences in skin color o Women in all populations are generally 3-4% lighter-skinned than men o Perhaps due to higher needs for calcium during pregnancy and lactation role of melanin in human evolution: mutation and skin cancer -UV interferes with DNA replication and causes mutation -Mutations and other UV damage can cause skin cancers -Skin cancer lowers survival but may not be strong selection pressure since skin cancer may appear after reproductive age -UV radiation degrades Folate --Dark skin reduces the impacts of UV -Low folate levels negatively impact reproductive success

Race

-Socially defined category that sometimes overlaps with continent of origin -Also sometimes refers to ethnicity, language, or skin color ***There is no "race" gene Racial categories are inconsistent because they reflect social vs actual biologically meaningful categories -Racial categories on the Census changed frequently from 1790 to 2010 -1960: Self identify race vs being filled in by enumerator -Category called "color or race" until 1990, at which point only called "race" -2000: Respondents allowed to pick >1 race for the first time

Engagement of forensic anthropology with human rights protection

-Teams composed of forensic anthropologists, archaeologists, pathologists, evidence technicians, radiologists, odontologists, autopsy technicians, and computer scientists work together to discover, process, and recover remains from mass graves -The ultimate goals of identification, cause of death, and time of death, are all used for criminal proceedings, have helped solve crimes and war issues....people need to be held accountable for their actions (murder/etc) and forensic anthropologists help solve crimes in war, murder, etc to help uphold this standard

Stages of human growth

-The Prenatal or Gestational Stage -Infancy, Juvenile Stage, Adolescence, and Adulthood -Humans characterized by extended juvenile/adolescent period and long post-reproductive stage (menopause).........**we have long juvenile period and long post-reproductive period

Homo erectus anatomical features

-The Skull and teeth •Prominent supraorbital torus •No chin •Occipital torus •Sagittal keel •Low vault •700cc-1200cc •Shovel-shaped incisors -Compared with modern humans, Homo erectus has a larger face, lacks a chin and has a more angular vault and smaller brain.

Basicranial flexion

-The base of the human cranium is more flexed than the base of the chimpanzee cranium...similar idea to prognathism -Flexion of the basicranium associated with speech - presence in fossil hominins could represent language capacity

Biological profile

-The biological particulars of an individual as estimated from their skeletal remains -These include estimates of sex, age at death, ancestry, height, and disease status

Theories to explain language evolution

-Throwing and Language Evolution: Throwing objects lateralized like language capacity - selection for increased throwing ability by hunters may have inadvertently selected for language capacity -Language as a Replacement of Grooming: Humans groom much less compared with other primates - may have replaced social grooming with social language to reinforce social bonds -Symbols and Sex: Symbolic language may have helped reinforce exclusive sexual relationships within social groups -Gesture and Spoken Language: Gestures and other non-verbal forms of language preceded and set the stage for the evolution of spoken language

Non-human language

-Wild chimps communicate 19 specific messages to one another with a "lexicon" of 66 gestures -Chimps and gorillas are thought to have functional capacity to learn human language (sign, symbols) when taught young and in an enriched environment

bipedalism disadvantages

-birth more difficult (smaller pelvic outlet) -lower back stress -knee problems -reduced speed -reduced climbing efficiency

bipedalism advantages

-carrying -improved view -long distance travel (walking efficiency) (humans use 1/4th the energy that chimps use to get around both bipedally and quadrupedally) -lower heat stress

What happened to Neandertals

-disappear ~30,000 ya -extinction or interbreeding? possible explanations: •Disease (diagram) •War •Less energetically efficient than Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) •Outcompeted by AMH?

Trade-offs in food sources: calories, investment, processing

-eat more meat/cooked food/a stable, high energy food that is easily digested to decrease gut size and free up energy for the brain -(reduce gut size)

Early evidence for abstract thought and communication

-found shells with marks on them- showing some sort of abstract thought/art -language: broca's area and hyoid

Mortuary archaeology

-how you bury your dead says a lot about your culture...Ancient burial practices not only preserve skeletons but are reflections of belief systems, kin structures, and social organizations -Societies may even change burial practices when other social or cultural changes occur

Oldowan tools

-simple flake tools struck from a core, first stone tools widely used ~2.5 mya -cores/flakes -Hammerstones -Carried around...**associated with homo habilis**

Upper Plesitocene tools, symbolism

1. Elaborate tool kits 2. Tools made from different materials: antler, ivory, bone 3. Long distance transport of raw materials for tools 4. Symbolic expression, art, ritual burial 5. Settling New World & Pacific tool kit variation: changes in types of raw material --Bone, antler, teeth These materials were used earlier as well but not to such an extent

AMH: cultural practices and tool kits

1. Elaborate tool kits 2. Tools made from different materials:antler, ivory, bone 3. Long distance transport of raw materials for tools 4. Symbolic expression, art, ritual burial (•Sculpted goods: •Bone, ivory, antler •Burial: •Grave goods •Art and Ornamental Objects: •Cave art, •Petroglyphs -Anatomically modern humans left archaeological clues, including evidence of burials, which indicate that ritual and symbolic behavior were important parts of their culture.) 5. Settling New World & Pacific -In upper Paleolithic rapid proliferation of tool types and technologies relative to other periods. -Upper Paleolithic tool set (Aurignacian) more diverse and sophisticated....Blades, points, awls; even needles and fish hooks....Making blades (twice as long as they are wide). Long narrow flakes off of a prepared core.

Evolutionary explanations for disease

1. Novelty...new variation From pathogens or competitors From aspects of the modern environment 2. Tradeoffs/Compromises Genes with costs as well as benefits All traits have positive and negative tradeoffs 3. Evolutionary legacies/Constraints.. 4. Defenses that are often confused with diseases

Smaller, less prognathic faces / bigger brains

1: Chimp 2: Australopithecine 3: H. Erectus 4. Neandertal 5. Cro-Magnon

Agriculture's effect on infectious disease in humans

1st epidemiologic transition: Origin of agriculture -> increase in infectious diseases Agricultural revolution: -People more sedentary - increased odds of inter-personal contact -Water sources more limited and more prone to contamination through human waste / creation of standing water for agriculture -Risks of infectious disease increase in high-density agricultural populations compared to low-density, dispersed hunter-gatherer populations.

Age of earliest hominins*

4-7 mya? (Ardipiths)

Childbirth

90% of American births are in hospitals 31.8% (2007) are Cesarean delivery In 1900 only 5% of U.S. births were in hospitals -Rapid change in setting of birth has influenced maternal & infant mortality rates -Also lead to changes in maternal support through pregnancy and labor -New selection pressures due to changes in birth process

Brain lateralization*

95% of population has language centers on the left hemisphere Throwing and Language Evolution Throwing objects lateralized like language capacity - selection for increased throwing ability by hunters may have inadvertently selected for language capacity

Bioarchaeologist

A biological anthropologist who uses human osteology to explore the biological component of the archaeological record.

Gracile: A.anamensis, A. afarensis (K. platyops, A. garhi), A. africanus (Taung child), A. sediba

A. anamensis--4.2-3.9 mya -Kenya; Ethiopia •Thickened tibia (clear evidence of committed bipedality) •Primitive dentition •Lumped with afarensis? •Lived in forested regions & think climbed well (radius) A. africanus--3-<2 mya -slight brain increase (450 cc) -rounded vault -no crests -less projecting face -bipedal postcranial anatomy -canine reduction and molar enlargement -no stone tools A. afarensis--3.9-2.9 mya -Lucy -Bicondylar (valgus) angle -sexually dimorphic -prognathic face -small braincase -broad but narrow pelvis -flat cranial base, sagittal crest (connects chewing muscles), temporonuchal crest -somewhat megadont, U-shaped, shallow palate -long arms, short legs A. sediba--1.97-1.78 mya •Discovered 2010 in South Africa •Slight brain increase (420-435 cc) •characteristics similar to Homo...•dental anatomy (tooth size)•derived face (smaller zygomatic)•features of the pelvis -shares small brain size with other members of Australopithecus but also has a relatively broad braincase that some think links it to genus Homo. -Called gracile because generally less robust (large) morphology than robust australopithecines -Particularly face & teeth (not body)

Robust/Paranthropus A. aethiopicus, A. robustus, A. boisei

Anatomical traits associated with hard object feeding in robust australopiths: sagittal crest, large cheek teeth, flared sygomatic arch, dished face, extreme postorbital constriction) Three different species identified: A. aethiopicus ->East Africa, 2.5 mya A. robustus->South Africa, 2-1.4 mya A. boisei ->East Africa, 2.4-1.4 mya -Typically compared to the other "Gracile" species - refers to tooth and face size, not body size -thought to have evolved from more gracile varieties of australopithecines -Hard object feeding...•Sagittal crest•Large cheek teeth•Flared zygomatic arch•Dished face•Extreme postorbital construction -Woodland and open woodland habitat

Clines (Clinal variation)

Biological variation is clinal, • The gradual change in certain characteristics exhibited by members of a series of adjacent populations of organisms of the same species Example: ABO allele distributions in indigenous populations Clinal: the gradual change in certain characteristics exhibited by members of a series of adjacent populations of organisms of the same species.

Cranial capacity

Brain Size in the Fossil Record •See increase in average cranial capacity and estimated EQ during hominin evolution. •Australopithecines smallest cc/EQ •H. sapiens greatest cc/EQ •Note: Difficulty in reconstructing body size because of limited postcranial remains makes accurately estimating EQ difficult

Cerebellum/Cerebrum

Cerebellum: -Seats control of balance, posture, and voluntary movement Cerebrum: -Largest part of the brain -Split into left and right hemispheres -Seat of "higher" brain functions

Pubic symphysis

Characteristic changes in shape across adulthood. Most useful for aging adult skeletons. Not as precise as other methods.

Geographic distribution of early hominin fossils

Concentration of early hominins in East Africa, particularly in the Rift Valley early homo sites: East Africa: -East Turkana -Olduvai South Africa: -Sterkfontein

Racism*

Experience of racism (consequence of racial typologies) can have biological impacts....anthropology was originally biological study of race...then people thought they shouldn't study race...but recently people are like not talking about it doesn't make the issues go away, now we talk about race as social/culture significance, the influence it has on biology

Cradle of Humanity (DeSilva)

Great Rift Valley, place where all the human ancestor fossils were found, limestone caves

Shovel-shaped incisors*

Homo erectus...change in teeth shape and size is a trend in hominin evolution, showing shift to hunter/gatherer diet

Grandmother hypothesis

Human females evolved a long post-reproductive period so that they could help care for grandchildren

Menopause

Humans are the only species with such a long post-reproductive period

Evolutionary tradeoffs for language capacity

Humans have: *increased risk of choking & sleep apnea -Shortened mandible -Causes a narrow airway that is more easily obstructed (plus more likely to have impacted wisdom teeth!) -Tongue farther down in throat- More likely to block air in windpipe, particularly when laying down -Larynx that is lower- Causes a gap between larynx and soft palate that increases risk of choking....Children protected from this - only after larynx descends can children speak properly, but now they are at greater risk of choking --but humans have Greater speech capacity

There have been many anatomical responses to bipedalism

I.Pelvis - innominates + sacrum A.Humans -> short, wide, bowl shaped B.Chimps -> tall, narrow, no bowl shape II.Knee - femur C.Human -> Greater valgus angle III.Feet D.Humans ->Non-divergent big toe, arch in foot, straighter, sturdier toes. IV.Spine A. S-Shaped spine to maintain center of gravity V.Cranial base of skull A.anteriorly placed foramen magnum B. Nuchal plane much smaller and less posterior

Polygenism/Monogenism

Important debate: Polygenism: separate and unequal creation of races by God Monogenism: single creation of all races

Evidence of clothing

Indirect evidence: presence of awls and needles in the archaeological record Direct evidence: fossil remains of individuals buried in clothing

Innate vs. adaptive immune system

Innate: structural defenses; responds to nonspecific foreign substances -First line: external surface epithelium & membranes -Second line: inflammatory processes - antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes, etc. Adaptive: responds to specific foreign substances..body has evolved complex mechanisms for biologically responding to exposure to infection

Endocasts

Internal cast of the brain vault -Hominin fossil endocasts beginning with early Homo exhibit asymmetry, suggesting capacity for language

Degenerative Hypothesis*

Johann Blumenbach Coined the term Caucasian.....back when we were trying to biologically define races, believed by people who believed in monogenism...every race degenerated from a single original race that is superior

Expensive Tissue Hypothesis*

Leslie Aiello - Assuming nothing else changes, how does one "free up" the energy required to grow this brain???? solution: reduced gut size...how is our species able to have really energetically costly organ like a brain?....another thing with expensive tissue is the gut so by adopting a higher quality diet/eating more meat we have a smaller gut so saves more energy for the brain to use

Sex differences in risk taking

Males more likely to show risky behavior. Young males have much higher rates of accidents. Reproductive benefit to risky behavior

Paleolithic diet*

Modern diets differ from hunter-gatherer diets, Assumes that humans are evolved to eat a specific diet

Neandertal DNA

Non-Africans share 1-4% Nuclear DNA w/Neandertals.

Individual vs group interests

Pros of cooperation: -Food sharing --Provision kin, trade for another item, future equity, advertise quality or seek attention -Economies of scale --If more people are producing the cost of producing each unit decreases Pro of acting in self interest: -Don't have to share! If do well can keep resources for yourself -Benefit from others sharing their resources with you

Epidemiologic transitions

Quantitative study of the occurrence and cause of disease in populations -Incidence rate: number of new occurrences of a disease over a given period of time divided by the population size -Prevalence rate: number of existing cases of a disease divided by the population size

Determining skeletal sex

Sex: male or female -Pelvis (best) --sciatic notch: larger in females -Skull --Male skulls are more robust --Mastoid process and muscle marking of the occipital bone tend to be larger in males --Brow ridge is larger/more robust on males --Larger, more square chin in males ***The size of a bone alone cannot be used to assess sex.

SNP

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms ...when one mutation occurs your genome and this helps tell you where you are from 1. At a given position in the genome, people may have a different DNA letter 2. Each of these SNPs has a different history of inheritance 3. Today, ancestry tests look at many millions of SNPs

Anatomical changes associated with bipedalism

Skeletal: Foramen magnum(front of skull), nuchal plane (bottom of skull), ilium, femur, valgus bicondylar angle, opposable toe, stiff arch, lumbar lordosis, tarsals/metatarsals/phalanges -femur longer in humans -ilium (part of pelvis) shorter in humans...to maintain balance the bipedal pelvis has a foreshortened ilium and is broader and bowl-shaped; the quadrupedal pelvis has a long ilium positioned on the back, not the side, of the animal -to keep the foot under the center of gravity, the biped's femur is angled from hip to knee while the quadruped is not....this angle between the tibia and fibula is referred to as the bicondylar angle (sometimes referred to as valgus knee) -feet: opposable toe present in chimp but absent in humans (toes are in line with each other), the biped's foot bears more weight than the quadruped's and so the bones are stouter/stiff arched foot -humans have "s-shaped" curves in spinal columns to keep our weight centered over pelvis...lumbar lardosis -human skull: anteriorly placed foramen magnum, nuchal plane much smaller and less posterior

Motherese, or Infant-directed speech

Slower Higher-pitched More repetitive A widespread practice found across cultures

Taphonomy

The Study of the ways in which various processes affect the skeleton after death

Homo rudolfensis

The crania, and especially the faces of KNM-ER 1813 and 1470, differ enough that some scientists include them in two different species- H. Habilis and H. rudolfensis (splitters believe they are two separate species, lumpers think there is only Homo habilis) **know size difference...homo rudolfensis has bigger cranium/face size than homo habilis

Relative genetic variation within/between populations

There is more genetic variation WITHIN populations than BETWEEN populations At least 85.4% of human genetic variation can be found within geographic populations or races. Only 6.3% of variation can be found between "races"

Blades

Upper Paleolithic tool set (Aurignacian) more diverse and sophisticated. AMH used them, complex process so showed further development Blades, points, awls; even needles and fish hooks Making blades (twice as long as they are wide). Long narrow flakes off of a prepared core.

Tooth wear

Used for adults. Less reliable.

Haplogroup*

a genetic population group of people who share a common ancestor on the patriline or the matriline

Acheulean tools

allowed homo erectus to be successful -handaxes, cleavers, technologically savvy, accessing new food sources; new habitats........Movius line divided regions of world where they were made from regions where they were not

Frontal sinus

an airfilled space just behind the brow, is a unique size and shape in each of us and can be used to make a positive identification if antemortem X-rays are available.

Hominin dentition: ancestral/derived, tooth functions...*

ancestral: big tooth size, large canines... derived: enamel thickness, parabolic U shape (things that humans have are probably derived)..............in general we see a reduction in tooth size

Schizophrenia and natural selection

behavioral disease -Why is Schizophrenia so common? -The Schizophrenia Genotype as a Balanced Polymorphism -Single copy of "schizophrenia" allele may be adaptive - unclear what it would be adaptive for

Endocast*

brain case, Show brain reorganization already, even though brain still on the small side • Average: 450 cc • 20% larger than chimpanzee

Homo naledi*

brain size to body size ratio is smaller than you would expect....ended up in cave system...maybe was because of some sort of burial- 250,000 ya

Tooth eruption patterns

can study in fetus/infant/child (most reliable)

hominin dentition

canine reduction (C/P3 honing complex- in primates the back molars are grinding against teeth so they are honing them and making their canines sharper, self sharpening apparatus) vs. apical wear, no diastema-gap), why canine reduction?:Reduction in sexual competition ,Adoption of hand held weapons/other tools: big canines not necessary -parabolic dental arcade, shorter ramus/more chin, reduced masseter (and temporalis) muscles

Early anthropological challenges to the race concept*

complicated history -Mid 19th Century: Anthropology originally founded as a discipline for the scientific study of race -Typological - described essential racial "types" with a particular focus on cranial shape -Science of racial differences served to justify pre-conceived notions regarding racial hierarchies -Supported colonialism + slavery....originally anthro was for studying biological race but there was controversy about that being offensive

Dental calculus and what it can tell us about past hominins (DeSilva)

dental calculus is plaque, etc...tell us what past hominins ate, their diets and habits

Long bone development

epiphyses form & fuse during childhood. Therefore a reliable indicator for fetus/infant/child.

Essentialism*

essential types, trying to define biological races as discrete and fixed and unchanging

Westermarck hypothesis

growing up together causes individuals to become desensitized to sexual attraction -Unrelated children are raised together in peer groups on a kibbutz. Studies found that the children raised together would not marry each other as adults

Burial in the palaeoarchaeological record (DeSilva)

had no record of this species existing, no record of this kind of burial site, tells us there is still so much more to be found and discovered and studied

Diurnal variation*

her research, cortisol stress hormone levels and how they change during the day, want to have more in morning and less at night... the level peaks in the early morning (around 8 am) and reaches its lowest level at about midnight-4 am, or three to five hours after the onset of sleep.....people who are more stressed will start out with more and their levels will decrease less throughout the day and if they go to bed with a really high level that's no bueno/ significant

Biocultural approach

human behavior is shaped by our evolutionary and cultural histories

Partial replacement model

likely story for how AMH came about...compromise/mix between out of Africa and regional continuity/multiregional hypothesis •African origin of AMH is likely: Earliest AMH fossil remains found in Africa + greatest genetic diversity in Africa •***However was likely interbreeding between AMH and resident archaic H. sapien populations throughout Old World: Finding of Neandertal & Denisovian DNA contribution to AMH supports this theory •"Mostly out of Africa" hypothesis

Broca's & Wernicke's areas

localized areas important for language, lateralized -Lesions in these areas negatively impact speech capacity

Allostatic load*

looking at a bunch of different physiolocal aspects together....high allostatic load is bad• Metabolism, Inflammation, Neuroendocrine, Cardiovascular, Anthropometric...wear and tear on the body that accumulates when exposed to stress

Closing of head sutures

most useful for children; some sutures "obliterated" (disappear) with advanced age

Worn incisors

neandertal teeth -The heavily worn, and sometimes cutmarked, anterior teeth of Neadertals suggest that these teeth were used as a third hand for holding items while being cut.

Colonialism*

new people in new environment gave way to new adaptations and maybe new races?....people colonizing other areas when they thought their race was superior

Perimortem marks on bone (e.g., bite marks, butchering marks) and their superposition (DeSilva)

no bite marks or butcher marks on the bones, so weren't touched(surprised that bones were just sitting in the cave all pretty and perfect) ....wasn't just one set/level of bones sitting there, was a bunch all layered suggesting it was a burial site that they were burying stuff for a long time...essentially all of this told them it was a grave site

Age at death

normally reported as a range (EG 25-35 years old) The pubic symphysis of the pelvis is useful for estimating age in the adult skeleton.

Kennewick Man*

one of the oldest skeletons ever found in the Americas, tribes thought he should be buried but scientists wanted to keep him for tests

H. heidelbergensis

other name for archaic homo sapiens Derived features 1. Large brains (1100-1400 cc) 2. High foreheads 3. Rounded occipital areas 4. Less prognathic Primitive features "erectus like" features 1. thick cranial bones 2. no chin 3. large brow ridges 4. robust postcrania - thickened limbs

Datum

physical reference point for the site, established by investigators surveying a site for field recovery

Secular trend in growth

rapid increase in height over last 100 years in developed countries. Possibly due to increased nutrition and reduced infectious disease in early life.

Ancestor vs. relative*

relative- share common ancestor with you but you did not descend from them....relative is someone who also took a test and has similar DNA to you but does not mean they are your ancestor by any means....• Test reflects people who share lineage today, not in past - Relation, not ancestry

Core (Casana)

ripple lines/marks when you strike a flake off a core, core is just a rock

Movius line

separates regions of the world where Acheulean hand axes were made from regions where they were not.

Differences between siblings in ancestry testing*

siblings can have different percentages in their ancestry, • Each test will have a different result - even if you take the same test twice

Hafting

stone attached to handle or strap, act of putting blade or something on a handle to make it easier to use (associated with Levallois(/Mousterian/Neandertals?))

Forensic anthropologist

study skeletons from crime scenes, war zones, and mass disasters within the very recent past

Peri-mortem trauma

the physical evidence of activity that happened slightly before, during, or slightly after the time of death -Differentiated from pre-mortem injury, because no healing is evident -Useful in bioarchaeology contexts for inferring sacrifice, cannibalism or other rituals -Useful in forensic contexts for identifying potential conditions surrounding death of individual

Senescence

the study of aging....the shut down of physiological systems with advanced age. -The effects of aging can be seen in the decline in function of many physiological systems.

Auxology

the study of growth and development

The Underground Astronauts (DeSilva)

the women who were chosen to excavate the cave in rising star excavation when they found homo naledi, "superman crawl"

Facial reconstruction

what to do when you can't do identification using previously mentioned techniques -Part art/part science --Systematic study of the relationship between skin thickness and bone features --Must guess on nose and ear size/shape, skin color, hair color --Can be shared with public to help you generate potential leads

Australopiths

~1.5-4 mya -"southern ape" -adaptive radiation of early hominins -species of "bipedal apes" -small bodied (64-100 lbs) -small brained (340-500 cc) -moderately prognathic faces -mosaic of ancestral and derived craniodentral features...larger teeth (ancestral) and thick enamel (derived)

Handaxe (Casana)

• Acheulian, related to homo erectus

Importance of stone tools in human history and archaeological record (Casana)

• Associated with appearance of modern humans, mostly from the past 40,000 years

Social gradients in health

• Babies born just six subway stops apart in NYC face a nine-year difference in life expectancy • Stress -> activation of stress hormone response • Over-activation of stress hormones -> poor health -Around the world, both within and across societies, we see striking patterns of disparity in health outcomes between majority and minority groups. Oftentimes these groups are represented in terms of disparities in racial or ethnic groups -For a long time these patterns were taken as a given. In particular, racial or ethnic differences in mortality and health were equated to genetic differences. Thus these differences were viewed as innate and, as such, there was no motivation to do anything to try to change these trends. Advances in anthropology and related fields, however, are beginning to demonstrate how naïve this interpretation is. -Whitehall Study -Continuous relationship -No threshold -Reflecting more than material deprivation

Cultural adaptation vs. physical adaptation*

• Cultural o Staying indoors o Clothing o Sunscreen o Eating Fatty Fish (vitamin D) o Can have positive or negative effects on health........physical-being in a place that gets less sun

Cortisol, adaptive tradeoffs*

• Maternal cortisol increases across pregnancy • Important for fetal development o Infants born pre-term are given cortisol • At high levels, can have detrimental effects o Higher maternal cortisol -> reduced fatal growth rate

Non-human analogues in stress hormone research*

• Offspring stress response influence by prenatal stress experience • Life history variables and phylogenetic history predicted little variation in stress response

Health outcomes of socioeconomic status and experience of racism

• Poorer neighborhoods -> poorer health Racial discrimination in the NZ Health Survey significantly associated with: -Chronic mental health condition -Worse self rated health -Lower physical functioning

Anatomy of a flake (Casana)

• Ripple marks • Fissures • Bublar scar • Striking platform • Bulb of percussion

Atl-atl (Casana)

• Used in recent history by Eskimos and Australian Bushmen • Suggests 10 thousand years of use here...throwing stick, bow and arrow

Lumpers vs. splitters

•Are these the same or different species? (homo habilis and homo rudolfensis) •Biological species concept: no direct evidence of interbreeding in paleospecies •Have to use morphological differences - Make assumptions regarding range of natural variation in paleospecies - but don't know about degree of sexual dimorphism •Lumpers: group by similar traits - less species •Splitters: classify by differences - more species

Neandertal

•Double-arched brow ridges •No canine fossa •No chin •Long and low vault •Midfacial projection •Large juxtamastoid eminence •1600cc cranial capacity -massive build -short stature -heavy muscle marking on bones -"barrel-shaped" chest -shortened limbs -robust limbs cold adaptations -Heavy, muscular bodies -Barrel shaped chest -Shortened limbs -body proportions adapt to climate •large noses Adaptation to cold weather •Increased bony structure w/in nose. Wide nasal passages. •Large chamber with increased surface area would allow air to be warmed and humidified before being inhaled

Characteristics of Genus Homo

•Earliest origins: ~2.4 mya, Olduvai Gorge •Larger, more rounded brain case •Less prognathic face •Smaller teeth •More efficient bipedalism •Larger bodies/longer legs •First tool kit emerges: Oldowan tool industry...First found ~ 2.5 mya

Archaic H. sapiens

•Immediate predecessors to H. Sapiens •More advanced than H. erectus but more primitive than H. Sapiens •Not an actual species •Several morphological differences from H. Sapiens....More robust, smaller cranial capacity, larger muscle attachments, sloped forehead, no chin

Emergence and dispersal of AMH -Regional Continuity/Multiregional hypothesis

•Local populations of archaic H. sapiens evolved into AMH simultaneously and through gene flow among populations •No taxonomic distinction between "us" and earlier hominins (anagenesis)

Pleistocene - Climate change

•Origin and evolution of our species is related to climate change, people could migrate because sea level dropped** •Cyclic glaciation began 3 MYA and increased throughout the Pleistocene •~2.5 MYA sea levels lowered so that island Southeast Asia connected to mainland Asia**know years

Emergence and dispersal of AMH -Out of Africa hypothesis

•Origin of modern humans (AMH) in Africa •Complete replacement of European and Asia archaic H. sapiens populations by African dispersal of AMH •Speciation event (cladogenesis)

Mousterian tools

•Uses Levallois technique: flakes struck from prepared cores •Most tools were made from local materials, a pattern that differs from modern Homo sapiens .•Thin flakes with a lot of cutting edge...more cutting edge=better •Anatomically modern humans living contemporaneously with Neandertals in Middle East also associated with Mousterian tools