Anthropology Test 1

Living the Revolution: Fidel's December 1, 1961 speech

-"I am a Marxist-Leninist" -Effect was to commit USSR to Cuba's support

Anti-conquest

-"the strategies of representation whereby European bourgeois subjects seek to secure their innocence in the same moment as they assert European hegemony"

Bartolome de las Casas

-1474-1566 -Born to a wealthy and prominent family in Spain -Had a law degree -Went to Hispaniola in 1502 -Had a large property with Native slaves -He thought it was a sensible method of colonizing -In 1520, the Order of Preachers arrived to Hispaniola and began to preach against slavery -Listened to the preachers, and began to observe injustices against Native people -Decides to give up running encomeinda though he still has the rights to it -Becomes a chaplain for the army invading Cuba -Witnesses a massacre -Goes back to Spain pleading to end the violence -King Ferdinand calls him "protector of the Indians" and he goes back to Hispaniola -Tries to enact laws but has no enforcing mechanism -Returns to Spain and finds the King doesn't really care -Frees his slaves in 1522

Timeline for Abolition of the Slave Trade

-1803: Denmark abolishes slave trade -1807: Britain abolishes slave trade -1807: U.S. passes legislation banning slave trade, to take effect 1808 -1810: British negotiate an agreement with Portugal calling for gradual abolition of slave trade in the South Atlantic -1815: At the Congress of Vienna, the British pressure Spain, Portugal, France and the Netherlands to agree to abolish the slave trade (though Spain and Portugal are permitted a few years of continued slaving to replenish labor supplies) -1817: Great Britain and Spain sign a treaty prohibiting the slave trade: Spain agrees to end the slave trade north of the equator immediately, and south of the equator in 1820. British naval vessels are given right to search suspected slavers. Still loopholes in the treaty undercut its goals and the slave trade continues strongly until 1830

Timeline for Abolition of Slavery

-1813: Gradual emancipation adopted in Argentina -1814: Gradual emancipation begins in Columbia -1823: Slavery abolished in Chile -1824: Slavery abolished in Central America -1829: Slavery abolished in Mexico -1831: Slavery abolished in Bolivia **1833: Abolition of Slavery Act passed in Britain which results in complete emancipation by 1838 -1842: Slavery abolished in Uruguay **1848: Slavery abolished in all French and Danish colonies -1851: Slavery abolished in Ecuador

The Politics of the Cuban Revolution: Monroe Doctrine

-1823: President James Monroe enunciated that it would not tolerate European efforts to colonize land or interfere with American states -Such intervention in North or South America would be viewed by the US as acts of aggression -The doctrine was issued at a time when nearly all Latin American colonies of Spain and Portugal had achieved independence

Timeline for Abolition of Slavery continued

-1854: Slavery abolished in Peru and Venezuala -1863: Emancipation Proclamation issued in the U.S. **1863: Slavery abolished in all Dutch colonies -1865: Slavery abolished in the U.S. as a result of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution and the end of the Civil War -1871: Gradual emancipation initiated in Brazil **1873: Slavery abolished in Puerto Rico **1886: Slavery abolished in Cuba -1888: Slavery abolished in Brazil -1960s: Slavery abolished in Sudi arabia and Angola

Economic Development Export Processing Production

-1950's in Puerto Rico "Operation Bootstrap" --By 1970, 40% of GDP comes from manufacturing --Today, 50%, but competition from other islands and locations is threatening PR's lead -Other EPZ's or Free Trade Zones --Jamaica: 15% of GDP --DR: "Hong Kong of the Caribbean: --Map

Cuban Migrations: Second Wave

-1965-1974 -Pedraza identifies this as largely composed by Cuba's Petite Bourgeoisie -She calls this phase "those who search" for greater economic opportunities in a stage of socialist government that requires its citizens to sacrifice individual consumption to achieve collective goals -Context: --US President Johnson instituted an "open door" policy for refugees from communist governments --Approximately 8 years of an orderly non-commercial air bridge or "Freedom Flights" between Cuba and the US --About 250,000 people migrated this way -Departures regulated by MOU between the US and Cuba --Governments would jointly decide who migrates largely based on family networks (connections to Peter Pan) --Cuba barred the following groups from migrating, however: ---Young men of military age ---Professionals, technical and skilled workers, such as doctors whose migration would cause a disturbance to the delivering of social services or production

Cuban Migrations: Antonio Maceo Brigade (second wave)

-55 progressive youth visited Cuba to search for their cultural identity, highlighted the suffering brought by exile --Brought about a dialogue between the Cuban government and some members of the Cuban community in exile ---Agreement to release political prisoners ---Promote family reunification ---And allow Cubans in the US to visit their family and homeland -Schism in the exile community: --Those who would return and those who refused to returned to Cuba -With the Antonio Maceo Brigade, US Cuba relations had been improving, interest sections had been established in each country -President Carter had an open arms policy with Cuban migrants ---This state of affairs would soon be complicated

Slavery: Signs of Freedom

-A spanish edict of 1664 offered freedom and land to African people from non-Spanish colonies, such as Jamaica and St. Dominique (Haiti), who immigrated to Puerto Rico and provided a population base to support the Puerto Rican garrison and its forts -Those freeman who settled the western and southern parts of the island soon adopted the ways and customs of the Spaniards -Some joined the local militia which fought against the British in the many British attempts to invade the island -The escaped slaves and the freedman who emigrated from the West Indies kept their former masters surnames, which were normally either English or French

Slavery Continues

-Abolishing the slave trade did not end slavery -British ships patrolled the west coast of Africa to halt illegal trade -The last document ship that carried slaves across the Atlantic arrived in Cuba in 1867

Pre- Columbian Timeline

-According to archaeological records, the Taino culture results from various migratory movements --4000 BC: Lithic Age peoples from Central America/ Yucatan to Cuba and Hispaniola (Igneri) --2500 BC: Archaic peoples from South America through Lesser Antilles (Archaic) --500 BC: Arawak peoples from South America through Lesser Antilles stalled in PR until ca. 700 AD (Saladoid) --700 AD: Expansion through the rest of the Greater Antilles and Bahamas (Ostionoid)

Slavery in Puerto Rico

-According to historian Luis M. Diaz, the largest contingent of African slaves came from the Gold Coast, Nigeria, and Dahomey, and the region known as the area of Guineas, the Slave Coast -However, the vast majority were Yorubas and Igbos, ethnic groups from Nigeria, and Bantus from the Guineas. The number of slaves in Puerto Rico rose from 1,500 in 1530 to 15,000 by 1555 -The slaves were stamped with a hot iron on the forehead, a branding which meant that they were brought to the country "legally" and prevented their kidnapping -They were allowed to live with their families in a bohio (hut) on the master's land, and were given a patch of land where they could plant and grow vegetables and fruits

Cuban Migrations: Special Period in time of Peace (fourth wave) continued

-Additionally, during the special period inequities that the revolution supposedly eliminated became increasingly apparent as new markets opened up in line with tourism and external investments -The deprivations suffered by the Cuban population were voiced in the August 1994 uprisings on the streets of Havana chanting "Liberated" but was dispersed by Cuban security forces -Shortly after, Castro ordered the Cuban coastguard to basically allow emigration from the shores for those who wanted to leave -In 1994, close to 37,000 balseros went to sea in hopes of arriving in the US -President Clinton responds by sending the US Coast Guard to block them, redirect them to the Guantanamo Naval Base, where 30k Cubans awaited in tents for nine-months to be allowed in the US

African Heritages

-African diaspora --West Africa: Senegal to Angola --Est. 10 million crossed the Atlantic (2 million died on the way) between 16th and 19th century --Intentional mixing so no one source would dominate --hybridity of cultures, religions, and languages -Maroon societies (palenques): Maintenance of historical religions --Obi, Obeah --Bush Negroes -African Religions: --Voodoo, Santeria, Obeah --Extensive use --Diffused to the US along with migrants

Islamic Slave Trade

-After the 8th Century, Muslim merchants from north Africa, Arabia, and Persia sought African slaves for trade in the Mediterranean basin, southwest Asia, India and as far away as southeast Asia and China -The Islamic slave trade lasted into the 20th Century and resulted in the forces deportation of as many as 10 million Africans

"Purity of Blood"

-After the end of the Reconquista and the expulsion or conversion of Muslim Mudejars (Moors) and Sephardic Jews, the population of Portugal and Spain was all nominally European Christian -The ruling class and much of the populace distrusted the recently-converted "New Christians", referring to them as conversos or marranos if they were baptized Jews or descended from them, or Moriscos if they were baptized Muslims or descended from them -A commonly-leveled accusation was that the New Christians were false converts, secretly practicing their former religion as Crypto-Jews or Crypto-Muslims -Nevertheless, the concept of cleanliness of blood came to be more focused on ancestry than of personal religion. The first statute of purity of blood appeared in Toledo, 1449, [1] where an anti-Converso riot succeeded in obtaining a ban on Conversos and their posterity from most official positions. Initially, these statutes were condemned by the monarchy and the Church; however, in 1496, Pope Alexander VI approved a purity of statute -The Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions were more concerned with repressing the New Christians and heresy than chasing witched, which was considered to be more a psychological than a religious issue, or Protestantism, which was promptly suffocated

Cuban Migrations: third wave - Marielitos continued

-Along with those who wanted to leave, Castro sent a large number of those who identified as anti-social elements --23,970 admitted they had been in jail in Cuba, of which 5,486 were political prisoners --70% had committed minor acts such as vagrancy or participating in the underground market -Pedraza calls this a wave of "those who hope" -Overall, these migrants --were younger and largely grew up within the context of the revolution --had a more diverse number of racial backgrounds ---1960 profile "white male executive" ---1980 profile "black male bus driver" -Prejudices affected the welcome of newcomers, as the established exiles were afraid that Marielitos might tarnish their reputation -Only lasted from April to September of 1980 --Closed doors to further migration until mid eighties when a New Migration agreement was signed for up to 20k Cubans and 3k political prisoners ---But in practice only 2k visas were being given a year

1994: Cuba Boom

-Balseros Crisis: increased media attention on Cuba -Dollarization in Cuba: dual currency system as a result of the loss of purchasing power of the Cuba peso after the fall of the USSR --Increase flow of dollars form tourism and remittances --Segmentation of markets by currencies and agents involved --Cuba open to foreign investment

Economic Development Bananas and Banana wars

-Banana production --Most in CA --Vulnerable to hurricanes --Still, several states are dependent on bananas (Dominica, St. Vincent, St. Lucia) --Landowners are the laborers: 2-4x income -1996: WTO case --Us, Mexico, Ecuador, Guatemala, and Honduras sue EU over preferential trade agreements with Caribbean countries --Exacerbated by consumer preferences -Result: Non traditional exports --Okra, tomatoes, avocado, marijuana

Bartolome de las Casas continued

-Becomes a monk, writes to oppose slavery laws, tries to persuade Spanish to convert and live peacefully with the Native peoples -1542, writes a short account of the destruction of the Indies, published in 1552 -Two intertwined stereotypes: that of the peaceable, childlike, innocent Indian and that of the cruel, rapacious, self-serving Spaniard -By the third quarter of the 16th century, Las Casas' writings had been translated into French, Dutch, and English -For Protestants, Las Casas's condemnation of his own people and catalogue of their injustices allowed them to argue for a greater non-Spanish presence in the New World -This introduced a narrative into the discourse that puts into doubt the idea that: --Spaniards were trying to extend Catholic conversion --That they were motivated by religion --That they eliminated human sacrifice and cannibalism --That they protected and incorporated Natives -Instead it highlights: --The economic motivations of conquest --The cruelty of the process of conquest and the ensuing exploitation of forced slave labor

Slave Trade and Sugar

-By the 1520s some 2,000 slaves per year were shipped to Sao Tome -Some time thereafter, Portuguese entrepreneurs extended the use of slave labor to South America -Eventually Brazil would become the wealthiest of the sugar-producing lands in the western hemisphere

European Slave Trade

-By the time Europeans arrived in Sub-Saharan Africa in the 15th and 16th Centuries, the slave trade was a well-established feature in African society -A detailed system for capturing, selling, and distributing slaves had been in place for over 500 years -With the arrival of the Europeans and the demand for slaves in the Americas, the slave trade expanded dramatically

Living the Revolution: Cold War Years

-Cuba effectively traded dependency on the US for dependency on USSR --10 million ton harvest of sugar: goal for 1970 --Rationing of foodstuffs because of need for self-sufficiency but dependency on USSR goods, oil

Commonalities Amongst the Caribbean Islands

-Cultural and Economic history -Diverse European influence -Strong African imprint and slavery -Limited indigenous legacy --Export plantation economy --Grossly uneven distribution of land and resources -Environmental impacts -Environmental/physical geographies

Economic Development

-Decline of agriculture: --Turbulent and declining commodity prices --Decline in preferential trade agreements with former colonial countries --Soils are overworked/ no frontier --Mechanization of sugar: less labor needed --Examples: ---Haiti (1955: 70% of foreign exchange through coffee; 1990: 11%) ---DR (1955: 60% of foreign exchange through sugar; 1990: 20%)

Slavery in the Caribbean and South America

-Disease, brutal working conditions, and poor sanitation and nutrition resulted in high mortality rates -Owners imported mainly male slaves and allowed few to establish families which resulted in low reproduction -To keep up the needed numbers, plantation owners imported a steady stream of slaves --Of all slaves delivered to the western hemisphere, about 50% went to Caribbean destinations --About 33% went to Brazil --Smaller number went elsewhere in South and Central America

Present Day Organizations

-During my (professor) research I met people within over a dozen organizations located all over the island, the central mountainous area, however, is often cited as a spiritual center -Each organization had approximately between five and over a hundred members -Groups differ in their social organization, affiliations and goals, though they express similar beliefs and practices -There are spiritual, political, ceremonial, educational, cultural, social, and linguistic aspects to being Taino today

Living the Revolution: the Family Code

-Envisioned as monogamous and heterosexual -Could not discriminate against children born out of wedlock -Sharing of domestic responsibilities -Right to work and education as long as family life was not interrupted -Rights for purchases when wed -Simple no-fault divorce -But persistence of tradition attitudes: women's double workday

Slavery: the Middle Passage

-Following capture, slaves were force-marched to holding pens before being loaded on ships -The trans-Atlantic journey was called the "Middle Passage" -The ships were filthy, hot, and crowded -Most ships provided slaves with enough room to sit upright, but not enough to stand -Others forced slaves to lie in chains with barely 20 inches space between them

Settlement

-Following the settlement of Hispaniola which was successful towards the end of the 15th century, the colonists began searching elsewhere to begin new settlements. Those less prosperous in Hispaniola were eager to search for new success in a new settlement. From there Juan Ponce de Leon conquered Puerto Rico and Diego Velazquez took Cuba -The Spaniards were the first Europeans to use African slaves in the New World on islands such as Cuba and Hispaniola, where some chroniclers wrote that the native population starved themselves rather than work for the Spanish -Although the natives were used as forced labor, the spread of disease caused a shortage of labor, and so the Spanish colonists gradually became involved in the Atlantic Slave Trade -The first African slaves arrived in Hispaniola in 1501; by 1517, the natives had been understood to be "virtually annihilated" by the settlers

Slavery: Abolitionists

-Former Slaves --Olaudah Equiano -Politicians --William Wilberforce -Religious Leaders --John Wesley -Revolutionaries --Simon Bolivar

Religious Leaders: John Wesley

-Founder of the Methodist Church -Published "Thoughts Upon Slavery" in 1774 -On his deathbed he was reading Equiano's "Narrative"

Living the Revolution: the New Man

-Ideologically, Castro argued that the economic restructuring and redistribution of wealth in Cuba would eliminate long-held racial and gender inequities --Drawing from the figure of Che Guevara: the New Man would emerge in the parallel with the political and economic revolution ---Selfless, cultured, educated, committed to the revolution

Mary Louise Pratt: Ways of Knowing

-Ideology is often used to refer to a set of beliefs, which explain or justify some actual or potential social arrangement --An ideology often confers legitimacy on a social system -Auto-ethnography -Pratt introduced this as a genre of resistance where a culture is presented from the perspective of someone within the culture rather than an outsider

African Diaspora: Cuisine

-Impacted cuisine by introducing African foods to Caribbean and American societies --For example, combined African okra with European-style sauteed vegetables and American shellfish to make gumbo -Introduced rice cultivation to tropical and subtropical regions -Fashioned distinctive crafts such as pottery and baskets

Christopher Columbus

-In 1492 Christopher Columbus's arrival to the New World for Spain, which he believed to be Asia, led to disputes between the Spanish and Portuguese -These were eventually settled by the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, which divided the word outside of Europe in an exclusive duopoly between the Portuguese and the Spanish along a north-south meridian 370 leagues, or 970 miles (1,560 km), west of the Cape Verde islands -Through the capitulations of Santa Fe, the Catholic Monarchs had granted excessive power to Columbus -In May 1499, taking advantage of a revolt against Columbus in La Espanola, the monarchs appointed to Francisco de Bobadilla as governor of the Indies with civil and criminal jurisdiction over the lands thought to be "discovered" by Columbus, but he was soon replaced by Nicolas de Ovando in September 1501 -Thenceforth the Crown could authorize to individual voyages to discover territories in the indies were previous license, and since 1503, the monopoly of the Crown was assured by the Casa de Conntratacion at Seville

Living the Revolution: Within 4 years Castro...

-In Februaru 1959, Castro concentrates power in the executive position. Within four years: --Suppressed the free press --Took away the autonomy of the University of Habana --Held public trials and executes Batista's henchmen -Moved the revolutionary government to accomplish economic goals: --Land reform for which he expropriated large estates --Income redistribution --Agricultural diversification --Economic independence from the United States -These radical measures alienated much of his middle class support

Living the Revolution: The Revolution and Race

-In March 1959, Castro publicly called on Cubans to end discrimination --Communists under Batista had already made similar calls of the government to outlaw discrimination, but were ignored --Afro-Cuban intellectuals voiced the hope that the revolution would bring an end to racism -Castro saw two sources of such institutionalized discrimination --One that barred Afro-Cubans from access to social spaces --One that barred Afro-Cubans from jobs -Some Cubans thought that the first intervention was a transgression of the private sphere --Revolutionary authorities saw this as counter-revolutionary and as guilty of "American-style prejudice_

Brief background on Iberian context

-In the 8th century, Muslims had occupied and settled most of the Iberian Peninsula -Jews, who had lived in these regions since Roman times, were considered "People of the Book" and given special status and often thrived under Muslim rule

Encomienda system

-In the encomienda, the Spanish crown granted a person a specified number of natives for whom they were to take responsibility -In theory, the receiver of the grant was to protect the natives from warring tribes and to instruct them in the Spanish language and in the Catholic faith: in return they could extract tribute from the natives in the form of labor, gold or other products -In practice, the difference between encomienda and slavery could be minimal. Many natives were forced to do hard labor and subjected to extreme punishment and death if they resisted

Development of informal economy

-Inequality between tourists and locals -Makes visible the moral crisis of the revolution -Considering this general background, lets consider the reading to be discussed today: --"Fear of a Black Nation" --"Copyrighting Che"

Caribbean cities

-Initially, just administrative centers fro business of the plantations --Most people lived in rural areas --Few current cities have extensive colonial architecture and urban design (ex. Havana: the key colonial city in the region) --Paramailbo (Suriname) looks like a tiny Holland -Recent migrations caused by --Mechanization of agriculture --Offshore industrialization --Rapid population growth ---Only 4 are >1millions (Santo Domingo 2.6m; Havana 2.2m; Port-au-Prince 1.5m; San Juan 1m) -Modern cities reflect historical rural social and economic patterns: --"Houseyards" ---Rural subsistence, economic survival, matriarchal social structure

Revolutionaries: Simon Bolivar

-Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, Bolivar took up arms against Spanish rule in 1811 -Freed slaves who joined his forces -Provided constitutional guarantees of free status for all residents of Gran Columbia (Venezuela, Columbia, and Ecuador)

1492 Timeline

-Jan 2: The last Moorish King of Grenada, surrenders his city to the army of Ferdinand and Isabella after a lengthy siege, ending the 10-year Granada War and the Reconquista which lasted almost 800 years. Christopher Columbus is in Alhambra, and sees the Moorish king come out of the city and gates and kiss the hands of the Spanish king, queen, and prince -Jan 6: Ferdinand and Isabella enter into Granada -Mar 31: Ferdinand and Isabella sign the Alhambra decree, expelling all Jews from Spain unless they convert to Roman Catholicism -Apr 17: The Capitulations of Santa Fe were signed -Jul 31: The Jews are expelled from Spain; 40,000-200,000 leave. Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire dispatched his Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands -Aug 3: Christopher Columbus sails his first journey across the Atlantic Ocean to Asia, but he ends up in the Americas -Oct 12: Christopher Columbus' expedition makes landfall in the Caribbean and lands on Guanahani (Bahamas) but believes he has reached the East Indies -Oct 28: Christopher Columbus lands in Cuba -Dec 5: Christopher Columbus sets foot on the island of Hispaniola

Taino legacy

-Language --Words from Taino in English ---Hammock (Jamaca), Hurricane (Juracan), Canoe (Canoa), Barbecue (Barbacoa), Maize (maid), Tobacco (Tabacu), Iguana --Words from Taino in Spanish ---Coa (digging stick), macuto (knapsack), enagua (slip clothes), batey (now means front yard), areito (dance), Guayaba (Guava), Cayo (kaya), Juey, Cacique, Vaguada (Bagua) -Practices --The conuco garden --Batea --Use of the dita and jataca (make note of coconut ones...) --Foods (guanimes, marota, sorullos, casabe...) --First intro to Yuca, Tobacco, Rubber, Cotton, Sweet Potato, corn, bean, squash, peanut, pineapple, hammocks... -Placenames in the Greater Antilles (e.g. Haiti, Cuba Jamaica are from Taino) --Bayamon, Guaynabo, Yabucoa, Mayaguez, Hamacao, Caguas, Utuado, Arecibo, Vieques, Jayuya, Conovanas, Camuy...

African Diaspora: Religion

-Many slaves were either Christians when they left Africa or converted to Christianity after their arrival in the western hemisphere -Their Christianity was not exactly like European Christianity and make considerable room for African traditions --Associated African deities with Christian saints --Relied heavily on African rituals such as drumming, dancing, and sacrificing animals --Preserved their belief in spirits and supernatural powers and made use of magic, sorcery, witchcraft and spirit possession

The Politics of the Cuban Revolution: Proclamation of Montecristi

-March 25, 1895 -The war was to be waged by blacks and whites alike -Participation of al blacks was crucial for victory -Spaniards who did not object to the war effort should be spared -Private rural properties should not be damaged -the revolution should bring new economic life to Cuba -The Cuban struggle for independence had captured the American imagination for years, and newspapers had been agitating for intervention with sensational stories of Spanish atrocities against the native Cuban population -Spain decided to change its policy towards Cuba drew up a colonial constitution for Cuba and Puerto Rico and installed a new more autonomous government in Havana

mtDNA studies

-Martinez Cruzado, Juan 1998. University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez Study --Found that 61.1% of his sample (n=800) had Native American mtDNAs (especially Haplogroups A, B, C, D) (also 26.4 Sub-Saharan African, 12.5 Caucasian) -Problematic uptake by Taino peoples and organizations --Scholarly responses: What it does say: ---May indicate a longer period of contact than suggested by present historical interpretations ---May clarify earlier pre-Columbian migratory paths --Scholarly responses: What is doesn't say: ---Non-representative skewed population, data taken from areas of Island known for "looking" indigenous (Las Indiera, Maricao) ---Question of Indigenous moving, maybe these are non-Taino populations? ---Culture/genetics are not the same, so does not say that Taino culture survived in itself

"Purity of Blood" continued

-Meanwhile, in Portugal, free from threats to its existence and unchallenged by the wars fought by other European states, Portuguese attention turned overseas and towards a military expedition to the Muslim lands of North Africa -At the time, Europeans did not know what lay beyond Cape Bojador on the African coast. Henry wished to know how far the Muslim territories in Africa extended, and whether it was possible to reach Asia by sea, both to reach the source of the lucrative spice trade -A major advance which accelerated this project was the introduction of the caravel in the mid-15th century, a ship that could be sailed closer to the wind than any other in operation in Europe at the time. Using this new maritime technology, Portuguese navigators reached ever more southerly latitudes, advancing at an average rate of one degree a year. Senegal and Cape Verde Peninsula were reached in 1445 -In 1448, Batolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope on the southern tip of Africa, proving false the view that had existed since Ptolemy that the Indian Ocean was land-locked -Simultaneously Pero da Covilha, traveling secretly overland, had reached Ethiopia, suggesting that a sea route to the Indies would soon be forthcoming

Post Socialist Cuba: 1994

-Ministry of Tourism created --Art took a higher visibility in Cuba --Havana Art Biennial takes place putting Cuban Art on a world stage: US curators able to head to Cuba -These changes made it safe again for tourists to travel to Cuba, including Americans --American citizens could legally be a part of religious or humanitarian missions --Or illegally as tourists through other countries, such as Mexico --Tourism was capitalist in nature

Impact of Slave Trade in Africa

-Mixed --Some states like Rwanda largely escaped the slave trade through resistance and geography --Some like Senegal in west Africa were hit very hard --Other societies benefited economically from selling slaves, trading, or operating ports --As abolition took root in the 19th Century some African merchants even complained about the loss of their livelihood -On the whole, however, the slave trade devastated Africa -The Atlantic Slave Trade deprived Africa of about 16 million people and the continuing Islamic slave trade consumed another several million -Overall the African population rose thanks partly to the introduction of nutritious food sources from the americas

US influence after 1898:

-Monroe Doctrine: No tolerance for European powers in the Western hemisphere -Spanish-American war 1898 -"America's Backyard" US asserts neocolonial control over persistent colonies of the English, French and Dutch --"Free it from European tyranny and foster democratic governance" BUT: ---Roosevelt: Panama canal and open sea-lanes ---Good Neighbor Policy (1930's) ---Alliance for Progress (1960's) ---Caribbean Basin Initiative (1980's) ---FTAA possibilities

Slavery: Plantations

-Most African slaves went to plantations in the tropical or subtropical regions of the western hemisphere -The first was established by the Spanish on Hispaniola in 1516 -Originally the predominant crop was sugar -In the 1530s the Portuguese began organizing plantations in Brazil, and Brazil became the world's leading supplier of sugar -In addition to sugar, plantations produced crops like tobacco, indigo, and cotton -All were designed to export commercial crops for profit -Relied almost exclusively on large amounts of slave labor supervised by small numbers of European or Euro-American managers

Cuban Migrations: 1970 (second wave)

-Move toward "political pragmatism" --Failure of 10 million ton harvest --Material incentives and wage differentials introduced to motivate economic growth --Began to look more like the communism in the USSR --New generations of Cubans in the US introduced more heterogeneity in terms of political stances toward Cuba

Responses to Present day Taino peoples

-News media --Coverage of Caguana pretests, included writing indigenous in quotes ("indigenas"), (note exception is UPR-RP paper) --Notable recent change in coverage after mtDNA stuff?) -Government agencies --Larger scale (executive, legislative, judicial) skepticism of any claim to rights --Smaller scale (mayors, agencies: educational and cultural) celebration of legacy and support of performances, festivals -Scholars --Some, skeptical of motivations of claiming to be Taino (money, racism, political status) --Others, careful to not fall into pitfall of authenticity, instead focus on identity-shaping processes within movement -General population --Urban vs. Rural, Educational status, Age group: have differences in their response

The Politics of the Cuban Revolution: Cuban FIRST Ten Years War

-October 10, 1868 -Sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Cespedes and his follower proclaimed Cuba's independence from Spain -The motivation was the failure of the latest Reformist efforts, the demise of the "information Board" and economic crisis in1866-1867 -In spite of the crisis, the colonial administration continued to make huge profits which were not invested on the island but either wen tinto military expenditures, paid for the colonial government's expenses, or were sent o Spain -The Spaniards with 8% of the population appropriated over 90% of the island's wealth. In addition, the majority of the Cuban population still had no political rights, giving rise to underground movements, especially in the eastern parts of the country -After failing to reach an agreement with the insurrection forces in early 1869, the Spanish responded by unleashing a war of extermination -Preliminarily ended in through the Pact of Zanjon, which promised various reforms throughout the island which would improve the financial situation of Cuba -Perhaps the most significant was to free all slaves who had fought Spain. A major conflict throughout the was the abolition of slavery -Both the rebels and the people loyal to Spain wanted to abolish slavery. In 1880, a law was passed by the Spanish government that freed all of the slaves

Living the Revolution: Racial Relations prior to the revolution

-Open de-facto racial segregation --Blacks and people of visibly mixed ancestry were discriminated against in luxury hotels, restaurants, bars, beaches, and country clubs --Their children were not allowed in best private schools even if they had the means to afford them

Notes on the Archaeological Record

-Operates on an assumption of extinction, so it has paid relatively little attention to the archaeology of encounter and contact after the European and the later African arrival (exception see Deagan 2004) -In Puerto Rico, the looting and non-identification of sites means that a lot of information does not make it to the record -Tension between protection and archaeological reconstruction -Law 112 and its discontents

Mary Louise Pratt cont.

-Other and previous analyses of this type of literature often take the information shared in the centuries-old pages as mere fact and as legitimate and transparent sources of information. They can also precariously celebratory of the protagonists of the accounts (Pratt, 12) -Writers, such as Pratt, are critical of the focus of travel writings on the differences from, rather than the similarities to, the peoples that the authors encountered -For example, in his Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies, Bartolome de las Casas draws attention to the atrocities committed by the Spanish towards the indigenous people not by humanizing them, but by appealing to the similarities among the Spanish: their Catholic faith. De las Casas' condemnation of the Spanish segregates them from the Natives. This distinction between the Spanish and the indigenous peoples is typical of travel writings, where the native populations are cast as "others" -This is part of an attempt to "decolonize knowledge" -Moves beyond ending political structures of colonization to opening up to other perspectives of history and historical events and other ways of knowing --Self determination in historical accounts --Tied to postmodern turn in anthropology which examines the power relations according to which the colonial Other has been constructed

Cuban Migrations: The First Wave - "Those who escape"

-Pedraza identifies "those who escape" as the second group within the first wave --active after the political turmoil that followed the government's silencing of the Catholic Church: after the church criticized the revolution --Largely middle-class -A push rather than a pull motivation --Includes Operation Peter Pan

Mary Louise Pratt

-Professor of Spanish and Portuguese Languages and Literatures at NYU -She has been key in the idea of studying the "social spaces where cultures meet, clash, and grapple with each other, often in contexts of highly asymmetrical relations of power, such as colonialism, slavery, or their aftermaths as they are lived out in many parts of the world today" which she calls contact zones -She draws upon linguistics for this model, based on the idea of contact languages -Contact languages as "the outcome of a complex intersection of linguistics, historical, and social processes" -She would rather scholars use this analytical lens than the term "colonial frontier;" a term commonly used in historical texts not easily identifiable as hegemonic -Pratt explains that the term's perspective is one of European expansionism, for "the frontier is a frontier only with respect to Europe." (Pratt, 8) A contact zone, conversely, shifts the point of view and provides a more symmetrical picture, since it suggests interaction, transculturation, and co-presence -She argues that taking this more skeptical perspective helps "decolonize knowledge, history, and human relations" by revisiting and reinterpreting travel and exploration literature (Pratt, 3) -Pratt holds that solely acknowledging European accounts in constructing and telling history contributes to imperialism -Moreover, it perpetuates the monopoly at colonization's core, even in present times, because of the asymmetric reproduction of knowledge and interpretation (Pratt, 7).

Taino: Differing historical accounts

-Scholarly histories: --Taino became extinct at some point between 16th and 18th centuries --Taino have left a cultural, biological and linguistic legacy in Puerto Rico, but it cannot be claimed by any specific person or group of people -Taino oral narratives --After revolt of 1511 and to avoid the encomiendas, Taino survived in the Indieras region of Puerto Rico between 1511 and 1812 --The Taino legacy can be claimed by specific people and groups, in this view the continuity of the legacy and of claims to it means the Taino have never been extinct

Taino: On Extinction

-School books (e.g. Pico), such as those used in Puerto Rico's public and private school system, claim that the Taino people became extinct in the early to mid sixteenth century, through disease, slavery, genocide and assimilation -Historians debate this, as Taino Indian populations were noted in Puerto Rico's census of 1711 (1756 indios) and 1778 (2302 indios). According to Figueroa (1996) "Our country's natives seem to have been typed as Indians until the beginning of the XIXth century when Governor don Toribio Montes faced with the difficulty of fixing ethnic origins, banded all the non-whites together under the title of free colored people (pardos)" --Some alternative theories ---After the encomienda system was abolished in 1544, the Spanish exaggerated Taino disappearance in order to justify the introduction of African slaves ---Spanish did not know how to navigate the island's interior mountainous terrain where the indigenous people's were and did not know how many were there

Mary Louise Pratt: Transculturation

-She was influenced by Cuban anthropologist Fernando Ortiz, who introduced the term to move away from models of acculturation and deculturation which presumed linear relations of acquiring or losing a new culture, opten laced with underlying power relations -Instead focuses on the creation of new cultural phenomena through contact often in the context of colonial and postcolonial relations

Taino Resurgence

-Since the 1970's Taino groups have been publicly making claims to sacred grounds throughout Puerto Rico. There have also been groups in the US: mainly in NY and NJ. Often explained as a result of nationalism, loss of traditional practices correlated with DIVEDCO, Operation Bootstrep and Serenity -There are various organizations, not all of them agree in terms of goals and beliefs -However, they all agree that Puerto Rican historical accounts have erred in pronouncing the Taino to be extinct -The Taino resurgence has been documented throughout the Caribbean

Living the Revolution: Threats to Unity

-Since unity was key to the government efforts, and such policies proved harder to implement than Castro had envisioned, emphasis became policies on employment -Change toward a color-blind society was thought to emerge gradually, through a new generation of Cubans --But all beaches, parks, and recreational facilities would be made public and desegregated --Nationalization of private schools --Mass party organizations obligated to have color-blind membership policies --And the discourse started to change to one of class rather than race

History of African Slavery

-Slavery has existed since antiquity -It became common in Africa after the Bantu migrations spread agriculture to all parts of the continent -Most slaves in Africa were war captives -Once enslaved, an individual had no personal or civil rights -Owners could order slaves to any kind of work, punish them, and sell them as chattel -Most slaves worked as cultivators -Local laws in the region did not recognize individual land ownership so wealth and power in regions of Africa often came not through the ownership of land but through the control of human labor that made it productive -Slaves were understood by some individuals as a form of investment and a sign of wealth

Slavery: Auctions

-Slaves were sold at auctions -Buyers physically inspected the slaves, to include their teeth as an indication of the slave's age -Auctioneers had slaves perform various acts to demonstrate their physical abilities

Plantation Economies

-Spanish discoveries: jumping off point for exploration and ports for trading from Mexico, CA and SA -Colonists: demographic collapse of indigenous Arawaks and Caribs -Competition from France, England, Holland; Pirates -"Plantation America" from Brazil up through SE US -Mono crop system (sugar): insatiable demand for sugar and rum -Asian migrants: indentured labor --Suriname: 1/3 pop is of S. Asian descent, 16% Javanese --Guyana and Trinidad: India --English colonies: Chinese -Slave labor: elaborate racial hierarchy

Cuban Migrations: Elian Gonzalez

-Such "illegal" attempts to leave, continued, however, as illustrated by the Elian Gonzalez affair: --His mother drowned trying to escape with her boyfriend, and Elian in November 1999 --The INS placed Elian with paternal relatives in Miami who sought to keep him in the US --Elian's father petitioned to have hime be returned to Cuba --Case was taken to court in the Us, and Elian was returned to his father in June 2000

Cuban Migrations: Special Period in time of Peace (fourth wave)

-Supposed to have been temporary -Severe shortages brought about: --The introduction of sustainable agriculture --Decrease in use of automobiles (lack of petroleum) --Overhaul on diet, health and industry ---Food rations intensified, monthly allocations based on UN requirements, but sometimes received only a fifth of that -Cuban economy re-opened to trade, investment, and tourism, the use of the US dollars reintroduced -Illegal emigration on rafts, tires, and makeshift vessels risking death, where "Rescue Brothers" patrol the sea in helicopters looking for them-close to 6000 escaped in this way

At the interface of indigeneity and creolization

-Taino groups in PR differ in how they conceptualize being Taino, however among the groups there is a consensus that anyone who feels to be Taino is a Taino. Though in practive, this is complicated by the reality of stereotypes and expectations of what it means to look indigenous -I argue that this is an acknowledgement of Puerto Rico's complex racial and ethnic histories as well as the pressures to fit ideas of authenticity

Diversity Amongst the Caribbean Islands

-Territorial Size: --Cuba: 101,000 Km. Sq. --Montserrat: 100 Km. Sq. -Population: --Hispaniola (Haiti and Dominican Republic): 16 million --Turks and Caicos: 12,000 -Cultural Heritage: --Spanish: Puerto Rico, Cuba, Dominican Republic --French: Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique, St. Martin --Dutch: ABC, St. Martin --English --Patois: many islands -Economic and Social Indicators

Reconquista Continued

-The hostility toward Jews was brought to a climax by "the Catholic Monarchs" - Ferdinand II and Isabella I, whose marriage in 1469 formed a personal union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, with coordinated policies between their distinct kingdoms -In 1480 King Ferdinand devised and, with his wife, established the Spanish Inquisition in both Castile and Aragon to investigate these and other suspicions. It is not known how many had not truly converted, had lapsed from their new Christianity, or were attempting to persuade others to revert -In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella completed the Catholic Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from Islamic al-Andalus by victory in the Battle of Granada. In acquiring the city of Granada a large Jewish and Muslim population came under her rule -Soon Isabella and Ferdinand chose to replace the Treaty of Granada's Jewish protection terms with the Alhambra Decree's Inquisitional Castilian and Aragonite persecution

Living the Revolution: Gender and the Revolution

-The idea that the revolution was ongoing reverberated in terms of ideas of gender which Castro's second area of intervention in terms of discrimination -Women early on: --Increase in education --Mass mobilization in party organizations --Joined the workforce --Women gain rights to birth control and childbirth in a hospital -The role of the family as economic unit was reduced, as the government provided all social services and attempted to transform the internal life of the family through the educational system --Challenges parental authority -Even legislated in the revolution through the Family Code

Capture

-The initial capture of the slaves was almost always violent -As European demand grew, African chieftains organized raiding parties to seize individuals from neighboring societies -Others launched wars specifically for the purpose of capturing slaves

Cuban Migrations: Third Wave - Marielitos

-The late 70s sees a halt in the outward flow of Cuban refugees -Instead, a context of increasingly difficult social and economic conditions --Heightened imprisonment of "anti-social elements" ---Children of the revolution ---Sometimes actual crimes, sometimes for challenging the state ---Mental patients ---Homosexuals -Cubans already in exile sent boats for their family members --but in actuality, an ambivalent response --125,000 Cubans left

Slavery: Saint-Dominique

-The only revolt to successfully abolish slavery as an institution occurred on the French sugar colony of Saint Dominique in 1793 -The slaves declared independence from France, renamed the country Haiti, and established a self-governing republic in 1804

The Politics of the Cuban Revolution: Second Little War

-The revolution was led by Calixto Garcia, having been one of the few revolutionary leaders who did not sign the Pact of Zanjon -The revolutionaries faced many problems which were difficult to overcome. They lacked experienced leaders other than Garcia and they had a dire shortage of weapons and ammunition. Further, they had no foreign allies to help them, and the population was both exhausted from the Ten Years' War and lacked faith in the possibility of victory, desiring peace instead -In the west of the island, most of the revolutionary leaders were arrested. The rest of the leaders were forced to capitulate throughout 1879 and 1880, and by September 1880, the rebels had been completely defeated -The lack of any true reform resulted in another uprising 15 years later, the Cuban War of Independence, which came to be known as the War of '95. The experience gained by the revolutionary generals in the Little War was a great help to them

Impact of Slave Trade in Africa continued

-The slave trade distorted African sex ratios --Approximately 2/3 of all exported slaves were male -Slavers preferred young men between the ages of 14 and 35 to maximize investment potential and be suitable for hard labor -The sexual imbalance in some parts of Africa such and Angola encouraged polygamy and caused women to take on duties that had previously been the responsibility of men -The slave trade brought firearms to such African societies as Asante, Dahomey, and Oyo and this increased violence -In the 18th century, Dahomey locations expanded rapidly, absorbed neighboring societies, and fielded an army that was largely a slave-raiding force

Middle Passage: Time

-The time a ship took to make the Middle Passage depended upon several factors including its point of origin in Africa, the destination in the Americas, and conditions at sea such as winds, currents, and storms -With good conditions and few delays, a 17th Century Portuguese slave ship typically took 30 to 50 days to sail from Angola to Brazil -British, French, and Dutch ships transporting slaves between Guinea and their Caribbean island possessions took 60-90 days -As larger merchant ships were introduced, these times were somewhat reduced

The Politics of the Cuban Revolution: US interests in Cuba

-There had been a long interest in Cuba, including several offers by Polk, Pierce, and Grant to buy Cuba from Spain, with expressions of hopes of a future annexation -Not much interest documented in terms of Guam, Philippines, Puerto Rico -The US, working in agreement with Britain, wanted guarantee no European part would move in -Also, allowing Spain to re-establish control of its former colonies would have cut Great Britain from its profitable trade with the region

Cuban Migrations: Second Wave continued

-These were difficult years for the revolution --Young educated Cubans went to the countryside to educate and provide basic healthcare to the poor and illiterate --A hemispheric trade embargo imposed in 1964 by OAS created a spare parts crisis and economic problems --The people exodus drained the country of many skilled administrative and technical professionals --Cuba continued to rely on monoculture -In this way, requests to participate in the second wave were motivated largely by economic reasons, rather than political ones -However, requests to leave in this migration were interpreted as dissent by the government --Could lead to job loss, relocation to do hard agricultural labor --Ostracization -For those who did leave, they arrived to a Cuban community in the US that was increasingly heterogeneous --But, recreation of class divisions for Cuba in the US --Celebration and highlighting of successes from the early migrations obscured the heterogeneity and working class Cubans who also migrated ---For example, the small business owners who were able to leave when Castro confiscated 55,000 small privately owned businesses ---These refugees were called "parasitos" parasites by the government

The Politics of the Cuban Revolution: Growth of trade in Sugar & Tobacco with the US

-Trade agreement cancelled by Spain in 1894 -Hurt sugar growers in Cuba, caused resentment in the US -In January 1898, a riot by Cuban Spanish loyalists against the new autonomous government broke out in Havana, leading to the destruction of the printing presses of four local newspapers for publishing articles critical of Spanish Army atrocities -The US Consul-General cabled Washington with fears for the lives of Americans living in Havana. In response, the battleship USS Maine was sent to Havana in the last week of January -On February 15, 1898, the Maine was rocked by an explosion, killing 258 of the crew and sinking the ship in the harbor. The cause of the explosion has not been clearly established to this day -US under pressure to intervene from Hearst and Pulitzer newspapers -The port of Santiago became the main target of naval operations -The Us fleet attacking Santiago needed shelter from the summer hurricane season, thus nearby Guantanamo Bay was chosen for this purpose and attacked on June 6, 1898 -The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the US, which allowed temporary American control of Cuba and, following their purchase from Spain, indefinite colonial authority over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Phillippines -The image of the Spanish Empire bestowed special significance on Cuba as an integral part of the Spanish nation. The focus on preserving the empire would have disastrous consequences for Spain's sense of national identity in the aftermath of the war. This is the effective end of the Spanish empire

Living the Revolution: Within 1 year Castro...

-Within a year --Castro had allied with Popular Socialist Party --Purged moderate elements from the leadership of Cuban labor unions --Seeing that these measures made a conflict with the US inevitable, he began to seek out diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union ---January 1960: the USSR agreed to purchase 425 million tons of sugar in and 1 million in 1961 -In december of 1960, the US broke diplomatic relations with Cuba -The Bay of Pigs invasion in April 1961 --By this time, exile numbers were growing rapidly --About 26,000 had fled Cuba by June 1959 --Second wave of nearly 84,000 during 1960 --Total of about 250,000 by October 1962 -Political dissidents and the dispossessed, but also managers, professionals that Cuban economy could ill afford to lose --emigrants stripped of their wealth before they were allowed to depart --many quickly sought revenge against Castro --Some exiles had organized themselves into paramilitary groups in South Florida --Omega 7 and Alpha 66 conducted commando raids on Cuba's coast --About 12k found employment within CIA to take part in covert actions around the globe, including Cuba

Cuban Migrations: The First Wave - "Those who wait"

-"Cuba's elite" -Predraza calls them the first group within this wave "those who wait" --Did not leave immediately, "shared in euphoria of revolution" --Left when more radical phase began --Often were members of the upper and upper-middle classes that were bound to the economic and political structure reliant on American capital -Left when the diplomatic and economic war between the US and Cuba became clear -According to Predraza, those who left in the first wave thought that the exile would be temporary -They thought the US would inevitably intervene -Militant and participated in the Bay of Pigs invasion

A note on the Island Carib

-Also known as Kalingo --The Garifuna or Black Caribs as they were called by the British colonial administration to distinguish from indigenous population that did not mix and procreate with Africans -Recent debates have questioned whether they were a different ethnic group from the Taino --Current groups survive in places like Dominica, St. Vincent and the Grenadines (largely Kalinago) --And Belize, where the Black Caribs were forcible relocated for work

Slavery Expands

-As disease reduced the native populations in Spanish conquered territories, the Spanish began relying on imported slaves from Africa -In 1518, the first shipment of slaves went directly from west Africa to the Caribbean where the slaves worked on sugar plantations -By the 1520s, the Spanish had introduced slaves to Mexico, Peru, and Central America where they worked as cultivators and miners -By the early 17th Century, the British had introduced slaves to North America

Economic Development: Tourism

-Began in 19th Century -1930's: Cuba is a leader --Bahamas distant second -5 leaders: --Puerto Rico: ---After commonwealth status 1952 ---Largest home port for cruise lines --Bahamas: ---30% of population employed in tourism, mainly American --Dominican Republic: ---Many visitors are nationals who live overseas ---$2.5 billion, leading foreign exchange earner --Jamaica: ---$1.2 billion --Cuba

Economic Development: Regional Initiatives

-Caribbean Basin Initiative -CARICOM --1973 --13 member states ---Former English colonies ---Haiti ---Other associate members -Caribbean Development Banj -University of the West Indies

Slavery in Puerto Rico continued

-Blacks had little or no opportunity for advancement and faced discrimination from the Spaniards -Slaves were educated by their masters and soon learned to speak the master's language educating their own children in the new language -In 1527, the first major slave rebellion occurred in Puerto Rico as dozens of slaves fought against the colonists in a brief revolt -The few slaves who escaped retreated to the mountains where they resided as maroons with surviving Taino -By 1873, over twenty slave revolts had been carried out, including some of great political importance

Present Day Political Status

-British colonies: --Cayman Islands, Turks and Caicos, Anguilla, Montserrat: 21,000 pop. --High standard of living: offshore banking -French Islands: --some remain connected to colonial rulers and use this as an asset ---Martinique, Guadeloupe and French Guyana are "departments" of France (900,000 pop) -Dutch former colonies: --Curacao, Bonaire, St. Martin, Saba, St. Eustatius --"Federation of the Netherlands Antilles" --Autonomous, yet part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands

Living the Revolution: The revolution takes power

-Castro and what would emerge as the new government name the period that would follow as a "new society" --Changes in the calendar: ---May 1st: Workers Day ---July 26th: Moncada ---December 17th: San Lazardo/Babalu Aye -The new society revolves around the idea that parliamentary democracy was inappropriate for Cuba at the time

Post Socialist Complications in Cuba: 1991

-Churches start to reopen in Cuba --After almost 30 years of state atheism, state eased restrictions on religious practice: ---Believers allowed to join the Communist party ---Constitution amended to prohibit discrimination on religious belief ---Small worship centers allowed to legally exist

Cuban Migrations: The End to Operation Peter Pan

-Commercial flights between the US and Cuba ended with the Cuban Missile Crisis: travel here happened through Mexico and Spain instead --Some Visas were given for Family reunification, Peter Pan parents given first priority, close to 90% in foster care reunited with parent by June 1966 -Castro's position in all of this, was that hose who left in those first years were "counterrevolutionaries" or "gusanos" (literally "worms")

Cuban Migrations: The Fourth Wave - Balseros

-Context: --Economic Crisis deepened in 1991 with the fall of the USSR --Us tightens trade embargo in 1992 ---Cuban industry stopped ---Public transportation basically stopped ---Sporadic electricity ---Free services eroded (healthcare, education, pensions)

African Heritage and Hybridity

-Creolization --Rich forms (VS Naipal, Bob Marley) --Garifuna or Black Carib: African/ Carib on St. Vincent forcibly resettled by British to Bay Islands of Honduras ---Maintain indigenous religion, eat manioc -Languages: --Spanish: 24 million --French: 8 million --English: 6 million --Dutch: .5 million --Alternatives: papiamento, patois -Music: --Reggae, calypso, merengue, rumba, zouk, steel drums of Trinidad, etc. ---Haitian ra-ra musicians have been exiled when too political ---Reggae, esp. Bob Marley, strong political content

Middle Passage: Mortality

-Crews attempted to keep as many slaves alive as possible to maximize profits, but treatment was extremely cruel --Some slaves refused to eat and crew members used tools to pry open their mouths and force-feed them --Sick slaves were cast overboard to prevent infection from spreading -During the early days of the slave trade, mortality rates were as high as 50% -As the volume of trade increased and conditions improved (bigger ships, more water, better nourishment and facilities), mortality eventually declined to about 5%

Cuban Migrations: Cubans in the United States

-Different rates of migration for different racialized groups --Initial stages pushed for migration among the upper classes (who were largely whiter) who lost their political and economic power --Afro-Cubans initially benefited from the revolution ---But, later remaining racial prejudices and economic difficulties led to the increase in Afro-Cuban migration to the US ---Difficulties in adjusting to the US racial configurations -Wealth and poverty is unequally distributed among Cubans in the US: --Initial waves arrived with translatable social resources in a time of US economic opportunity --After waves, resources were less translatable and particularly in the early eighties the US was in a time of economic recession

Cuban War of Independence

-During the years of the so-called "Rewarding Truce", lasting for 17 years from the end of the Ten Years War in 1878, there were fundamental social changes in Cuban society -With the abolition of slavery in October 1886, former slaves joined the ranks of farmers and urban working class. Many wealthy Cubans lost their property, and joined the urban middle class -The number of sugar mills dropped and efficiency increased: only companies, and the most powerful plantation owners, remained in the business. The number of campesinos and tenant farmers rose considerably -It was the period when US financial capital began flowing into Cuba, mostly into the sugar and tobacco business and mining. By 1895, investments reached 50 million US dollars. Although Cuba remained Spanish territory politically, economically it started to depend on the United States -The late 1800s also saw a rise in labor movements --1878: Cigar Makers Guild --1879: Central Board of Artisans

Politicians: William Wilberforce

-English philanthropist elected to Parliament in 1780 -Delivered a stirring abolitionist speech to the House of Commons in 1789 and repeatedly introduced the Abolition Bill until it passed in 1807

Economic Development - Agriculture Today

-Exception to complete decline: Cuba --sugar 80% of foreign exchange 1950's - 1990's --Diversification after 1989 --Now Cuba grows about 30% of the world's coffee -Coffee is grown by small producers --interspersed with subsistence crops -Bananas -Non traditional crops

Slavery: Arrival

-When the slave ship docked, the slaves would be taken off the ship and placed in a pen -There they would be washed and their skin covered with grease, or sometimes tar, to make them look healthy (and therefore more valuable) -They would also be branded with a hot iron to identify them as slaves

Environmental Geographies

-Geologies, climate, and vegetation: tectonic plates, tropical/wet climate that supports forests, palm savannas, mangrove swamps, arid zones (rain shadows), hurricanes -Reworked landscapes -Environmental degradation --sugarcane fields: Jamaica and DR still have 30%, Cuba has 20% (charcoal production for energy needs), Rimlands are much more intact (Belize and Guyana had successful environmental initiatives) -Seas and marine resources: did not support large-scale commercial fishing

Caribbean Overview

-Historically: "proxy" battleground for European rivalries --Often associated with plantation economies: sugar, bananas, citrus, coffee, spices -By 1900's: US dominates the region politically and economically -Other and more recent economic development: timber, nickel and bauxite, gold, tourism, non traditional exports, off shore banking -Contradictions: --"Island Paradise" vs. impoverishment and dependency --"Isolated proximity" --Fertility washed away --Cyclic migration: migrants returning

Cuban Migrations: Different Migration Waves

-Important for understanding the differences in refugee experience: even when they may be from the same country --Pedraza identifies four (somewhat discrete) waves of migration

Political Histories

-Independence --Haiti is the first in 1804 (v. US in 1776) ---But it was seen as a threat by other islands and shunned by the mainland CA countries -Dominican Republican in 1844 -Cuba and PR in 1898 from Spain: US involvement -British colonies: revolts starting in 1930's but independence in 1960's, 70's, and 80's

Living the Revolution: Cuban Missile Crisis

-JFK made dramatic televised speech to the nation --US wen to DEFCON 2 for the first and only time in the Cold War -US finally agreed solution was US naval "quarantine of Cuba" --Blockade and act of war under international law --But US could make reference to longstanding Monroe Doctrine --And Us had clear tactical superiority through its navy in area of operations --Reliance on conventional weaponry, avoidance of nuclear response --Backup plan was to invade Cuba with US troops if necessary -JFK decided to accept the first message, ignore the second --But in the negotiations that followed Kruschchev agreed to remove missiles from Cuba in return for US withdrawal of missiles from Turkey -And Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba --Soviet withdrawal of missiles to take place under UN supervision --Castro, furious at having no role in the agreement, would not permit the UN to supervise -Soviet withdrawal of missiles from Cuba left nagging doubts

Volume of the Slave Trade

-Late 15th and 16th Century...2,000 African exported each year -17th Century...20,000 per year -18th Century...55,000 per year --1780s...88,000 per year -All told, some 12 million Africans were transported to the western hemisphere via the Atlantic Slave Trade -Another 4 million died resisting capture or during captivity before arriving at their destination

Caribbean Cultures

-Much diversity, but also many similarities which provide glue --European plantation economies: similar social structures -African Influence -Creolization: culture, language, music

Portuguese Slave Traders

-Portuguese began capturing slaves in Africa in the 15th Century, but quickly learned it was easier for them to buy them -In Europe, slaves usually worked as miners, porters, or domestic servants since free peasants and serfs cultivated the land -When the Portuguese discovered the Azores, Madeiras, Cape Verde Islands, and Sao Tome in the 15th Century they were all uninhabited -The Portuguese population was too small to provide a large number of colonists -The sugar plantations required a large labor force -Slaves filled this demand

Cuban Migrations: "New" migration agreements

-September 1994: --The US promised to give at least 20k visas a year for Cubans to migrate to the US --Bilateral meetings that would be held twice a year to work toward "safe, legal, and orderly migration" -May 1995: --Guantanamo Bay refugees allowed in the US, but now a US policy that all balseros found at see would be returned to Cuba -These accords were in effect until the Bush administration suspended the talks in 2003 -President Obama resumed them in July 2009

Living the Revolution: Threats to Unity continued

-Predominantly white upper class and affluent sectors of the middle class left Cuba --Abolished private ownership of properties and business other than primary homes -All that stayed, were by definition "revolutionaries" --Revolutionaries could not be racist as racism was anticommunist and counterrevolutionary ---Could not be openly racist anymore ---Authorities took the ideal at face value -After 1962, government claims that Cuba had eliminated racial discrimination --"race was gone with class" --Taboo to talk about it at all, because officially it was said not to exist ---If anything remained, it was understood as a remnant that would disappear in due time ---Silence institutionalized: difficulty of voicing any criticism of the revolution

Cuban Migrations: Operation Peter Pan

-Program created by Catholic Welfare Bureau of Miami in December 1960 in tandem with parents in Cuba who were afraid for their children's welfare, and was authorized by the US Dept of State, who waived visa requirements for children -Between december 1960 and October 1962, over 14,000 children arrived on commercial flights --about half reunited with friends or relatives --about half were cared for by the CWB and found homes in foster care --Largely middle and lower-class families, and while the majority was Catholic, Protestant and Jewish children also migrated, and were of racially diverse backgrounds

African Diaspora: General

-Slaves brought an incredible amount of labor to the western hemisphere without which the prosperous new societies could not have developed -They brought other contributions as well: --Slaves built hybrid cultural traditions made up of African, European, and American elements --Influenced language by creating tongues that drew on several African and European languages

Economic Development: Offshore Banking

-Specialized services that are confidential and tax-exempt --Localities make money through registration fees -Began in Bahamas in 1920's -Ceompetition from other islands, Hong Kong and Singapore: Cayman Islands is current leader --50,000 registered companies --Est. Cayman banks $800 billion on deposit --Highest per capita PPP in region -Concerns about corruption and money laundering of drug funds: reforms --US raises new concerns about privacy after 9/11

Alternate Names for the Caribbean

-The Indies -The Spanish Main -Mar del Norte -18th century was the first use of the name Caribbean

Reconquista

-The Reconquista was the gradual reconquest of Islamic Iberia by the Catholic kingdoms with a powerful religious motivation: Iberia was being reclaimed for Christendom -By the 14th century, most of the Iberian Peninsula, present day Spain and Portugal, had been gained from the Moors -Overt hostility against Jews became more pronounced, finding expression in brutal episodes of violence and oppression. Thousands of Jews sought to escape these attacks by converting to Catholicism; they were commonly called conversos, New Christians, or marranos -At first these conversions seemed an effective solution to the cultural conflict: many converso families met with social and commercial success. But eventually their success made these new Catholics unpopular with some of the clergy of the Church and royal hierarchies -The existence of crypto-Jews was a provocation for secular and ecclesiastical leaders who were already hostile toward Spain's Jewry. The uncertainty over the sincerity of Jewish converts added fuel to the fire of antisemitism in 15th-century Spain

Triangular Trade

-The demand for labor in the western hemisphere stimulated a profitable three-legged trading pattern --European manufactured goods, namely cloth and metal wares, especially firearms, went to Africa where they were exchanged for slaves --The slaves were then shipped to the Caribbean and Americas where they were sold for cash or sometimes bartered for sugar or molasses --Then the ships returned to Europe loaded with American products

Former Slaves: Olaudah Equiano

-Was originally from Benin and was captured by slave raider when he was 10 -Spent 21 years as a slave and was able to save up enough money to buy his freedom -In 1789 he published "The Interesting Narrative of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself" -Sold the book throughout Britain, undertaking lecture tours and actively campaigning to abolish the slave trade

Modern Demographics

-Varied population densities -Demographic trends --Fertility decline --Rise of HIV/AIDS --Emigration "Caribbean diaspora" ---Barbadians: England ---Surinamese: Netherlands ---PR: NY ---Cubans: Miami --Intraregional migration ---Haitians: DR --Circular migration --Chain migration --Rural-Urban migration

The Politics of the Cuban Revolution: Jose Marti

-Vocal revolutionary in the Cuban wars -Deported to Spain twice, after the second time he moved to the US in 1881, where mobilized to support the exile community -"El Partido Revolucionario Cubano" (The Cuban Revolutionary Party) was officially proclaimed on April 10, 1892 with the purpose of gaining independence for both Cuba and Puerto Rico -Marti was elected to the highest part position -Marti was impatient to start the revolution for independence from Spain, before the United States succeeded in annexing Cuba

Forms of Resistance

-Work slowly -Sabotage -Runaway --"Maroons" gathered together and built self-governing communities -Revolt --Slaves outnumbered the owners and supervisors so revolt was always a threat --While causing mush destruction, revolts were usually able to be suppressed because the owners had access to arms, horses, and military forces

Colonialism

a form of imperialism in which one state invades/occupies another state or region in order to exploit its resources

Imperialism

process through which one state works to control the political, economic, or cultural activity of another state