Anthro 104

'Polynesian Problem'

At European contact there was no evidence for long-distance voyaging among the Pacific Islands, although there was knowledge of these other islands and oral histories of voyaging

Hapa-Haole

Hybrid caucasian/hawaiian

Near Oceania

The part of Oceania settled 45,000 BP, comprising western Island Melanesia: the Bismarck Archipelago and the Solomon Islands archipelago. Boundary was formed between remote, since no land masses could be visibly seen.

Okamura "Aloha 'Oe: Settler Colonial Nostalgia and the Genealogy of a Love Song"

"Identity is contingent on difference. Groups construct or create particular identities by and for themselves under given historical circumstances, to advance their political or economic interests", reviews how Aloha Oe has created sense of settler colonial nostalgia which have moved natives away from their sense of self.

Bismarck Archipelago

A group of islands off the northern coast of New Guinea in the western Pacific Ocean and is part of the Island Region of Papua New Guinea.

Haole

Caucasian descent/foreigner

McBean's "Degree of Otherness: A Close Reading of First Contact"

Documents and analyzes the film First Contact. Australian gold miners first came to New Guinea in 1930s to the Highlanders who had never seen outsiders before. In 1980s was the account of the two Leahy brothers of how the initial greeting had an effect on the society. The use of technology frightened the people and created a dominance versus otherness. The brothers in the film contradicted one another when accounting for how many people were killed in the film. They also come as stand-offish when referring to New Guinea as "there", as if they had little connection with the place. In reality, the brothers built relationships with women in the Highlander society. Makes one question the truthfulness/bias behind this documentary. Argues that it tends to diffuse and weaken our sense of the victimization of the New Guinean highlanders.

Kanaka Maoli

Indigenous hawaiians

Imanda's "Aloha 'Oe: Settler-Colonial Nostalgia and the Genealogy of a Love Song"

Song "Aloha 'Oe" was composed by Queen Lili'uokalani before she was overthrown by missionaries (1893). The song was originally a love song, but soon turned into a mourning song of the rights taken away from the queen/Hawaiians. This is an example of settler colonialism, or the displacement of Indigenous peoples through expropriation of land/institutions by foreign settlers. The song soon became used in the US as means of attracting tourism to Hawaii. Thus the song is seen in many ways as not only a love song, but a love song for the queen, a song of mourning, and also a song of tourism/overthrow. People today still feel nostalgia from the song of Hawaiian native culture, and mourn the overthrow of the queen.

Sea of Islands

The idea of a unified and ever linked community in the Pacific. Marked by migration movement that still continues today, and the expansive new polynesian triangle.

Austronesian

The name of a language family that is found throughout the islands of Southeast Asia and the Pacific

Island in the Far Sea

A term that describes that dominant, top-down and outsiders view of the Pacific, emphasizing its vastness, vulnerability and isolation.

MIRAB

Migration Remittance Aid Bureaucracy- thought of islands as depending on these factors and not on own economy. Idea that Pacific Island main export is people and thus migration. People left at home rely on money sent to them by migrants (remittance) and aid from other countries. Main industry on the island remains bureaucracy as the legacy of colonialism. Pacific Islands are on the outer periphery of the Wallerstein World Systems model.

Remote Oceania

Part of Oceania settled within the last 3,000 years, comprising Island Melanesia south and east of the Solomon Islands archipelago, plus the open Pacific: Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Palau, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Moving east there are less resources/flora/fauna.

Film Stori Tumbuna

Paul Wolffram accounts during his two years in South New Ireland of the Papua New Guinea lives, cultures, and mythologies of the Lak people. Depicts the tale of Stori Tumbuna or the Song that is told by ancestors and depicts it as being true (how the Lak wanted) to show that western disbelief in mythologies points to them as outsiders and not under the same cultural relativism.

Wallace Line

Traces water gap; boundary formed by Pleistocene land masses as a transitional zone from the ice age in 700000 BP.

Sahlin's theory for Cook's death

1779 Claims that Cook was mistaken as the god Lono at first where he was treated nice, but on his return as god Ku by the Hawaiians who was believed to be necessary for a sacrifice (god of war) in order to restore order to Hawaiian society. Makes sense in terms of Hawaiian mythology/no sense of savagery.

Obeyesekere's theory for Cook's death

1779 Cook death claim by Sahlins is a claim of European thought of superiority, and blame on natives. Rather, and idea of Hawaiians being rational (not mistaking Cook as a god), and merely Cook oppression on this society is proposed (Cook has done in other places). Goes against Hawaiian oral accounts of the event

Polynesia

A region of Oceania (east) with a large degree of linguistic, biological and cultural coherence among its inhabitants (very similar throughout).

Melanesia

A region of Oceania that, in reality, has little linguistic, biological or cultural coherence among its inhabitants.

Micronesia

A region of Oceania, part of which may have had on-going interactions with South-East Asia

Measles in Fiji

1875, chief of Fiji travels to Sydney for a meeting which caused spread of the disease and by January, 20% of Fiji population died which is explained for by major lack of immunity in the Fijian population. It again struck in 1884-1920 due to steamship travel, which decreased the route of travel to the island so that the disease was still alive on the ship by the time it reached (past sailing ships took longer, and killed of the measles in infected Indians before they reached the islands).

Film Collateral Damage

2 billion people hold the TB bacteria, but only 9 million get it. The Marshall islands lives that were affected when US occupied/essentially ruined their home environment sent them into exhile to live on Ebeye island. Low income, tight living, and stress have all cause an increase in TB, diabetes, hypertension, and obesity in this culture. Defines how this act of colonialism has led to overall inequality of this culture.

Lapita

A culture belonging to pre-historic Pacific Ocean people, appearing in Near Oceania 3.5 kya and instantaneous with the first movement into Remote Oceania. Marked by complex decorations, diverse vessel forms, found on beaches. Also brought mainly Austronesian speakers to Polynesia. First recognized in Fiji in 3100 BP.

El Nino Southern Oscilation

A periodic thermodynamic redistribution of energy which influences oceanic currents and produces extreme weather events. Leads to drought and unpredictable events across the Pacific that increased around 1500 AD.

Depopulation in the Pacific

Accounts for previous population size is a little hazy (from ship officers, oral tradition, archaeology, etc) but the first impact of european contact in the end of the 15th century created increased mortality from infectious diseases, fertility decline, and thus population decline. This was largely due to absence of general immunity, and lack of efficient care following. Estimate of 60-95% population decline for Polynesian people (1890 was lowest population).

Interaction in Eastern Polynesia

Adeze artifacts define different geological zones from AD 1100-1400, and thus mark trading between islands. Also indicate Cook Island colonization in 1600 AD. Basalt adezes show interaction between Hawaii, Marquesas, Society, and Pitcairn islands. Hawaiian oral tradition hints to two way travel between central and east polynesia. Polynesia may have even interacted with Americans, bringing sweet potato to their islands. Interaction ceased AD 1400-1500 due to changing socio-political complexity within each island.

Hereniko's "Indigenous Knowledge and Academic Imperialism"

An account of the love-hate relationship with Western academics. Grew up listening to Rotuman historical narratives that were mixed with fact and fiction, but were easy to remember and had an impact on his life. Knowledge about custom and tradition was picked up at rituals and passed on. When reading about Western accounts on the Pacific, it is often questionable about what are fully correct accounts. The idea of "whitification" is going from cultural narratives in fairy tales and legends presented by your family, to going to school and learning to read and write about English fairytales and Greek mythology. Hereniko found conflict when he wanted to teach his students Pacific literature versus the prescribed English literature. Many islanders "struggle to find their island voices". Written word has undermined the fluidity of indigenous history (fixes the truth). Research is most always political; must take a look at multiple perspectives when looking into Pacific history.

'El Pacifico'

An early European name for Pacific Ocean, meaning passive or peaceful.

Colonialism of Marshall islands

Anewetok was a Marshall island atoll that Germany colonized in 1885-1915 with labor for coconuts but soon lost to Japan in WW1 who held it 1919-1944, who then lost it to UW in WW2 in 1944 invasion (killed many of the locals in the Carucci holocaust). After destruction, US supplied food and helped rebuild the damage but 1/3 of population died. 1947, US wanted the islands for nuclear testing and the locals couldn't resist because of US political/labour dominance. By 1950s the island was depleted and Bikini islanders wanted the right to go home (1960). US let them relive on island that they "cleaned up" in 1976 but were really observing affects of nuclear radiation on humans (came out in the Compact of Free Association). Forever the Marshall Islanders are under the effects of the island exploitation.

Population bottleneck

Another explanation of Polynesian body size: sharp reduction in the size of the population due to environmental events or human activities, which can reduce the variation in the gene pool of the population. Quick movement into Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa may have created the small population bottleneck.

Contact stories

Are STORIES (also the films) that only include important events that vary between local accounts and European accounts.

Not so Thrifty Genotype

Argues the shortcomings of the thrifty genotype hypothesis that hunter/gatherers needed to latch onto the fat in order to protect muscle stores in times of famine. Based on hunter gatherer society.

Socio-Political classes

Band: Original type; based on foraging, small mobile groups, and few positions of earned status. Tribe: Horticulturalist (grow own food) and sedentary (stay in one place), of larger group size and status can be earned Chiefdom: Intensive agriculture, very large groups, centralized system of authority with chief, chiefly position is hereditary, redistributive economy ranked. State: Large scale complex agriculture, involves huge populations, centralized government, written law, military

Thrifty Phenotype Hypothesis

Body type predicted early in life due to poor fetal development in the mother (not nurturing environment), and thus latches on to fats from fetal mismatch of food availability and then excess weight gain. Now our society eats meals high in fat. Issues with hypothesis are that it doesn't describe every case.

Infectious Diseases

Caused by microbes (tiny organisms) that make people sick such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa. May be passed from person to person via another organism. Was cause of population decline following european contact for the Pacific. Dependent on the host, the pathogen, and the nature of contact/environment.

Simbo 1990 case study

Christine Dureau brought her daughter during her fieldwork, the Simbo society (Zoni, Lena) looked after her daughter/adapted her into their society. Birth relationships, adoptive/foster parenthood and nurturance (food) are all parallel in this society.

Connolly's "Reply"

Claims that MacBean reading of the First Contact book led to his slight misinterpretation of the film. Although MacBean finds that the film underplays the victimization of the New Guinean highlanders, Connolly replies that this was done since both sides of people tried to explain and exploit one another, and they didn't want this to be the key point in the film. The films were also not made to teach of general Papua New Guinea history. Simply they wanted to highlight an event, and thus they left some information that wasn't "necessary" out.

Allen's "Oscillating Climate and Sociopolitical Process: The Case of the Marquesan Chiefdom"

Climate change can sometimes alter societal behavior and social hierarchy. The climate in historical Marquesas Islands was instrumental in transforming a chietain society into less hereditary and more flexible polities by the time of European contact. Marquesas suffered from drought and famine (marked by breadfruit storage and fermentation), El Nino effects, IPO cycles (caused marine fish loss). Because of unpredictable weather, traditional chiefly powers had less power (since they seemed to disconnect from higher powers), and inspirational priests gained significance. Overall climate variability caused: a reduced hierarchy, functional differentiation of leadership, diversified pool of potential leaders, reduced centralization in decision making, mechanisms allowing for leadership change, developed control of key resources

Colonialism

Colonization for the purpose of forming a colony (political dominance) by an outside group. Usually oppressive.

Fiji

Colonized in 3100 BP as noted by Lapita pottery (like elsewhere, disappears quickly). In east noted interactions with Samoa signifies a political relationship of the past. In 1000AD its noted that colonies within Fiji may have interacted only in violence.

Terell's "Polynesians and the Seductive Power of Common Sense"

Common sense usually leads to ideas that divide people into groups of genders, ethnicity, race, nationality, and personality. Cultural variation is discontinuous though; sometimes people are placed into discrete groups from geographical/social isolation. People don't recognize that although the Pacific islands are geographically isolated, they still maintain cultural/ethnic homogeny. The migration of Polynesians was recent, so each island group remains similar which counteracts the popular belief that these island groups should all be unique ethnicities.

Kirch's "Pacific Islands as Human Environment"

Compares the formation and biota of islands with the formation of inhabitants on said islands. Describes mid-plate, atoll, and island arc formation in depth. Wind caused Pacific Island navigators to sail east to west, since the wind flows from west to east (get pushed back to start). The windward side of islands (west) is more prone to heavy rainfall, whereas the leeward side (east) remains in the rain shadow; this creates variation of vegetation as well as settlement creation on the islands. El Nino is important to consider as well. Islands are home to good dispersing organisms, as well as newly evolved organisms because of their isolation. Isolation and limited size are key factors that determine the development of the island ecosystems. Humans did have impacts upon moving onto islands, but were pretty conscious compared to other groups.

Ethnicity

Constructed through a cultural basis and often by nation states. Shows personal values of a person. Self identification, and what signifies locality fall under this.

Othering

Defining a group or person in a way that is generalizing, excluding, often negative, and often in opposition to the definer's notion of themselves.

Hawaiian Identity

Depicted by Michelle Williams as first migrations into hawaii in 1850-19+ for sugar industry. Sense of local becomes blurred with natives and those who have grown up in Hawaii their whole lives. Problems introduced by the grammys when Hawaiian award was given to "non-local" Tia Carrere and Daniel Ho. Steady loss of Hawaiian language (Hawaii Creole English).

Cultural relativism

Different cultures have different basis of common sense. Principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities should be most understood by other's in terms of that individuals own culture. Introduced in the film First Contact for European common sense versus Highlander common sense.

Tuberculosis

Disease which can occur anywhere in the body by bacterium; mostly in the lungs. More apparent in Tuvalu societies (cook islands very low--early assistance). Tuvalu population live on island and and are home to phosphate mining which easily spread the disease; little health services, living in tight housing, unhealthy food. Also apparent in moving to NZ Tuvalu are on low income scale so are often targets. TB hits in ways that is dependent on the style of first colonialism.

Settler Colonialism

Displacement of indigenous by colonists through appropriation of land and resources

Marquesan Culture Change

Environment is very isolated with little reef and lots of basalt forms. First colonized 1200 AD where fishing and land birds used as resources, proof of adeze and pottery, and settled at mouth of valleys. In AD 1300, island substances changes so use of different fishing mechanisms is apparent. In AD 1450, substances change again as noted by different tools/fishing/settlement structures/horticulture. And in AD 1600, substances change again as noted by fishing practices/ceremonial platforms/and recognized sociopolitical power among polities. This was due to extreme variability of environment periodically within a human lifetime. This lessened political control, since the weather was unpredictable creating "flexible" chiefdoms.

Epidemiology triangle

Epidemiology is the study of the distribution/determinants of health problems in specified populations. The triangle is a model for studying disease-three corners combine biological, social, and geographical dimensions. Corner 1 is the agent/pathogen that is the microbe causing the disease and how it infects/its virulence (the what), corner 2 is the host of the characteristics of the population of people as in their health status/immunity/age/gender (the who), and corner 3 is the environment such as the external factors (social, geographical) that cause or allow disease transmission (the where).

Schieffelin & Crittenden's "Like People You see in a Dream: First contact in six Papuan Societies"

First Australians thought that white race was to bring law/order/Christianity to primitive tribal societies in 1935. Papuans had trouble believing in Christianity, and although they thought white men as higher powers, they traditionally saw themselves similar to higher powers. The encounter thus was a contrast of structure: ethnographic contrasts versus relations of domination. By 1968 Westerners had total control, but UN granted Papua New Guinea independence by 1975. Westerners see this first encounter as violent and uncalled for, yet Papuans are unfazed by it, since they traditionally practiced violence and lived in a dramatic society.

Film First Contact

First New Guinea population was discovered in 1930s by Mack Leahy. White killed the leader because they thought he was going to attack. Traded shells to New Guinea population for gold searching rights. 1950 Leahy brothers come again, and New Guinea people are amazed. They show them airplane, shoot a pig, play them music. Movie was questioned by critics for its lack of information and thus objective representation of just the first contact. Idea of cultural relativism introduced.

European first contact Solomon islands

First in 1788 by Lt John Shorthand, and then Hocart in 1908, Europeans first thought of as ghosts for their white sails and white skin. Often caused people to reassess their own sense of self within the universe--white men introduces religion/science. But also can be considerate of Pacific islanders being used to people showing up unannounced.

Voyaging Nursery

First people in Remote Oceania spent thousands of years in this region, practicing sailing. Sailed against the wind so there was easy return home. Looked for cues of island location: sea birds, cloud patterns, ocean swell.

Atolls

Formed when the volcanic cone of a mid-plate island has been totally eroded and subsided, leaving only a reef above the water's surface. End of island evolution with limited resources (water, soil, rocks). Kiribati and Marshall Islands.

Genealogy

Foucaults concept: assumes that all truths are questionable and influenced by power, thus genealogy deconstructs regimes of truth. Often one social class dictates the system of values and norms of a society.

Thomas' "Sanitation & Seeing: The Creation of State Power in Early Colonial Fiji"

From 1874, colonizers attempted to defend, protect, and institutionalize the traditional Fijian community. But, upon colonization they brought famine and measles. Thus, sanitation program was introduced, but it revoked some customary Fijian practices. Overall, through the colonization in Fiji there was conflict between nonintervention on the basis of sustaining customary order and intervention to bring order to the state.

Thrifty Genotype Hypothesis

Genetic adaptation for quick insulin release/fat storage that assumes periods of feast and famine are common based on hunter/gatherer societies and now we are resting in a society without famine. Based on the Native American Pimas. Issues with the hypothesis is that there might not be a single gene, and that there has been a lot of time in evolution between feast/famine. Possible explanation of recent rise in NIDDM.

Simbo 19th-Early 20th Case Study

High usage of ancestral shrines, as well as headhunting to indicate political dominance. They adopted captives to create the skulls as pinausu (one who is adopted) and pausia (to adopt) which makes them of the same kin.

Barker's Alienation from the Land: The Rongelap Experience"

In 1946, US approach the Marshall island Bikini Atoll to request permission to use islands to test atomic weapons (Bravo test). Informed the inhabitants that it was temporary, and that they could return soon, but they knew that this would create radiation onto returning population. Land is a valued commodity in the Marshall islands, with land rights determining social standing. Each atoll has different resources, so each island community has different culture and tradition based on these resources. Ronglapese community was forced to move 4 times by US, and exiled once by themselves when the US refused to relocate them. The contamination on this society caused them to move to Ebeye and Majuro, where they had no land rights, lived crowded lives that were unsanitary and had little money. They no longer had knowledge of the environment and had a rough time surviving.

Diseases of Affluence

Includes obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension. Consequence of modern lifestyle; large replacement from past lifestyle in the Pacific.

Rapa Nui

Island comprised of 3 volcanoes and little flora and fauna diversity (but lots of birds). Likely colonized 1200 AD. Agriculture begins early with palm forest depletion quick and lithic mulch gardens (help crop growth). Similar artifacts as other polynesian island (mata'a blades), but also ahu and moai (stone heads), which were placed mostly near rock quaries but those transported have different venter of gravity and overall the purpose of these statues is unknown. There's debate of the revised rapa nui colonization (environment with poor resources to blame for the fall) versus the orthodox scenario (people were to blame for using up environment too quick and warfare led to destruction).

Kinship vs Created Kinship

Kinship is being related to someone by blood, where as created is being adopted into one's family via fostering parenthood, nurturance, feeding, etc.

Anthropology

Looking at cultures, social norms, archeology, biology, linguistics, and traditions. Culture is the central focus, and requires participant observation.

Diaspora

Movement from home to somewhere else-fleeing. Seen in the Marshall islands after US nuclear testing.

Type II Diabetes

Non Insulin Dependent Diabetes Mellitus, disruptive of glucose homeostasis control, so that cells to not uptake it and thus blood sugar levels remain high. Identified via and oral glucose tolerance test. Factors associated with the diseases include abnormal birth weights, early weight gain, fat in the stomach area, insulin resistance, and low exercise levels. Many Pacific islanders are suffering from due to lack of wealth, more access to food, and already large physique.

Marshall's "The Nature of Nurture"

Observes the idea of kinship cross culturally, using case study of Trukese which values maternal relations first, and more so sibling relations. Created kinship are kinship ties not through blood, but can often be just as strong/stronger than those of blood. Clientship is people who aren't born/adopted, but become part of community through clan involvement. Maaraak persons consider themselves related, but aren't by blood or adoption. Adopted individuals are created kin out of non kin and often have the closest of the three created kinship relationships. Also, siblings of the same sex tend to have the strongest relations in the clan setting. Kinship is thus relations based reoccurring acts of sharing and nurturance.

Aloha Oe'

Originally a love song written by queen lil'uokalani. After she was overthrown, natives depict it as a song of mourning. Then it was used by Americans as an act of tourism to attract people to Hawaii; meaning is constructed according to western regimes as an act of genealogy. The song created an imperial fantasy of best friend/loving relationship between America and Hawaii, stewardship becomes truth over violence. Creates settler colonial nostalgia.

Macintyre's "Family and Gender in the Pacific"

Outlines the consequences of enforced change from Polynesian missionaries onto the Tubetube tribe. Houses changes from large structures hosting many kin, so small Fijian style homes that only fit few family members and fit the Western notion of what a traditional small island home would look like. Traditional rituals of keeping skulls up in a household as ritual for inheriting power and being linked with dead ancestors was seen as an act of cannibalism in the Polynesian missionary eyes. Missionaries brought disease, and with the accompany of reoccurring drought from 1893-1901, Tubetube society depleted by 75%. Hence Tubetube were given drought proof crops, and became a large economic source of coconut farming. Less communication/unity in this tribe now from population decline, home/garden transformation, and more intensive exploitation of land. Particularly hard hit were the male elders of this society, since all there power/leadership was overthrown by Polynesian missionaries.

Kirch's "Peopling of the Pacific: A Holistic Anthropological Perspective"

Outlines the human colonization of the Pacific. Earliest Human movements into Near Oceania around 40000 years ago, which resulted in genetic diversity in that region. Only 4000 years ago did Lapita movement occur from Near Oceania to Remote Oceania about 1200 BC, and then settlement of the eastern Pacific and NZ in 1250 AD. Polynesia was the last to be settled, and people from the region probably reached South America and returned with sweet potato. Extreme linguistic diversity in Near Oceania. The Pacific is a good model for historical anthropology; it hasn't been cultivated for too long/is easy to observe.

Movement through the Pacific

People move to Australia and New Guinea from Asia 50,000 BP. They then moved to bismark archipelago/solomon islands in 45,000 BP. First to society islands in 1025/1200 AD and then Samoa/Tonga, and then gap before to Fiji and New Caledonia in 3100 BP (long time gap marked by Lapita pottery and trouble due to navigational threshold and may have had help from ENSOfor traveling west), and finally to Cook Islands, Marquesas, Hawaiian, and NZ 1000-800 BP. Possibly continued to South America and brought back sweet potato.

Houghton's Hypothesis

Polynesian body size explanation by natural selection against smaller individuals during voyaging: larger, broad-bodied individuals are expected to have lower risk of hypothermia/greater energy reserves, larger thermal mass and lower surface area to mass ratio, more likely to survive/reproduce aka high fitness. Not consistent with Bergman/Allen rule that bigger people live at the poles, and smaller live at the equator for heat distribution. Criticism is against the simplicity, and that not just large males survived (women?).

Houghton's "The adaptive significance of Polynesian body form"

Polynesian people have large, tall, and muscular phenotypic bodies, which assist in the cold oceanic environment. Their body type goes against most people that live near the equator who are skinny and tall since they don't need as much heat retention. Also contradicts those that live near the poles who are short, fat and muscular to have heat retention. Polynesians were put under selective pressures while voyaging and living in small-island environments since both are exposed to high winds/wetness which is actually pretty cold. Thus, the need for high muscularity and body largeness is an advantage for bodies living in the Pacific islands.

Weisler & Kirch's "Interisland and Interarchipelago Transfer of Stone Tools in Prehistoric Polynesia"

Proved through basalt tool/adeze comparison that groups moved through the Pacific Islands, bringing artifacts with them (not only in close island chains, but distant ones). Outlined specific trade and exchange networks. EDXRF and XRF were both tools used to date and observe the basalt artifacts.

Hunt's "Rethinking the Fall of Easter Island: New Evidence Points to Alternative Explanation for a Civilization's Collapse"

Rapanui culture, which was known for the creation of huge head figures (moai), were first claimed to have arrived on Easter island around 800 AD and by the end of the 17th century they had deforested the land, triggered war, famine, and cultural collapse. Many believe that the collapse of this society was from self-induced overuse of the island resources. This article proves that the island limited land resources, and island isolation made it difficult to even upkeep the small population of 3000. With the first colonists bringing rats, their feeding habits were major sources of island degradation (ate palm seeds so no forest regrowth). Thus, the settlers actually came 1200 AD and were quickly kicked off the island due to lack of resources (not warfare). European invasion also introduced diseases and enslavement which led to overall collapse.

Queen Lil'uokalani

Reigned over Hawaii from 1891-1893 as the last monarch. Part of the four heavens. Wrote Aloha Oe'.

Revised Rapanui History vs. Othodox

Revised: 1200 AD small colonization group arrives, population grows fast/builds moai, population growth causes deforestation and rats eat palm seeds so that regrowth is unobtainable, max human population reaches 3000, by 1680 AD island is largely deforested, population remains static at 3000 by the time the Europeans arrive in 1722 AD. Orthodox: Around 800 AD group arrives, construction of moai begins, 1200 AD population begins forest clearance, 1400 AD population peaks at around 15000-20000, by 1680 AD the deforestation is nearly complete which causes warfare, famine, and population collapse and then the population is 3000 by the time Europeans arrive in 1722 AD.

Tinoni Simbo 1990 case study

Simbo born in scandalous way, and automatic raising by a different mother. Found out about her blood mother at age 17 but didn't associate this linkage based on the Simbo cultural model.

Race

Socially we all identify this, but is mostly based off biological background of similar phylogenetic traits for a distinct group. Addresses who you are related to (by descent); seen in clear distinctions of first contact between europeans and polynesians.

Haggett's "The Invasion of Human Epidemic Diseases into Australia, NZ, and the Southwest Pacific"

Spread of disease causing viruses such as smallpox, measles, influenza, and rubella. Smallpox in Australia in 1830 was major cause for decline of aboriginal populations. Smallpox only came to Papua New Guinea around European contact, and most of the populations in the Pacific islands weren't large enough to support endemic smallpox. In Fiji, one quarter of the population was killed off by measles in 1875. Measles didn't reach Australia/Pacific islands until ships were faster around 1828, since the virus killed off the infected ship members before reaching the shore. Europeans are thus to blame for most of the diseases, and increasing populations versus decreasing remoteness is also to blame; no more epidemiological isolation.

Park & Littleton's "Tacking between disciplines: Approaches to tuberculosis in NZ, the Cook Islands, and Tuvalu"

Studies how TB is formed in different societies by a range of factors; there are intertwined health and social conditions that interact with TB to produce worse outcomes. High incidence of TB in Pacific islands. In Tuvuluans because of early exposure by emigration of British, which created easy uptake in the weak Tuvuluan immune system. Pacific islanders living in NZ are also hard hit, since they normally are lower on the economic scale, have poor nutrition and health care, and can even have higher incidence with the linkage of diabetes. Cook islanders have lower overall rates of TB, since they began closer to colonial powers and maintained persistent health care to eradicate TB from the population. These different contexts of TB in societies makes it hard to tackle/eliminate.

Barcham, Scheyven, & Overton's "New Polynesian Triangle: Rethinking Polynesian Migration and Development in the Pacific"

Suggests that there is now a New Polynesian triangle with larger boundaries that has apexes in North America to the east, Australia to the west, and New Zealand to the South. This was formed during the economic reforms in the 80s/90s which caused increasing migration of Polynesians to search for economic help with the use of their cultures and kinship networks that are so unique. Movement of Polynesians is mainly from economic flow, religion, technological ideals, and political reasons in order to improve overall life. The ocean sets up this easy migration of people.

Na Lani Eha

The Four Heavens or the Royal Four: Leleiohoku, Kalakaua, Likelike, and Lil'uokalani.

3,200 BP

The time when people moved into Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga for the first time.

Island Arcs

These islands form along plate boundaries due to subduction of one plate below another, and the resulting volcanic activity. Geologically complex islands, with structures based from previous continents. Tonga, Fiji, Vanuatu, and Solomon islands.

Deracination

To tear up by the roots

Hau'ofa's "Our Sea of Islands"

Tracing the steps of how Europeans belittled the Pacific Islands upon first colonization, which led to societies of the Pacific to belittle themselves. Islands are isolated, and thus have started to depend on centers of economic growth. Contrasting views of Islands in the Far Sea (top-down outsiders view of Pacific that emphasizes its vastness, vulnerability and isolation) versus Our Sea of Islands (totality of power and relationships in the Pacific Islands and the Ocean). Past history of these islands has proven that they are capable of self-power, and have plenty of resources to do so. Also contrast Pacific Islands (small land mass) versus Oceania (romantic, large); Oceania is given set boundaries to become small via European delegations. Calls to action to not allow belittlement of Pacific Islanders to continue.

Zimmet's "Global and Societal Implications of the Diabetes Epidemic"

Type 2 diabetes, which is characterized by insulin resistance, abnormal insulin secretion,, and thus metabolic syndrome, is most often associated with sedentary lifestyle and obesity. This is becoming much more prominent in certain ethnic groups than others (Pacific islanders), which leaves the uptake of the disease up for debate. In Nauru alone, the unknown disease 50 years ago is now in 40% of adults. The thrifty genotype and thrifty phenotype hypotheses are both proposed. Overall, societal modern lifestyle is what needs to be altered and administered to lower the increase of this disease.

Mid-Plate Islands

Usually visible chains, these islands form when a tectonic plate passes over, and is punctuated by, a hot- spot of magma. Include Hawaiian islands, Samoan islands, Marquesas, Pitcairn, Tahiti, and Society islands. High islands that are young, homogenous, and have multiple altitude/environment zones. Poor in rock resources. Wet (windward west) and dry (leeward east) environments.

1918 Flu Epidemic

WW1 was the blame for the spread of the flu (both sides suffered). Influenza A took people down because they had no immunity to it at the prime of life (20-40 years old). Steamship Talune is to blame for spreading it through the Pacific from Suva to Tonga, Fiji, Western/American Samoa, Niue, Tokelau, Rotuma (1918-19). In Fiji, Talune came for the importance of unloading people to work on plantations, which ended up death of 5.2% of population. In Levuka, by the time the flu was realized to have reached the island it was too late but acted by preventing social gatherings. In Samoa, they were hardest hit by Talune for 22% of population death and the Mau Movement attacked NZ administration who admitted to not handling the pandemic well. Lastly, flu in Tonga created 8-10% of population decline, including nobles.

Naming Islands

Ways to differentiate places, and act of "othering", (if its not one thing its another) which leads to loss of sense of ownership of oneself. Indigenous names such as Tonga and Tokelau were previously given, but then europeans renamed as acts of claiming areas. For example, Tonga was the friendly island, Niue was savage, hawaiian was sandwich, and Rapanui was easter. El Pacifico depicted the Pacific as peaceful. Created boundaries of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia.

Windward-Leeward distinction

west side is windward and wet, leeward is east and dry. Erosion on windward side due to rain, and allows for increasing agriculture. No correlation to social area formation of the environment.