ANTHROPOLOGY MIDTERMS B
Marcel Mauss
1872-1950 The Gift West has gone a rye non-communist states are asking themselves what is the right economy (Bolshevik Rev.) the gift exchange in primitive societies is the precursor for capitalism - believes in the linear Morgan model - look at primitive societies for moral guidance Hobbs state of nature- people are greedy/ barbaric -the state solves this problem by as individuals consent to give up minute freedoms for social order and protection comparativist - modes of exchange balanced reciprocity, obligation to receive and reciprocate moral obligation to give equal gift being altruistic gives you power - not communist and not capitalist because objects gives one power takes community seriously diagram - 3 gift exchange His idea of the gift is like the Hobsian idea of the social contract based on reciprocity which makes stability without a state (nation).
relativism
A methodological stance, in which the researcher suspends his or her own cultural biases while attempting to understand beliefs and behaviors in their local contexts. It concerns itself specifically with avoiding ethnocentrism or the application of one's own cultural standards to the assessment of other cultures. (Boas would be in support of this)
comparative method
An arrangement of social or cultural conditions observed among existing peoples into a series that is then taken to represent a process of evolution. This procedure has been used to depict the whole sweep of human history, a limited period of development, or the growth of a particular social or cultural element or group of elements. Morgan analyzed cultures he deemed as "savage" and compared the differences and similarities with other cultures. (Morgan) tries to explain difference and similarities between cultures, in context of humanity as a whole
structural functionalism
Attempts to explains why society functions the way it does by focusing on the relationships between the various social institutions that make up society (e.g., government, law, education, religion,etc).(Douglas)
ethnical period
Based on the lines of progress, he distinguishes ethnical periods, which each have a distinct culture and a particular mode of life and do not overlap in a region. Morgan,. Savage, Barbaric, Civilized. lower, middle upper.
matter out of place
Dirt. Things placed out of their categorical place. (Douglas) simultaneously implies both the existence and the contravention of an established order or system and that this in turn establishes dirt as symbolic.
the unconscious
Freud:what role does he think dreams play in real life of a person? A dream dissects real life. your subconscious tells you things about yourself you may not realize you are thinking about. He says dreams show you how you are in the moment. He decides what his dreams meant. Difference between conscious and unconscious, reality versus non reality. Freud's understanding compares to MAlinowski's implication that "natives" are practitioners of culture without fully understanding the system of which they are apart of...like dreaming you go can go along with culture without knowing exactly what is going on. He says interpreting dreams is like analyzing culture. Freud doesn't want us to simplify our dreams. He believes dreams are a substitution for other thoughts, a person can identify someone else.
interpretive anthropology
Geertz, people interpret the world around them, so the anthropologists interprets their interpretations. Anthro interpretation not the truth, there is no true interpret
Hobbes' state of nature
Hobbes other idea of transformation in society : give up rights in order to maintain peace The state of nature is a concept in moral and political philosophy used in religion, social contract theories and international law to denote the hypothetical conditions of what the lives of people might have been like before societies came into existence. There must have been a time before organized societies existed, and this presumption raises questions such as: "What was life like before civil society?"; "How did government first emerge from such a starting position?," and; "What are the hypothetical reasons for entering a state of society by establishing a Nation-state?".
fieldwork versus armchair anthropological
In a more modern context, "arm-chair" anthropology could really refer to anyone making anthropological assessments without doing the legwork.
the civilizational ladder
Morgan's idea: 1: subsistence 2:government 3:language 4:the family 5:religion 6:house life & architecture
Assuming that its use is still a popular pastime among college students, why do you think that Facebook is as large a phenomenon as it is today? Please answer this question by doing the following (in no particular order): a) Compare the way three different scholars we have read thus far would hypothetically answer this question. b) Explain which aspects of Facebook you are going to analyze here and why. State and supporting your own argument in answer to the original question. Why is Facebook so big? Your own argument may "side" with one or more of these scholars' hypothetical arguments or it may diverge entirely
Number of friends shows status, belonging. amount of likes for ideas, pictures. keeping "in contact" by being Friends w someone in an arbitrary way that you dont actually talk to that person but you "collect" friends matter out of place, sex, political, spam, "like"- gift exchange social media makes you so isolated status, belonging, collect friends obligation to like photos on wall saying happy birthday hierarchy? number of friends/likes inappropriate photos political arguments spam stay connected with friends- real communications no fb means not invited to things stalking crush increases solidarity because so focused on own profile and likes--status confidence booster-posting selfies Anouncements-had a baby, married
Between the 1920s and 1970s, approaches to culture changed significantly within anthropology. Based on our readings and discussions so far, what were the most important changes that took place during this time period? Which approach would you argue is most useful in the analysis of culture, and why?
Shift from structuralism/functionalism to interprative, from kinship. Comparitive method, Morgan to Boas, (historisicm) (relativeism) Malinowski ethnography and field work Also from shunning bias and trying to be subjective, to now embracing bias as normal
developmentalist anthropology
Society develops in a straight line towards Western European forms of capitalist economic structures, (Morgan)
historical method
Starting with a full understanding of one culture, then seeing how the same causes for cultural phenomenon occur in other cultures. In this way, general laws of cultural development can be discovered. This is because Boas believes that human differences are mainly based on social and cultural aspects. (Boas) Boas idea that you have look at the history of a culture, piece it back together to understand present structure
communitas
Turner's concept, denoting intense feelings of social togetherness and belonging, often in connection with rituals. In communitas, people stand together "outside" society, and society is strengthened by this. The concept is in many ways the opposite of Marx's alienation or Durkheim's anomie, and is closely related to the latter's ideas about the "sacred" (vs. the "profane"). people stand together "outside" society, and society is strengthened by this place, also use of ritual to bring communitas together (Turner)
order/disorder
Turner-liminal space Order is a socially constructed idea of where things should be placed, for example trash in a trashcan is in order, but once the trash is on the floor it becomes disorder, also matter out of place or dirt (Turner and Douglas)
symbols
a sound or thing which has meaning given to it by the user. Human languages are systems of symbols.
gift exchange
also called ceremonial exchange, the transfer of goods or services that, although regarded as voluntary by the people involved, is part of the expected social behaviour. Gift exchange may be distinguished from other types of exchange in several respects: the first offering is made in a generous manner and there is no haggling between donor and recipient; the exchange is an expression of an existing social relationship or of the establishment of a new one that differs from impersonal market relationships; and the profit in gift exchange may be in the sphere of social relationships and prestige rather than in material advantage.
Margaret Mead
empirical vs interpretive methods Freud vs Mead connections - interpretive approach in Samoa, she checks if sex and sexuality is central to universal development in young girls - to determine if adolescent rebellion is universal or specific to US culture she argues sexual fidelity and strong social bonds do not exist in Samoa patterned irregularities - children meeting in the middle of the night - cross culturally those irregularities exist does not revise her work great controversy argued against eugenics Samoans lied to her biology is not basis of human behavior "plasticity of human beings" - all adolescents act the same looked at behavior within cultural context student of Boaz nature vs nurture she challenged stages of human development as not natural, but nurtured
thick description
human behavior is one that explains not just the behavior, but its context as well, such that the behavior becomes meaningful to an outsider. (Geertz 2) MORE
fieldwork
living among a group of people for the purpose of learning about their culture
objectivity
not influenced by personal feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts. Objectivity was something that was expected, desired and constantly striven for in anthropological fieldwork, from the ethnographer himself. In recent years, however, the trend seems to be a general admittance to the fact that true objectivity in the field is impossible and completely unattainable.
participant observation
physically and emotionally participating in the social interaction of another society on a daily basis in order to learn about its culture. In practice this usually requires living within the community as a member, learning their language, establishing close friendship ties, eating what they eat, and taking part in normal family activities. By becoming an active participant rather than simply an observer, ethnographers reduce the cultural distance between themselves and the host society. (best example is Margaret Mead) - living in a culture that is not your own while also keeping a detailed record of your observations and interviews.
deep play
play where the stakes are so high, that it is irrational from the utilitarian standpoint. It is only understandable if one know the meaning/symbolism.
Mary Douglas
purity and Danger - 1960's British Anthropology Pollution enforced societies desire for social boundaries - order vs disorder dirt=matter out of place comparativist structuralism - live by an unwritten structure hygiene is relative what people consider out of place is relative to culture patterning is a social construct - arbitrary symbolism publicized system of values when communicating with others culture is present, each person is induced to consent relying on the consent of others. shoes aren't dirty themselves, but they are dirty depending on where they are placed where there is dirt there is a system - society acts according to this system without even knowing it culture is our system of understanding the world culture has authority when people consent to it
ritual
stylized and usually repetitive acts that take place at a set time and location. They almost always involve the use of symbolic objects, words, and actions. For example, going to church on Sunday is a common religious ritual for Christians around the world.
liminality
the quality of ambiguity or disorientation that occurs in the middle stage of rituals, when participants no longer hold their pre-ritual status but have not yet begun the transition to the status they will hold when the ritual is complete. This term also has to do with the space between order and disorder, not just with people. Things that are in process of going from disorder to order or vice versa are considered in liminality. (Victor Turner) During liminal periods of all kinds, social hierarchies may be reversed or temporarily dissolved, continuity of tradition may become uncertain, and future outcomes once taken for granted may be thrown into doubt.[4] The dissolution of order during liminality creates a fluid, malleable situation that enables new institutions and customs to become established.One's sense of identity dissolves to some extent, bringing about disorientation, but also the possibility of new perspectives. Turner posits that, if liminality is regarded as a time and place of withdrawal from normal modes of social action, it potentially can be seen as a period of scrutiny for central values and axioms of the culture where it occurs.[30] - one where normal limits to thought, self-understanding, and behavior are undone. In such situations, "the very structure of society [is] temporarily suspended"[31]
Victor Turner
"Forest of Symbols" (1967)- Betwixt and Between:The Liminal Period in Rites of Passage -Liminal Period=undefined (ex: adolescence, college is the liminal state between youth and adulthood) --shows a lot about society -Neophytes: transitional beings-->Structurally invisible and ritually polluting -"no longer classified and not yet classified" (liminal) -Order and Disorder are defined by society -The liminal space is 1) ambiguous/contradictory 2) state from ritual transitions -Rituals: transition you from one state to another -Ceremonies: publicly announce something but doesn't transition one to a new state -All rituals=ceremonies but not all ceremonies=rituals 3 stages of ritual 1) separation, 2) liminal/journey 3) reagrogation/homecoming looking at liminal period shows a lot about society by showing people's reactions to what is undefined the liminal space allows for critical introspection of society by allowing us to stand back from mundane actions and look back more objectively
pollution
"matter out of place" Something that disrupts the conceptualized purity of culture. What is considered pollution is a societal construct, different in each culture. It is not only a physical addition of impurity to nature, but can be anything considered harmful or offensive to a culture's sense of purity. (examples: illicit sex, interracial mixing, violent video games, &c.)(Douglas)
the hau
"spirit of the gift". The hau demands that the gift be returned to its owner. In Polynesia, failing to reciprocate means losing mana, the person's spiritual source of authority and wealth. Gift-giving is thus a critical mechanism for creating social bonds. (Marcel Mauss) Spirit of the gift. When someone gives you something, you should be propelled to give something in return, in the spirit of the gift. To give a gift is to give part of one's soul. so when you get this gift the part of the giver's soul is in it and thats what makes you give something, w your bit of soul, reciprocated to them. Mauss The Gift
folklore/folktales
-Folklore is regionally specific, mythological, stories, allegories -seem to be an addition to their religious Hurston says "Folklore is not as easy to collect as it sounds" It takes courage and confidence for a person to get up and tell a folklore. It is also more difficult to get a folklore out of someone without any pre self awareness that would affect the story being told.
Boas "The Limitations to the Comparitive Method of Anthropology"
-common origins of "x" must be proven -comparative method? -universal alw -governing culture -when origins are the same you can compare -can't assume things come from the same origin -disagreed with Morgan's ideology that"some groups are better than others" -eugenics-measuring skills, skin color.. ect -social not biological ideas of cultural advancement -environment doesn't only affect culture -humans influence eachother-ppl reactions to others reactions -he says you can only compare once you find a common origin otherwise -misogyny is a common problem in many cultures -conventionalized representations of natural objects must be treated separately from those that have arisen from technical movements -comparing on a whim isn't valid and you have to have the same cause -culture has greater impact on lives than culture does -phenomenons only happen if it comes from the same culture -Boas American School of Anthropology
Morgan Ancient Society Ethnical Periods
-first looked at own community to compare to other communities so he can explain differences -because when civilized people look at savages we also know we were savages before. realize yourself by looking at other -Tries to explain difference -developmentalism -comparative he assumes groups are similar-he compares and makes hierarchy he said we are all part of the human family no differences -beginning and an end, ver linear narrative, time chronology -improvement or stagnation are the only options -The family: inner dynamic role in society -argument: a different culture is reserved in poverty places-stagnant-learn about the cultures that are disappearing -believes if not at the level of civilization one wants/needs to be more civilized -curiosity: learn characteristics about how they connect -human mind as endlessly accumulating knowledge developmentalist -civilization developed through experimental knowledge -humans have exsisted in a state of "savagery" quality of being fierce/cruel, barbarism (absence of culture), civilization (stage of human social development -all interlaced/sequence of progress -rudeness of early conditions -gradual evolution-mentally, morally gained thru experience -long time struggle with opposing obstacles to achieve civilization -"the former stand to each other in progressive, and the latter in unfolding relations" first stand alone and then they find connectedness and relations to one another -savagery: Older, middle, later -barbarism, lower, middle, upper Upper shows correlation each period is distinct and represents a period of life in which civilization i growing and changing and examines what was added in each of these periods -comparative, developmentalist
Malowinski
1884-1942 interested in present emphasizes fieldwork comparativist developmentalist records trivial details like Hurston bc they feel these details contribute to larger phenomenons seeks to understand how society holds together- people want to be part of a community "ethnographic present" he talks in a frozen place in time functionalism: function or purpose of consciousness-interpretive mode seeks to understand how society molds together -how does a society continue to grow -humans have needs beyond biological needs:belonging, communication, compassion against arm chair practice: "arm-chair" anthropology could really refer to anyone making anthropological assessments without doing the legwork. fieldwork without being there or hands on. believes fieldwork is necessary and need to be in a situation to analyze it -interested in the present and being there -something published is already out of date -one of the first upbringers of field-study -he is a FUNCTIONALIST -believes the world is way more complicated than we thought it out to be -what they are trading has no use to them -necklaces -complex system based on attribution of value to objects -he says they know a lot more then they are telling you -malinowski learned the language and realized they were telling the truth -the kula ring: form of exchange carried on by communities inhabiting a wide rang of islands regulated by a set of traditional rules and conventions he addressed as the system in which they traded patterns repeating itself he believed must be explained trying to figure out the rules of the game primitives aren't communism but something else once a kula always a kula only men must return gift and participate with others a series of relationships currency only valued for certain purposes
Hurston "Mules and MeN
black woman writer who wanted to be a scholar contribution-vivid black culture she said Florida was a good place to observe culture because she could compare two different types of people all in the same region -gives first hand sense about how people are speaking -Native Anthro studied under Boaz at Columbia Eatonville, Florida - first city recognized for negroes, black progression dialect - colloquial language- implies support from an existing nation her education separated her from her own people history of slavery and one of profound suspicion black history parallel to stoic native americans in that they both were suspicious of nosy white people 1890-1960 folklore "negro imagination" ethnographic writing black woman writer who wanted to be a scholar contribution-vivid black culture she said Florida was a good place to observe culture because she could compare two different types of people all in the same region -gives first hand sense about how people are speaking . dialogue is to language as folklore is to culture - it is what keeps the language and culture alive
Beginning with Bronislaw Malinowski's introduction to Argonauts of the Western Pacific, explore the nature of ethnographic authority. How have ideas about ethnographic authority changed over time? Responses to this question would ideally engage issues of fieldwork, positionality, textual style, and representation.
changing approaches to field work the ethnographic present accurate representation - ethics relativism Mead - not stereotyping a society or putting it into a box to answer your question adopting cultures partaking in cultural traditions learning the language medium in which you present your findings - narrative, folklore, documentary, diagrams, analytical essay talk around, not about an anthropological phenomenon so you do not degrade/limit it
In 'Deep play: notes on the Balinese cockfight,' Geertz suggests that 'The cockfight provides a metasocial commentary upon the whole matter of assorting human beings into fixed hierarchical ranks and then organizing the major part of collective existence around that assortment. Its function, if you want to call it that, is interpretive: it is a Balinese reading of Balinese experience, a story they tell themselves about themselves' (p 448). How does Geertz use the cockfight to understand Balinese society, and how does this analysis reflect his interpretive approach? What might be the equivalent of the cockfight in American society?
cock fighting symbolizes masculinity, penises, treated as prized possession, they hate animals and want to watch them die, narcissistic male ego, "direct inversion of the human status as animalistic" they take pride in violence and enjoy watching it and partaking in it blood lust fantasy he interpreted his observations he discovers things about innermost qualities of human nature by observing one specific sociological entity - which is cockfighting male confidence centered on penis - drawing penises as a joke, vulgar, violent video games, working out, hyper sexual conduct and actions, spending money on girls
structuralism
cultures, viewed as systems, are analyzed in terms of the structural relations among their elements. (Douglas) underlying structure unconscious code implied/unsaid rules value system based on meaning (Douglas) Claude Lévi-Strauss' idea that immutable deep structures exist in all cultures, and consequently, that all cultural practices have homologous counterparts in other cultures, essentially that all cultures are equatable. That things only have meaning in our cultures bc we give them meaning, unrelated
functionalism
describe the different parts of a society and their relationship through an organic analogy, comparing the different parts of a society to the organs of a living organism. Institutions such as religion, kinship and the economy are the organs and individuals were the cells in this social organism. Examines how social and cultural institutions serve basic human needs (Malinowski) cultural practices had psychological and physiological functions, such as the reduction of fear and anxiety, and the satisfaction of desires Malinowski, basically they are rooted in biological processes. serve a purpose
the obligation to give, to receive and to reciprocate a gift
reciprocity refers to the non-market exchange of goods or labour ranging from direct barter (immediate exchange) to forms of gift exchange where a return is eventually expected (delayed exchange) as in the exchange of birthday gifts. distinct from the true gift, where no return is expected. Reciprocity is said to be the basis of most non-market exchange. When the exchange is immediate, as in barter, it does not create a social relationship. When the exchange is delayed, it creates both a relationship as well as an obligation for a return (i.e. debt). Hence, some forms of reciprocity can establish hierarchy if the debt is not repaid. The failure to make a return may end a relationship between equals. Reciprocal exchanges can also have a political effect through the creation of multiple obligations and the establishment of leadership, as in the gift exchanges (Moka) between Big Men in Melanesia. Some forms of reciprocity are thus closely related to redistribution, where goods and services are collected by a central figure for eventual distribution to followers. gift exchange is the Kula ring division of labor organic solidarity mechanical solidarity when a gift is given you must return the gift gifts dont envolve negotiation capitalism translates relationships in trade reciprocal relationship intermingling-souls are mixed with things with souls -kula means 'circle' three obligations: give receive reciprocate
rites of passage
ritual ceremonies intended to mark the transition from one phase of life to another. (Turner) A rite of passage is a ritual event that marks a person's transition from one status to another. Rites of passage explore and describe various notable milestones in an individual's life, for any marked transitional stage, when one's social status is altered.
What makes rites of passage analytically significant according to Victor Turner? How do liminality and communitas work to maintain society as a whole? In the second part of your response, identify one particular rite of passage from your own experiences or knowledge, and provide an analysis of how the ritual operates in the context of Turner's analytical framework.
shows whats undefined, structuarally invisible, see society as outsider ...during rite of passage one transitions and thus enters the liminal space within society. The neophytes have a sense of communitas or community within their liminal grouping which becomes a support system for them. This support system enables the neophytes to have a place in society that does not exist for them. This also causes those that do have a place in society to step back and acknowledge the neophytes and makes them reflect on their own actions. - puberty -transition from college freshman to second semester student - confidence, experience - summer between senior in college and being in college - transition of father/brother as male figures in life to one's boyfriend
What is the significance of Mary Douglas's theory of purity and danger? Using her framework as a point of departure, explore the structuralist approach to culture. How do ideas of purity and pollution function to regulate society? In the second part of your response, incorporate an example of matter out of place from your own experiences, and apply Douglas's argument to analyze your example.
the structuralist approach to culture is presentist because it is a snap shot of present reality, which is based off of the past and perpetuated by social constructs binary oppositions created - good vs evil the distinction that is made between them is necessary as it helps us understand the world as we apply symbols and morals to arbitrary objects, which creates hierarchy one cannot have the idea of pollution without purity people care about how they are viewed and seek acceptance categorization create meaning, symbols, morals social order hierarchies are created when distinctions are created - hair in food - shoe on table - unattractive people - weird people
native anthropology
the study of cultural and spiritual elements. (Malinowski, Kula Ring, and Mead's account of the teens in Samao) Also can observe his or her own community (Zora Neale Hurston) Native anthropology has two variations: The first involves the study of the social and cultural world of Native Americans, while the second is when an anthropologist studies her own culture.
Clifford Geertz
we are the source of our own norms always looking to find meaning wink: multiple meanings structuralism wink deliberate contraction of the eye with meaning have to fully involve oneself in a culture to know what it means all the little nuances that everything we do is interpretation analyze other people's interpretation of themselves all u have is your interpretation of their interpretations of themselves social science -not factual after Geertz -just interpretive anthropology empiricism is out of the picture with interpretive anthropology anthro- the understanding of other peoples understanding deep play-stakes are so high-irrational to play anyway see p321 -thick description essay -when proposing what anthropology is, " men is.." bound it this system one person's description cock fights are a metasocial commentary
