Anthropology Test 2

With food producers, how do people obtain the rights to the means of production?

-through kinship -through marriage

When did Homo erectus make its appearance?

1.9 mya

An estimated ____________ San live in poverty.

100,000

When did the domestication of plants and animals for food occur?

11,000 years ago

When are the earliest AMH fossils from?

195,000 BP

What is a correlation?

An association or covariation between two or more variables

In terms of Paleolithic tools, which species is associated with the Middle Paleolithic?

-archaic H. sapiens, including Neanderthals

Describe the shift to Neolithic in Asia.

-around 8000 BP, Pakistan began domesticating goats, sheep, cattle, wheat, and barley -and China developed farming

What was the early Homo genus like, culturally?

-hunter-gatherers -made sophisticated tools

What are foraging economies?

-one type of adaptive strategy/economy of human society -an economy that relies on nature to make a living

Food production was independently invented in which three areas of the Americas?

-south-central Andes -Eastern U.S. -Mesoamerica

Describe the shift from foraging to food production in the Middle East, in general.

-these people began as foragers -then over time, they became more specialized, leaving behind broad-spectrum foraging and instead opting for focusing on crops and herds

True or false: agriculture doesn't make use of any of the factors of production.

False! It makes use of labor and land.

True or false: potlatching no longer occurs today.

False! Some tribes actually still use potlatching

What is another name for H. erectus?

Homo ergaster

What was the main form of subsistence for Native American ancestors that reached North America?

Hunting

Where did A. africanus originate from?

South Africa

Agricultural economies are generalized/specialized (choose one).

Specialized! They tend to have one, or a few, caloric staples and have a few specific animals they raise

What were the first tools made out of?

Stone

What governs most exchanges that take place in North America?

The market principle

What is economizing?

The rational allocation of scarce means or resources to alternative ends

What is the Neolithic?

the time of new techniques of grinding and polishing stone tools

What is an "African cattle complex"?

When people in Nabta Playa, Egypt used cattle not for killing and then eating their meat, but instead for their milk and blood

What was the broad-spectrum revolution?

When the Middle East and Europe developed a wider range of the plants and animals that they hunted, gathered, collected, caught, and fished.

Was Australopithecus anamensis bipedal or not?

Yep! It was bipedal

Are there still foraging economies present in the world today?

Yes! They are mostly in environments that have major obstacles to food production

Deliberate cultivation eventually became most prominently practiced in which of the four environmental zones of the MIddle East?

the alluvial plain

What are the skull/facial similarities and differences between A. africanus and A. robustus?

-*similarities*: they both had smaller front teeth and smaller canines -*differences*: A. robustus had much larger chewing muscles; A. robustus had a larger brain than A. africanus (but A. africanus had a larger brain than A. afarensis)

What are some cultural universals with nonindustrial populations? Some cultural specifics?

-*universals:* having a division of economic labor related to age; having a division of economic labor related to gender -*specifics:* specific tasks assigned to each sex and age differ between cultures

When did hominins first leave Africa? Where did they go?

-1.7 mya -to Asia, then Europe

How old are the oldest H. habilis remains thought to be? What surprising information did these remains reveal?

-1.8 mya -they showed that the H. habilis these remains came from was small, and had apelike limb bones -this information is surprising because it indicates that H. habilis had better tree-climbing abilities than later hominins

The remains found in Skhul, Israel date back to when? Why are they important?

-100,000 BP -they're important because these skulls have a more modern shape

The "black skull", found by Salker and Leakey, was how old? What hominin did they believe it to be?

-2.6 million years old -thought to be an early hyberrobust A. boisei skull

Where were the places that independently followed the path from foraging to food production?

-3 in the Americas; 4 in the Old world... 1. the Middle East 2. norther China 3. southern China 4. sub-Saharan Africa 5. central Mexico 6. south central Andes 7. eastern U.S.

What is a mode of production?

-A way of organizing production -involves using tools, skills, organization, and knowledge

What is manioc?

-AKA cassava -tuber (root crop) first domesticated in the South American lowlands

What is the difference between Oldowan tools and Acheulean tools?

-Acheulean tools had a predetermined shape and were flaked to get that shape -Oldowan tools were flaked in order to produce sharp flakes to use as tools

What does the term "hominin" refer to?

-All humans, living and ancient -excludes any other apes

What is reciprocity?

-An exchange between social equals -normally, these people are related by kinship, marriage, or close personal ties

What is considered the earliest hominin? Why?

-Ardipithecus kadabba -because it likely had upright bipedalism, whereas older ancestors likely did not have such great bipedalism

What is negative reciprocity?

-Dealing with people outside or on the fringes of the social system -often filled with distrust

Describe the process of H. erectus spreading out, regionally.

-H. erectus left Africa in small groups to a few miles away from the main, larger group -in these new areas, they began to forage new types of plants and hunted new types of animals (hunted and gathered different resources in each different region)

How did H. erectus's ecological niche differ from that of H. habilis and A. boisei?

-H. erectus's niche relied more on hunting, and they had better tools to use

Which of these came first: H. habilis, H. erectus, or H. rudolfensis? Second? Third?

-H. rudolfensis came first -H. habilis and H. erectus came at about the same time, but H. erectus lived for a longer span than H. habilis

What were the two distinct groups of early Homo?

-Homo habilis -Homo rudolfensis

When did the broad-spectrum revolution occur for the Middle East? For Europe?

-ME: 15,000 BP -Europe: 12,000 BP

What is the name of the skeleton found in Australia? Why is it important?

-Mungo III -it's important because the body was intentionally buried, and also decorated with red ochre

What are likely the oldest AMH fossils found? Where, and when, were they found?

-Omo Kibish remains found by Richard Leakey (which are relatively modern, with only a few primitive features) -they were found in Ethiopia (Africa), and are thought to be from about 195,000 BP

Which theory, Out of Africa, or Multiregional Evolution, seems to be more credible? Why?

-Out of Africa because the Multiregional Evolution theory would be less biologically likely to occur since it would be hard to have such major changes simultaneously occurring across so many different regions

Describe the differences between the Out of Africa theory and the Multiregional Evolution theory.

-Out of Africa: believes that a small group of AMHs spread out to occupy a larger area of multiple continents -Multiregional Evolution: believes that H. erectus first spread out of Africa, then, across multiple regions, all of those H. erectus ancestors evolved into H. sapiens

What is meant when it is said that the Middle East had a vertical economy?

-That means that they exploited environmental zones that were in close proximity to one another, but their overall climates and resources differed -was good fro broad-spectrum foraging

What is a cultivation continuum?

-The intermediate economies that combine horticultural and agricultural features -basically is a spectrum with horticulture on one "extreme" and agriculture on the other "extreme"

What is thought to be the oldest hominid ancestor found (so far)? How old is it?

-Toumai (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) -6 to 7 million years old

Compare and contrast the benefits and costs of agriculture and horticulture, in terms of yield.

-agriculture allows for longer-term yields of an area -agriculture tends to be more dependable with production

Compare and contrast the dental arcades and diastemas in apes, humans, and A. afarensis.

-apes and A. afarensis both had a pronounced diastema, while humans do not -apes have a more rectangular dental arcade, humans have a more parabolic dental arcade, and A. afarensis falls somewhere in the middle, though it is still more rectangular

When did humans leave Sahul to enter Asia? How did they get there?

-around 50,000 BP -by traveling through narrow straits by way of primitive watercraft

How are bipedalism and childbirth and development related?

-as hominins became more bipedal, their pelvises shrank in size -the decreased pelvises meant that the birth canal was smaller, so hominins started giving birth before their children were fully developed -this meant that hominin children had to have a longer infant dependency period to fully develop their brains

How did Homo erectus's ecological niche affect their biology?

-b/c hunting was such an important practice, natural selection favored a thickened skull to protect from major injuries -their jaw muscles were smaller because their new tools meant they could more easily break up food so chewing was less of a chore

Why are the Herto remains (found by White and Asfaw) important?

-because, for the most part, they are anatomically modern -these remains also show likely purposeful manipulation of the bones, likely used for ritualistic purposes -*these skulls, found in Israel, provide support that modern humans originated out of Africa*

Describe the pathway for farming in the New World.

-began in the lowlands of South America -then spread to Central America -then to Mexico -then to the Caribbean Islands

When, and where, is the earliest known settlement in Polynesia?

-between 2950 and 2850 years ago -the Tonga islands

What are the key attributes that make us human?

-bipedal locomotion -long infant dependency period -large brains -use of tools and language

Describe H. rudolfensis's features, comparing them to Homo and Australopithecus.

-brain size= like other Homo species -back teeth=like other Australopithecus species

How did the Neolithic change the Middle East's economy?

-caused them to shift from broad-spectrum foraging toward a more specialized economy based on a few domesticated species -they became more committed farmers and herders, rather than foragers

Compare and contrast the pelvises of humans and chimps.

-chimps have much narrower ilia, while the ilia of human pelvises are much broader and shorter -human pelvises have a wider sacrum than chimps' pelvises

What are three main staples of agriculture? Describe how each is used.

-domesticated animals: helps to serve as a tool for production of crops -irrigation: allows agriculturists to use the same land year after year, and helps increase the value of their capital investment by doing so -terracing

Describe the teeth of early hominins (how their teeth differ from those of early apes).

-early hominins had large back teeth for chewing vegetation -they had smaller canines and bicuspids

What trait did humans in the Middle East select for when domesticating animals? Why did they choose this trait?

-extra woolly animals b/c it helped protect against extreme heat

What types of tools are microliths?

-fishooks -harpoon tips -dart tips

What type of goods did potlatches often give away?

-food -blankets -copper

What were the main purposes of why AMHs made cave art?

-for ritualistic functions related to improving their hunting -for ritualistic functions related to increasing their bounties -as a rite of passage, of sorts -as a pictorial history

What are the five different types of adaptive strategies human societies had?

-foraging -agriculture -horitculture -industrialism -pastoralism

Describe the facial features of Kenyanthropus platyops.

-has a flatter face -has small molars

Describe Klein's ideas of his neurological hypothesis on behavioral modernity.

-he believed that human creativity suddenly began 45,000 years ago -he believed that a genetic mutation occurred that allowed people to have more advanced language -this improved communication then allowed people to have behavioral modernity and manipulate culture

What kind of economies are usually band-organized societies?

-hunting -gathering -fishing

How could a person become alienated, if they work in an industrial economy?

-if they make products for the sole purpose of selling them or to make their employers' a profit, instead of making them for their own use -this can cause them to become alienated from those products they make

Describe the emergence of Neolithic in Nabta Playa

-in 12,000 BP, this area in Egypt was first occupied, at first only seasonally -then in 9000 BP, it became occupied year-round -in 7500 BP, new settlers came to occupy it because their own homes were facing drought -these new settlers brought with them new social and ceremonial systems

Describe the transition to Neolithic in Europe.

-in about 8000 BP, the Mediterranean (staring with Cyprus) shifted from foraging to farming -then 2000 years later, farming villages began sprouting up from Russia to northern France, at first slowly, then much more rapidly

Describe the theory about AMHs and residence in the Middle East.

-it is thought that AMHs lived in the Middle East before the Neanderthals -it's thought that they lived in the Middle East, and that they left during the Wurm, going further south into Africa because it had a warmer climate, whereas Neanderthals moved south into the Middle East during the Wurm -then they returned once the Wurm ended

Describe the "evolution" of farming in the New World.

-it started with people having garden plots near their homes -then they started selecting for different characteristics for their cultivated plants -then they expanded their plots into nearby forests

What are the four factors of production?

-land -labor -capital -machinery

Describe Orrorin tugenensis (include movement, teeth, and stature)

-likely was bipedal but also skilled with tree climbing -had smaller teeth that looked similar to a chimp's -overall stature was similar to that of a chimp

What were the three caloric staples that were domesticated by Native American farmers?

-maize -potatoes -manioc

What did the Mesolithic bring along?

-microlith tools -this paved the way for new hunting techniques -new kinds of tools were being created (axes, chisels, and gouges)

Describe the teeth of A. anamensis.

-molars had thick enamel on them -had very large, apelike canine teeth

What happened 17,000-12,000 years ago, as a result of glacial retreat?

-most of the large game that AMHs hunted migrated -this made the AMHs living in Europe have to increase the variety of their diets -they started to include marine food into their diets thanks to the creation of the Continental Shelf

Describe Ardipithecus ramidus (include movement, stature, origin, teeth).

-movement=upright bipedalism -stature=very apelike in size and anatomy -origin=Ethiopia -teeth=large molars and smaller canines, due to a potentially more vegetative diet

What are Oldowan Tools (include age, use, and where they were found)?

-oldest tools found from the Olduvai Gorge -date to about 1.5 million years old -are choppers

What is agriculture?

-one economy/adaptive strategy -cultivation that requires a labor force; uses land intensively and continuously

What is Pastoralism?

-one type of economy/adaptive strategy -involves herders whose activities focus on domesticated animals like cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and yaks

What is horticulture?

-one type of economy/adaptive strategy -it is cultivation that makes intensive use of none of the factors of production

What is the Clovis tradition?

-one type of more sophisticated stone tool technology -the Clovis people made points to put on the end of thrusting (*not throwing*) spears

Describe what Sahelanthropus tchadensis was like (include origin, brain size, facial structure, and movement)

-origin=Chad -had a chimp-sized brain -had a more humanlike face -was possibly capable of bipedal locomotion

What important remains were found in South African sites?

-remains of AMHs thought to be about 150,000 years old -stone tools, mammal species' bones

What tools are associated with the Upper Paleolithic?

-scrapers -awls -needles -burins

What are the other names for horticulture?

-shifting cultivation -slash-and-burn cultivation

What are peasants?

-small-scale agriculturalists who live in nonindustrial states -they have to pay rent to landlords

Where has most cave art been found?

-southwestern France -northern Spain

Describe A. afarensis (inlude teeth, brain, movement, and body size).

-teeth: large, sharp canines -brain: very small, only slightly larger than chimps' brains -movement: bipedal -body size: marked sexual dimorphism

What two important things did fossil finds from Ileret, Kenya reveal?

-that H. habilis and H. erectus overlapped in time and space -that H. erectus actually had more marked sexual dimorphism than previously expected; it was more marked than current human or chimp sexual dimorphism

What were the results that came from comparing Neanderthal DNA to modern humans' DNA?

-that our DNA differs significantly from Neanderthals' -there were 27 differences b/w Neanderthal DNA and modern humans' DNA, versus only 5-8 differences b/w modern humans' DNA

What is the more modern theory about H. habilis and H. erectus?

-that, instead of H. habilis evolving into H. erectus, they actually split from a common ancestor -these two groups lived side by side in Africa, not having to come into contact or compete due to having their own ecological niches

What is the main difference between Old World and New World food production?

-the Old World food production relied much more heavily on animal domestication -the New World food production did not involve as much animal domestication because the big game animals that would have been domesticated went extinct due to hunting

Describe the changes that occurred in the hilly flanks of the Middle East because of a larger population.

-the larger population that came to the hilly flanks meant that food production intensified, thanks to cultivation -this meant greater harvests could be achieved

What does the term "hominid" refer to?

-the taxonomic family that includes humans and African apes, plus their immediate ancestors

What are Acheulean tools?

-the tools made and used by H. erectus -were more symmetrical, were more pre-planned in shape and function -were stone tools -had functional differentiation

Why is A. garhi so important?

-their remains showed that the femur of hominins shortened about 1 million years before their forearms shortened for more modern human proportions -their stone tools were found, and it was discovered that their early stone tools were made to get meat and marrow from large animals

How has mitochondrial DNA proven to be important to anthropologists?

-they looked at the mtDNA of women whose ancestors came from Africa, Europe, the Middle East, Asia, New Guinea, and Australia -it was used as evidence to support the idea that AMHs evolved out of Africa, and that all people today shares mtDNA from a woman from Africa whose remains were found -this woman lived in Africa around 200,000 years ago, with her descendants leaving Africa about 135,000 years ago

Who were the Tonga? Why are they important?

-they were people who settled Polynesia -they're important because they developed double-hull sailing canoes for more efficient travel (these canoes were able to tack against the wind)

How was food production able to spread beyond the Middle East?

-through trade of products -through diffusion of plants through human contact -through migration of human populations

What evidence challenges Klein's views on behavioral modernity and its origin in humans?

-tools made of stone and bone; self-ornamentation; and abstract carvings found in Africa and the Middle East -shows that modern behavior actually began longer than 45,000 years ago, and that there was no "sudden" shift into modern behavior like Klein thought -instead, it was a gradual process of cultural accumulation in Africa

What traits did humans in the Middle East select for when domesticating wheat?

-tougher axes -more brittle husks -larger heads of wheat

When was the ear of increased specialization in the Middle East's economy? What changes did it bring about?

-was from 7500-550 BP -introduced new crops into their diets, including new types of wheat and barley -and cattle and pigs were domesticated

Describe the tools of the Upper Paleolithic.

-were mostly blade stone tools; these blades were chipped further into specialized tools for specific purposes -associated with AMHs in Europe

What is fictive kinship?

-when personal relationships are modeled on kinship -ex.=a parent introducing one's kids to their best friends as "uncle" or "aunt"

What are the two groups of South African australopithecines?

1. A africanus 2. A. robustus

How many species of Australopithecus were there? What are these species?

1. Au. anamensis 2. Au. afarensis 3. Au. africanus 4. Au. garhi 5. Au. robustus 6. Au. boisei

What are the 2 trends in Upper Paleolithic stone tools, in regards to how they differed from Mousterian tools?

1. Functional specialization 2. standardization in tool manufacture

What are the three divisions of the Paleolithic?

1. Lower Paleolithic 2. Middle Paleolithic 3. Upper Paleolithic

What are the three epochs that anthropologists study to get a better idea about hominin evolution?

1. Pliocene 2. Pleistocene 3. Recent (Holocene)

What are the three types of reciprocity?

1. generalized 2. balanced 3. negative

What are the four environmental zones of the Middle East? Briefly describe each one.

1. high plateau (elevation: 5000 ft) 2. hilly flanks (woodland zone just north of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) 3. piedmont steppe (a treeless plain) 4. alluvial desert (contained the Tigris and Euphrates)

What are the evolutionary theories for why hominins became bipedal?

1. it was an adaptation to living in open grasslands (being able to see over tall grasses) 2. it allowed hominins to travel to find resources, and bring those resources back to their home bases 3. it reduced the body's exposure to solar radiation

What are the two theories regarding the South African australopithecines, in terms of how they are related?

1. that Au. africanus was ancestral to Au. robustus OR 2. that they were separate species that were also contemporaries for some time

What are the three different ideas for how Native American ancestors reached North America?

1. they traveled along Beringia from Siberia to North America 2. they traveled by boat from Siberia to North America 3. they traveled by ice bridges from Siberia to North America

H. erectus cranial capacity is about _________ times as large as australopithecine cranial capacity.

2 times larger, with H. erectus's being 1000 cubic cm while australopithecines have about 500 cubic cm

What are the oldest found hominin tools? How old are they?

2.5-million-year-old tools

When did hominins start making tools?

2.6 mya

When did AMHs evolve from the hominin ancestors that did not leave Africa (H. erectus)?

200,000 years ago

Cave art is thought to be how old?

36,000 years old

When did hominin ancestors originate?

6 mya

When did hominins become bipedal?

6 mya

What is a potlatch?

A festive event within a regional exchange system among tribes of the North Pacific Coast of North America

Balanced reciprocity would be most out of place in which type of economy?

A foraging economy

What are adaptive strategies?

A group's system of economic production

Is Orrorin tugenensis considered a hominid or a hominin?

A hominid

What is a core, in terms of tool manufacture?

A piece of rock that gets chipped and has flakes removed from it

What is sedentism?

A sedentary, settled life in villages

What is a chopper, in terms of tool manufacture?

A stone tool made by flaking the edge of it on one of its sides

What is an economy?

A system for the production, distribution, and consumption of resources

What is teosinte?

A wild ancestor of maize

What is thought to be the common ancestor of A. africanus and A. robustus?

A. afarensis

How do A. africanus and A. robustus differ?

A. africanus is much smaller, lighter, and gracile while A. robustus is much larger

What is the cousin of the early Homo genus?

A. boisei

In terms of Paleolithic tools, which species is associated with the Upper Paleolithic?

AMHs that lived up to 15,000 years ago

When do anthropologists believe the Americas were settled?

About 18,000, in South America

When did A. garhi live?

About 2.5 mya

According to Klein, when did human creativity begin?

About 45,000 years ago

Roughly when did AMHs make it to Australia?

About 50,000 years ago

How old is Orrorin tugenensis?

About 6 million years old

When did human ancestors split from ancestral chimps?

About 8 million years ago

Early, Middle, and Late Stone Age tools are associated with which region?

Africa

Where did Anatomically Modern Humans originate from?

Africa

When did the Mesolithic occur?

After the Upper Paleolithic

Compare and contrast agricultural horticultural societies, in terms of populations.

Agricultural societies tend to have greater populations than horticultural ones

Potlatching is considered a cultural adaptation for what?

Alternating periods of local abundance and shortage of resources

How old is Ardipithecus kadabba?

Around 5.8 million years old

What is balanced reciprocity?

Exchanges between people who are more distantly related than are members of the same band or household

True or false: A. afarensis had a more chimplike, rather than humanlike, pelvis.

False! A. afarensis was bipedal, so its pelvis looked more similar to a human's.

True or false: the Middle East had farming before Central and South America.

False! All of these areas began farming at about the same time (10,000 BP)

True or false: the Clovis people were the first to settle the Americas.

False! Evidence was found in South America that shows that people likely settled there first, before the Clovis reached Mexico.

True or false: the drier areas of the Middle East never experienced a farming economy.

False! Farming colonies did move into the drier areas, making use of irrigation systems to do so

True or false: terracing is a relatively easy way to get a lot of resources out of the land.

False! It requires a lot of labor to build and maintain them

True or false: people left Australia 50,000 years ago to travel eastward, toward the Pacific.

False! It took a long time for people to leave Australia and move eastward. In fact, it happened only in about 3000 BP.

True or false: the shift from foraging to food production in the Middle East was a quick process.

False! It was a gradual process.

True or false: Toumai lived after Orrorin tugenensis.

False! It's the other way around

True or false: foragers control plant and animal reproduction to obtain resources.

False! No cultivation or domestication occurs with foraging. It is strictly relying on what nature has to offer

True or false: H. erectus had a cranial capacity smaller than modern humans.

False! Their cranial capacity fell within modern ranges.

True or false: broad-spectrum economies lasted longer in the Middle East than they did in Europe.

False! These economies lasted about 5000 years longer in Europe than in the Middle East

True or false: foraging groups tend to have permanent settlements.

False! They are actually quite mobile peoples

True or false: anthropologists believe that H. rudolfensis lived long before H. erectus and H. habilis appeared.

False! They believe that H. rudolfensis lived in the same area and at the same time as both of those species (though H. rudolfensis diverged first, but the time when H. rudolfensis did live overlapped somewhat)

True or false: peasants use advanced technology to do their work.

False! They have to use simple technologies, rather than elaborate technology.

True or false: horticulturists have permanent settlements.

False! they do not have permanent fields that they continually cultivate. Once they use up the resources in an area, they move on to a new place.

All native Australians and New Guineans fit into one of how many branches that are thought to have left Africa between 70,000 and 50,000 years ago?

Four branches

When did H. erectus live?

From 1.9 to 1.0 mya

How long did the Recent epoch last?

From 10,000 BP to present

How long did the Pleistocene epoch last?

From 2 million years ago to 10,000 BP

How long did the Pliocene epoch last?

From 5 million to 2 million years ago

early Homo had a more __________ means of subsistence.

Generalized

Which type of reciprocity is most commonly seen in North America.

Generalized reciprocity

What is generalized reciprocity?

Giving with no specific expectation of an exchange

What caused the shift from Mesolithic to Neolithic?

Greater dependence on domesticated foods

In terms of Paleolithic tools, which species is associated with the Lower Paleolithic?

H. erectus

Which species of Homo had a more generalized diet that consisted of hunting, gathering vegetation, and scavenging?

Homo erectus

What was the first Homo species?

Homo habilis

Who did AMHs originate from?

Homo sapiens ancestor

In Europe, during the broad-spectrum revolution, what was the economy like?

It shifted from focusing on larger animals for hunting and instead came to be more generalized

Who did AMHs replace?

Neanderthals

What is the world's oldest formally recognized stone tools?

Oldowan pebble tools

What is the main assumption of the Classical Economic Theory?

That wants are infinite and means are limited

Which stone tool tradition is associated with the Lower Paleolithic?

The Acheulean tradition of H. erectus

What is another name for "Paleolithic"?

The Old Stone Age

Typologies of societies are based on what?

The correlation between economies and social features

What occurred to animal biology as an effect of domestication?

The domesticated animals got smaller, likely because they were easier to control

What sets the early hominins apart from apes?

The fact that early hominins relied so heavily on bipedal locomotion

What is redistribution?

The flow of goods into a center, then back out

What led to the creation of states?

The formation of larger social and political systems

What is behavioral modernity?

The fully human behaviors that are based on symbolic thought and cultural creativity

What is the Market Principle?

The idea that buying, selling, and valuation are all based on supply and demand

What fueled major changes to occur in human life?

The invention of food production methods

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) comes from which parent?

The mother

How was the migration and colonization of Oceania studied/what was the expansion associated with?

Through looking at Lapita people's pottery

With nonindustrial societies, how do people gain access to labor?

Through social links

What is thought to be the initial starting point for population expansion in the Pacific?

Tongatapu island

Describe the changes in tool making that occurred during the Upper Paleolithic.

Tools became more distinct and specialized due to the AMHs spreading out to more regions and having more cultural diversity

True or false: agriculturists have a permanent settlement.

True! They use the same plot year after year

Why do pastoralists domesticate animals?

Usually to use them for food purposes

What is pastoral nomadism?

When all of the members of a pastoral society follow a herd throughout the year

What is transhumance?

When only part of a pastoral group moves with a herd, but most stay put in their village

What is Alternative Ends?

When people devote some time and energy to building up a subsistence fund

Foragers make social distinctions based on _________.

age

When did H. habilis live?

from 1.9 to 1.44 mya

As a result of glacial retreat, AMHs living in Europe had a more _____________ diet.

generalized

What do the San live?

in southern Africa, in a waterless area

Where did New World farming begin?

in the lowlands of South America

Where did maize domestication take place in the New World?

in the lowlands of southwest Mexico

What factor allowed food production to become prominent?

the movement of people, animals, and products between zones

Redistribution is characteristic of what type of society?

Chiefdoms

What caused Natufians (Middle Easterners) to take on food production/deliberate cultivation?

Climate changes... -The Natufians had year-round harvesting of cereals due to a nice, humid environment -however, the environment then became drier, causing them to have to relocate to only well-watered areas

Intensive cultivators are ______________.

Sedentary

How old is Ardipithecus ramidus?

At least 4.4 million years old

When did the genus Homo make its appearance?

At the start of the Pleistocene epoch

Which hominin genus was most prominent during the Pliocene epoch?

Australopithecus

What is thought to be the ancestor to A. afarensis?

Australopithecus anamensis

What is one main characteristic of market principle exchanges?

Bargaining

What are Oldowan tools made out of?

Basalt

What are most tools found at the Olduvai Gorge made from?

Basalt

Why is fictive kinship important?

Because it helps to create cohesiveness in a group

Describe the "evolution" of pastoralism.

Before the Industrial Revolution, it only occurred in the Old World, but has since spread

How does bipedalism relate to hominin tools?

Being bipedal meant that both hands of the hominins were free, so they were able to start using tools and weapons in their grassland habitats

When did A. robustus live?

Between 2.0 and 1.0 mya

When did A. boisei live?

Between 2.6 and 1.2 mya

When did the genus Homo separate from australopithecines?

Between 3 and 2 mya.

When did A. africanus live?

Between 3.0 and 2.0 mya

When did A. afarensis live?

Between 3.8 and 3.0 mya

When did A. anamensis live?

Between 4.2 and 3.9 mya

What happened to the San Bushmen's territory?

Botswana relocated them to a different area than their ancestral territory in order to create a wildlife area

By what time did H. erectus attain a more modern cranial capacity and anatomy?

By 1.6 mya

When did the Middle East introduce domestication of plants and animals into its economy?

By about 10,000 BP

When did the Middle East start entering the Neolithic?

By about 12,000 BP

Where did A. afarensis originate from?

East Africa

Where did A. boisei originate from?

East Africa

Reciprocity is most commonly seen in which type of society?

Egalitarian societies

Where did A. garhi originate?

Ethiopia

Where did Ardipithecus originate from?

Ethiopia

Upper Paleolithic tools are associated with which region?

Europe

Where did deliberate cultivation/food production begin in the Middle East?

In the dry hilly flanks of the Fertile Crescent in the Middle East

Where did A. anamensis originate from?

Kenya

What is the earliest pottery found in Oceania?

Lapita pottery

Besides the MIddle East, which region had a vertical economy?

Mesoamerica

What is Mesoamerica?

Middle America, including Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize

In terms of the Neolithic, what farming products did China focus on?

Millet and rice

Foraging correlates with what?

Mobility

What is the name of the continent that once consisted of Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania?

Sahul

Which came first in the MIddle East, sedentism or farming?

Sedentism

What kinds of tools do horticulturists use?

Simple tools

How long have Anatomically modern humans (AMHs) been around?

Since about 195,000 years ago

What are microliths?

Small stone tools that were typical of Mesolithic technology

What has potlatching helped to prevent?

Socioeconomic stratification within a society

Where did A. robustus originate from?

South Africa

All human societies have what main characteristic?

They all have some kind of division of labor based on gender

What is so important about the fossils of A. afarensis?

They indicate that the common ancestry between African apes and humans must be recent

What is the downside to agricultural economies?

They sometimes pose regulatory issues that governments have to solve

The early hominin diet was comprised mainly of what?

Thick, fibrous vegetation

Is Ardipithecus kadabba considered a hominid or a hominin?

Thought to be a hominin

How do anthropologists study economic systems?

Through a cross-cultural perspective

How do anthropologists study the motivation of cultures to produce, exchange, and consume certain products?

Through a cross-cultural perspective

How did AMHs get to Australia?

Through a land bridge that connected Australia, New Guinea, and Tasmania