ANTHRO Final Exam Study Guide

Tabun Cave (Palestine/ Combe Grenal of the Levant)

found in 1920s by Dorothy Garrod and excavated 1929-1934 one of the most extensive Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites in the Middle East Acheulean and Mousterian assemblages in 25 meters of deposits; burials in cave include both Neanderthals and modern Homo sapiens The cultural assemblages in stratigraphy of Tabun Cave are labeled Tabun B-E Early modern human remains excavated and dated at 92K (thermoluminescence dates on burnt flint)

Gobekli Tepe (Turkey)

oldest religious site at 11,500 yrs ago Temples built by Mesolithic people Sequence of strata suggests use of site over several millennia The oldest layer (stratum III) contained monolithic pillars linked by coarsely built walls to form circular or oval structures. Four buildings, with diameters between 10 and 30 meters have been uncovered and geophysical studies suggest 16 more.

Francois Bordes

a French scientist, geologist, and archaeologist.

Kostienki (Ukraine)

(21,000-11,000 BP) -- similar to Mezhirich -- large communal structures with central row of hearths -- structure sizes avg. 35 by 16 meters -- mammoth bone used for fuel in house fires -- sleeping chambers found within structure areas (these are steep sided pits probably lined with skins) -- child (4-5 years old) burial w/ red ochre, small spade cut from mammoth bone, bone needle, several flint tools, and necklace of perforated fox teeth -- burial pit was covered with a mammoth scapula

Regional Archaic Period Manifestations

(Plains/Shield/Desert/Maritime) (ca. 9000-3500 yrs ago) -- transition between big game hunting Paleoindians and incipient agriculturalists in North America -- new technologies, more varieties of tools to meet a broad range of subsistence and technological needs (hunting, fishing , plant processing) Tool forms reflect regional stylistic trends (e.g., Shield, Maritime, Desert, Plains). Maritime: (7500 - 3000 yrs ago) Use of marine resources by Archaic peoples located on the northeast coast of North America -- first recognized at cemetery at the site of Port aux Choix in Canada Artifacts: ground slate points and ulus, bone, shell and tooth pendants, ground slate bayonets, and ritual objects made of bone, antler, and ivory. Maritime Archaic people were sea mammal hunters, as evidenced by the recovery of toggling harpoons made from antler or bone, fish bones, and walrus tusks. Shield: hunting caribou and moose and fishing (e.g. Sturgeon spawns) -- use of copper nuggets from Lake Superior region cold-hammered to make tools like chisels, awls, punches, spear points, knives and ulus Desert: Great Basin region of the Southwest U.S. perishables like moccasins, bone tools, basketry, preserve well along with typical Archaic stone tools Focus: small game, mule deer, pine nuts Plains: Great Plains region Hunting herd animals like bison and antelope Use of specialized sites like bison jumps Innovations: more elaborate food storage technology -- sedentism (multi-seasonal/year-round habitation of site) -- improved technology, textiles/fabrics, i.e. woven fabrics. New tool forms include heavy ground stone woodworking tools (axes, adzes and gouges to process forest products and for making dugout canoes) -- milling stones (mortar and pestle, nut and seed grinding surfaces) -- stone (soapstone) vessels (precedes pottery)

Lascaux (France)

(discovered 1940) -- area known for rockshelter and cave sites -- Upper Paleolithic murals are restricted to Spain and France where ideal cave sites have suitable conditions for preservation -- art work was placed at cave entrances, along passages, and along cliff faces and rock outcrops. At Lascaux, most of paintings ca. 17,000 yrs old -- art is dated from fragments of paint and other objects of known age within the cave deposits.

Multi-Regional Hypothesis(1) / Out-of-Africa (2)

1. Homo erectus evolved independently into Archaic Homo sapiens (Neanderthals in Europe-SW Asia) Archaic Homo sapiens then evolved into Homo sapiens aka (Early Modern Humans) (1) multiple origins on 3 continents of Europe, Africa and Asia for modern Homo sapiens -- populations separated by 1.5 million years of evolution -- regional characteristics of populations reflected in long term evolution 2. They originate in Africa and then spread to Eurasia Homo sapiens evolved in Africa first then spread worldwide after 100K. modern populations have shallow roots anatomically modern humans speciated from only one African Archaic Homo sapiens species

Blombos Cave (South Africa)

100,000 and 70,000 years before present (BP) have yielded important new information on the behavioural evolution of modern humans. The archaeological record from this cave site has been central in the ongoing debate on the cognitive and cultural origin of early humans and to the current understanding of when and where key behavioural innovations emerged among Homo sapiens in southern Africa during the Late Pleistocene. Archaeological material and faunal remains recovered from the Middle Stone Age phase in Blombos Cave - dated to ca. 100,000-70,000 years BP - are considered to represent greater ecological niche adaptation, a more diverse set of subsistence and procurements strategies, adoption of multi-step technology and manufacture of composite tools, stylistic elaboration, increased economic and social organisation and occurrence of symbolically mediated behaviour.

Spirit Cave (Thailand)

11,000 yrs ago Many wild plant remains in its early levels such as butternut, almond, cucumber, water chestnut, beans and peppers. None of the plants were domesticated, rather intensive use of wide variety of food plants; rice absent.

El Sidrón Cave (Spain)

12 individual Neanderthals with intact DNA recovered all adult males have same Mitochondrial DNA lineage 3 females have 3 separate mtDNA lineages offspring show two individuals are related to one female and the other is associated with a second female birth spacing estimated at ca. 3 yrs

Pincevant (France)

12,000 yrs ago Seine River Valley France Reindeer herd intercept location Repeated activity loci represented by hearths centrally located within artifact clusters which include tools, ochre, and tool making debris Several clusters identified along with 43 reindeer representing late summer kills Interpretation: small temporary structures (tents) built for just a few individuals (small hunting party) Ochre used for hunting magic??

Combe Grenal (France)

125-50 thousands excavated by Francois Bordes 65 layers represented (13 meters thick consisting of loess, rock debris from roof cave-ins, and sediments washing into the cave from areas upslope) basal layer extreme cold (NAP > 85%) and fauna > 95% reindeer associated with handaxes (NAP= non-arboreal pollen)

Monte Verde (Chile)

13,200 - 12,400 yrs ago Rectangular-shaped, hide covered houses 3 X 4 meters in size with earth and timber foundations Variety of edible plants (42 species) recovered 90% of artifacts are crude river cobbles and include many edge trimmed crude flake tools, wooden objects also preserved 12 structures (logs and planks held in place by stakes and skin covered) (mastodon hide preserved next to foundation) bitumen as adhesive for hafting tools wooden artifacts include digging sticks spears, mortars, bola stones, unfluted bifacial spear points, grinding stones

Krapina (Croatia)

150-130 thousand stratified rockshelter in Croatia first excavated 1899 largest collection of Neanderthal remains (ca. 80) evidence of Neanderthals living into their 50s but most between 16-24 years of age high foreheads and similar long bones to humans healed broken arm, amputation of a hand, osteoarthritis faunal remains (rhinoceros, cave bear, wild ox, beaver, and red deer). Cut marks on some of bones could be from defleshing as part of burial ritual

Classic Neanderthal

300-30 thousand years ago remains first discovered when workmen uncovered fossil bones near Dusseldorf in Neander Valley of Germany in 1856. Behavior: Very similar to human behavior, in spit of some superficial anatomical differences Social Organization: Small hunting bands grouped into extended families with a common language. During certain times of the year, cooperative hunts with other groups. Subsistence: Hunting as primary with a focus on large herd animals (bison, horse, red deer, reindeer, and ibex) to support larger social groups. this served to maintain larger gene pool and genetic stability (minimal breeding population is 250) Scavenging still practiced Some wild plant collecting (wild peas and pistachios) starches identified on Neanderthal teeth from Shanidar Cave, Spy (Belgium), and El Sidrón Rituals and Religion: Cave bear rituals are based on little or no hard evidence. For example, Neanderthal burials oriented around cave bear skulls at Drachenloch Cave in Switzerland has been discredited. At Lazaret cave (150K) suggestion of ritual use of wolf skulls. There is clear evidence of burial rituals Burials: Grave burial occasionally with grave goods and red ochre with single grave burial most common. A total of ca. 60 are documented. None are known for Homo erectus and earlier Archaic Homo sapiens. Defleshing noted in a few cases as burial ritual. Grave ritual involves positioning deceased individual carefully along with the placement of grave offerings Intentional, well-defined burials were uncovered in Skhul, Qafzeh, Amud, Shanidar, and Kebara. Grave offerings are rare (e.g., stone tools, pebbles of distinctive shape or color, animal bones (usually horns, tusks, or mandibles with teeth or red ochre). La Ferrassie -- possible family cemetery with adults buried side by side and children at their feet

Dederiyeh Cave (Syria)

75-80 thousand years ago Two year old child burial recovered in 1993 from Mousterian stratum associated with Tabun B assemblage Burial position lying on back with arms extended & legs flexed Sub-rectangular limestone slab at top of head Small triangular flint found on chest

Mount Sandel site (Ireland)

7500 BP Large circular structures 6 meters in diameter with central hearth Sedentism and year round occupations Pit features contain great variety of animal species, some (fish and shellfish) from distant coast lines

Bering Land Bridge (Beringia)

A land bridge between Siberia and Alaska that was exposed during the most recent Ice Age when the waters of the Bering Strait receded.

Trade

Amber, Seashells, Obsidian Portable Art - e.g. Venus Figurines Cave art/paintings)

Upper Paleolithic

Aurignacian Blades End Scrapers Spear Points Bone and antler industry Solutrean 22-18,000 yrs ago -- finest stone working craftsmanship ever -- involved heat-treating flint before pressure flaking -- very selective use of fine quality raw materials -- found mostly in France, Spain and surrounding region). Earliest North American culture ??? Similarities in technology between Solutrean and Paleoindian (e.g., ultra-thin bifaces of Solutrean and North American Paleo sites) implies a direct connection --- bone points in both Paleo and Solutrean --- blades on both Clovis and Solutrean sites Magdalenian 18-10,000 yrs ago -- always latest in sequence -- elaborate cave art -- extensive use of flakes as well as blades for tools -- very fine bone, antler and ivory work, esp. harpoons

Meadowcroft (PA)

Clovis layer 14,000 yrs ago 17,000 yrs ago (blades) 21,700 yrs ago (base of excavations)

Clovis and Pre-Clovis

Clovis: Supporters believe humans here only as early as 12,000 yrs ago (11,200 - 10,900 yrs ago) -- oldest firmly documented archaeological culture in North America -- stone tool industry characterized by a bifacial flake and core technology with lanceolate projectile points -- end scrapers and side scrapers; wedges and gravers; burins; No microblades but some blades -- Commonly associated with remains of mammoth, bison, and other large (extinct) mammals. Pre-Clovis: Hypothesis states that humans were here as early as 40K Archaeological Sites Earlier than Clovis in North and South America Three Criteria for evaluating antiquity of Pre-Clovis sites: 1) are the absolute dates accurate? 2) is the context of the pre-Clovis finds and their associations intact? 3) are the artifacts real or natural?

Early Modern Humans

Cranium more rounded Pronounced chin Used to be called Progressive Neanderthals

Neolithic

Developments: The first domesticated animals are dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) from wolves (Canis lupus). Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs were primary domesticates in Middle East Late adoption of agriculture in west and northern Europe In Levant region, roots of agriculture are in Upper Paleolithic when abundant grain and nut resources allowed very focused foraging in the highlands and territories were developed around these productive zones.

Mal'ta (Siberia)

Excavations (1928 - 1950s) Seasonal reindeer hunting camp Slab-lined hearths, floors, walls in semi-subterranean structures for radiant heat Large animal bones used for Walls; roofing with interlaced reindeer antlers. Pebble choppers, cores, pointed blade tools and burins (hafted) Zoomorphic figurines, engraved plaques, ivory rods, needles, ornaments Child burial w/elaborate necklace of ivory plaques (similar to charm bracelet), bone and antler beads. Mammoth, rhino, reindeer (n = 150) and smaller mammal bones found in winter camp context Use of mammoth bones for fuel Intentional burial of foxes

Neanderthal anatomy

Heavy brow ridges Broad nasal cavity Inflated mascula Forehead angle Inflated Maxilla Square or pointed chin Average cranial compacity Have a gap behind the third molar Below the neck, same as humans, but their bones are thicker and show more defined muscle connection Have an occipital torus/protuberance (males more than females) Same abilities as humans (i.e. walking and running) Avg. height 5 ft w/ large face but not as large as earlier genus Homo Life expectancy: 30s to 40s but some sites (e.g., Krapina in Croatia) evidence individuals living into 50s Common traumas (bone fractures, malnutrition, disease) on many individuals show effects of difficult life in an ice age landscape

Omo site (Ethiopia)

Hominin (of human lineage) fossils unearthed there between 1967 and 1974 consist of about 200 teeth, four jaws, a partial skeleton, parts of two skulls, and a leg bone. The various layers have yielded remains from a broad and critical span of time in human evolution.

Skreblos

Large side-scrappers found in the Ma'lta site

Neanderthal technology

Levallois Cores/Flakes/Points Mousterian (CoreFlake techonology) (Goes a step beyonf Mode II) (Is used by both Neanderthals and early modern humans) (150 thousand years ago) Disk and Radial Cores Disk Core: (polyhedral) Used for spear points and specialized tools. Multiple flakes from a single core. Radical Core: A variant of disk cores (centripetal flaking pattern Composite Tools Stone item, shaft and binding; common in Mousterian along with expedient/flake tools directly hand-held. Chatelperronian - ornaments 40 thousand-30 thousand Neanderthals blade-like flake (In between a blade and a flake) Mousterian Tools: struck from prepared core and trimmed into points, knives and scrapers that make up the characteristic Mousterian tool kit Early Mousterian assemblages (handaxes and crude flake-core technology) Whereas all Neanderthals made Mousterian tools, not all Mousterian toolmakers were Neanderthals, i.e., Early Modern Humans also used Mousterian technology

Scandinavian Mesolithic Periods

Maglemose (9500-7700 BP) Maglemosian peoples flourished in interior river valleys, swamps and lakes of northern Europe after the Ice Age. Settlements were seasonal for hunting and fishing Kongemose (7700 - 6600 yrs ago) Mesolithic coast dwellers used many marine species: fish, shellfish, waterfowl, seals, porpoise and whales. Shell middens found in estuaries Inland/interior settlements used for trapping on lakes and rivers. Ertebølle (6600 to 5200 BP) Coastal sites occupied all year round. Main villages supported by small specialized sites nearby for: water fowl deep sea fishing seal hunting nut harvesting terrestrial species hunting deep sea fishing (10-meter long dugout canoes) shellfish

Broad Spectrum Adaptation/Primary Forest Efficiency

PFE: seasonal fish runs/spawns -- seasonal harvesting of acorns, hickory nuts, etc. -- increasing number/variety of food resources used -- scheduling resource use through settlement change -- developing new technologies such as trapping, fish weirs, spear throwers, dugout canoes, nets Examples from Maryland (Chesapeake) Archaic sites: Oysters and Anadromous fish

Cromagnum

Raised profile of the skull Sharper features in the face (including the chin) (1868 find) is physical type (from the rockshelter of the same name) defined on basis of European finds (esp. France) dating to 30,000 yrs ago A highly variable population with 1600 cc cranial capacity and height from 5'4" to 6'0" with high foreheads, prominent chins, and high-bridged noses. These still considered to be oldest modern human fossils in Europe.

Arcy-Sur-Cure (France)

Some hold remarkable parietal art, the second oldest presently known after those of the Chauvet cave. Another notable characteristic of these caves is the time-long series of pollen, related to determined and consistent archaeological levels. Between 1947 and 1963, they were searched by the French prehistorians Arlette and André Leroi-Gourhan. Listed monument historique (Heritage Monument) in 1992, they are partially open to the public.

Microliths

Used for for dense forest (taiga) adaptation. One of the evolutions of Upper Paleolithic tools

Loess

a clastic, predominantly silt-sized sediment that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust. 10% of the Earth's land area is covered by loess or similar deposits.

microblades and microblade cores

a period of technological development marked by the creation and use of small stone blades, which are produced by chipping silica-rich stones like chert, quartz, or obsidian. Blades are a specialized type of lithic flake that are at least twice as long as they are wide. An alternate method of defining blades focuses on production features, including parallel lateral edges and dorsal scars, a lack of cortex, a prepared platform with a broad angle, and a proximal bulb of percussion. Microblades are generally less than 50 mm long in their finished state.

Border Cave (South Africa)

as a remarkably continuous stratigraphic record of occupation spanning about 200 ka. Anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeletons together with stone tools and chipping debris were recovered. Dating by Carbon-14, amino acid racemisation and electron spin resonance places the oldest sedimentary ash at some 200 kiloannum

Dolni Vestonice (Czech Republic)

ca. 25K Ca. 800 mammoths recovered from excavation of a site buried within deep deposit of loess (wind-blown silts) Site lies on a small ridge overlooking a swamp All house structures except one inside perimeter wall Shelters of stone, earth, wooden posts and mammoth bones (e.g., large oval-shaped and 9 X 15 meters with five fireplaces inside at regular intervals) Year round occupation (summer and winter huts) by 100-150 people Large central community hearth surrounded by recoveries of Venus figurines, bird bone flutes, 2300 small clay figurines Gravettian blade tools Mammoth bone and ivory tools, e.g., needles, awls, spear points, knives, lances and digging equipment Ornaments: Pendants, necklaces, bracelets, carved from bone, ivory and shell Venus of Dolni Vestonice Material: fired clay ceramic tempered with bone Age: ca. 25,000 yrs ago (Gravettian), oldest known ceramic in the world Other figures and objects: bears, lions, mammoths, horses, foxes, rhinos and owls; more than 2,000 balls of burnt clay Micro-analysis: tomograph scan found a fingerprint of a child estimated at between 7 and 15 years of age, fired into the surface

Mezhirich (Ukraine)

ca. 3 meters below surface buried in loess -- beehive-shaped structures of mammoth bone (one contained 385 mammoth bones) -- oval shaped cluster of mammoth bone marks where structure stood and measures ca. 5 meters in diameter --within structure limits were flint blades, bone artifacts, charred bone, red ochre, amber (from Baltic Sea), sea shells from the Mediterranean Sea, flint nodules, and hammerstones within ash pits and hearths. 4600 flint artifacts excavated from one structure -- site consists of 4 circular houses, semi-subterranean in design, with interior hearths -- 149 mammoths represented in the structures -- repeated seasonal occupation -- two structures occupied contemporaneously -- storage pits between houses -- cold season occupations

Dyukhtai (Siberia)

contains evidence of Pleistocene occupation between about 16,000 - 12,000 years BP. The three Pleistocene levels contained 316 implements and fragments of various blade cores, burins, and projectile points. A bone awl-like tool and a hammer made of reindeer antler were also recovered. Faunal remains included mammoth, reindeer, wolf, and other small animals, but evidence of human activity seems to be restricted to the mammoth remains that were found. Many archaeologists believe that the Dyuktai people successfully colonized areas of Beringia and, eventually, North America.

Natufian

culture (12,500 - 10,200 yrs ago) in Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Egypt -- first Levantine culture with durable architectural remains -- abundance of both bone and stone implements (including lunate-shaped microlith) Natufians intensively exploited semi-arid regions collecting emmer wheat, wild barley, acorns, lentils, almonds, and pistachios. -- collection allowed development of sedentism and complex social organization -- Burials on Natufian sites show status differentiation -- large settlements grew quickly from success of broad spectrum adaptation -- ultimately developed incipient agriculture. Changes in climate eventually caused dispersal of once prevalent grain and nut foods. Rather than become more mobile again, Natufians began to plant and cultivate wheat, barley, and legumes to support their large settlements Sheep and goat are domesticated along with pigs and cattle Along with these domesticates are wheat and barley (11,000 yrs ago) and introduction of fired-clay pottery

Shanidar Cave (Iraq)

entrance is 8 meters high & 25 meters wide. floor of interior chamber is over 100 meters in length with ceiling inside about 14 meters high. Stratified deposits are 15 meters deep upper layers of the cave represent 20,000 years of deposits within about 2-3 meters of fill (ceramics, milling stones, stone tools, etc. mostly dating from ca. 7000 - 12,000 years ago individuals were crushed by rock fall from roof of cave another burial contained evidence of 8 types of flower pollen from the area near the head the flowers would have been brought there for burial ceremony individuals were crushed by rock fall from roof of cave another burial contained evidence of 8 types of flower pollen from the area near the head the flowers would have been brought there for burial ceremony

St. Cesaire (France)

in 1979 the remains of a young adult male Neanderthal were found buried in a small pit. The skeleton was recovered during archaeological salvage excavations at the back of the Roche-à-Pierrot rock shelter, near the village of Saint-Césaire. It is significant because it was found in association with tools and other artifacts formerly associated only with early modern humans (Homo sapiens) and not Neanderthals (H. neanderthalensis). Despite the inland location of the site, a marine shell was found buried with the individual.

Red ochre

is composed mailnly of iron oxide, hematite which word comes from Greek, hema meaning blood. Used from prehistory and throughout history, these permanent pigments can be safely mixed with other pigments.

Zafarraya (Spain)

known for a Neanderthal mandible found in a cave (Cueva del Boquete) in 1983 by Cecilio Barroso and Paqui Medina. The mandible has been dated to 30,000 years Before Present (BP), and at the time represented the youngest-known Neanderthal remains.

Atapuerca (Spain)

known for the abundant human (genus Homo) remains discovered there beginning in 1976. The site called Sima del Elefante ("Pit of the Elephant") contains the earliest evidence of humans in western Europe—fragments of a jawbone and teeth date to 1.1-1.2 million years ago. The nearby site of Gran Dolina contains human remains dating to about 800,000 years ago and some of the earliest tools found in western Europe.

Non Nok Tha (Thailand)

rice found in early occupation levels (ca. 6-5000 BP) clear impressions and carbonized remains of rice chaff found in pottery sherds rice chaff used in temper for ceramics? Analysis of rice grains shows that form of rice was intermediate between wild and domesticate Other domesticates from Non Nok Tha includes cattle and pigs.

Klasies River Mouth site (South Africa)

the site has yielded some of the oldest evidence of Homo sapiens. Discoveries made at Klasies have figured prominently in the search for the origin of modern people. The human remains, tools, and other evidence of human activity found there may date as far back as 120,000 years ago. Although the material is fragmentary, enough of it is preserved to show that the people who lived there were essentially modern, unlike Neanderthals or other archaic humans (genus Homo). The denizens of Klasies possessed prominent chins, modern faces, and limb bones like those of modern humans.