AP Bio Final study guide

how to form a hypothesis - what are they testing and how to justify

"they made the hypothesis to test..." "If I raise the temperature of a cup of water, then the amount of sugar that can be dissolved in it will be increased."

function of ATP

ATP is the main source of energy and cellular storage. it has chemical energy that breakdown food and allows that to fuel other cellular processes

active vs passive transport

Active transport moves molecules and ions from lower concentration to higher concentration with the help of energy in the form of ATP. - pinocytosis - phagocytosis passive transport moves molecules and ions from a higher concentration to lower concentration without any energy. - simple diffusion - facilitated diffusion - osmosis(movement of water from an area of high concentration to low)

Based on the chemical structure of cyanide, identify ONE type of biological macromolecule that could serve as a chemical precursor for the production of cyanide in a plant. Justify your choice.

The nucelaic acid macromolecules could serve as a precursor for the production of cyanide in a plant. This is becuase the chemical structure of cyanide has nitrogen (found in the bases) just like the nucleaic acids macromolecule.

levels of organization

atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-biology1/chapter/reading-levels-of-organization-of-living-things/

types of bonds

covalent: sharing of electrons ionic: transfer of valence electron s between atoms. generates 2 oppositely charged ions. looses an electron to become a positive charged cation hydrogen: hydrogens bond together, very strong attraction... water is a hydrogen bond

mitochondria and chloroplast are examples of endosymbiotic theory and are proof of evolution - understand the evidence

endosymbiotic theory says that some organelles in eukaryotic cells are the same as they were in prokaryotic cells. the mitochondria and chloroplast are have very similar structures. they are both the same size as prokaryotic cells and divide through binary fusion. They have their own DNA and ribosomes.

function and structure of chloroplast https://quizlet.com/27091517/chapter-7-biology-definitions-flash-cards/

function: plant cells that convert light energy into chemical energy into ATP though photosynthesis structure: has double membrane (inner and outer membrane), granum, thyroid, and stroma inner membrane: allows materials to pass in and out of the chloroplast and allows for the regulation of fatty acids and lipids and transport proteins. outer membrane: allows small molecules and ions to pass through that are able to diffuse easily. Does not allow larger proteins to pass through. granum: stack of thlakoid thylakoid: disk-shaped sacs in the chloroplast. They contain enzymes and the light-dependent reaction takes place here (on thylakoid membrane). stroma: fluid inside the inner membrane of chloroplast. The Calvin cycle takes place here and the enzymes within made sugars. when the stroma (stomata) opens, CO2 enters the leaf and water and O2 exits. Light independent reaction takes place here chlorphyll: parts of chloroplast that absorbs light and provide the pigmented green color to plants.

endoplasmic reticulum

makes and transports proteins smooth ER: - makes lipids and steroids Rough ER: - has ribosomes on it and is the site of protein synthesis (makes proteins)

natural selection - define - how it works - how it relates to predator and prey

natural selection is the process of and organism adapting to its environment and its ability to survive and reproduce there are genetic mutations that help the organism pass on survival traits through reproduction. the genes will become more common and help the individual adapt and chance to survive in their environment

Krebs cycle - know products and reactants for each of the three phases - know what would happen if they were disrupted... would it affect each other as a whole? - know where each part take place

reactants: 2 pyruvate, 2 coenzymes, 8NAD+, 2FAD, 2ADP, Pi products: NADH, FADH2, ATP, C02 takes place in the matrix of mitochondria If the Krebs cycle was disrupted, it would produce less ATP and the reaction wouldn't be able to continue

Nucleic acids structure and function

structure: - made up of building blocks called nucleotides. each has a nitrogenous bade and a 5-carbon sugar attached to the phosphate group function: - they store genetic information and encodes the DNA, which is needed to make proteins

Carbohydrates structure and function

structure: - the structure consists carbon, hydrogen and oxygen molecules. every carbon atom is attached to one oxygen atom - monosaccharides are the basic building blocks of carbs function: carbs provide ones body with energy and store energy. Carbs convert foods in glucose which is an important source of fuel for the body

Protiens structure and function https://dasher.wustl.edu/bio5477/lectures/lecture-03-sep09.pdf

- amino acids are the building blocks of proteins (20 different AA) - amino acids are joined together by a polypeptide chain structure: - primary - secondary( Alpha helix and Beta pleated sheet) -tertiary -quaternary function: - proteins help repair and build tissue within the body. they allow for metabolic reactions to take place, aids in bodily functions and provides structure. -protein is a major spruce of energy and is involved in creation certain hormones - it also transports and stores certain molecules. (ex) hemoglobin is a protein that transports oxygen to the body. https://healthyeating.sfgate.com/6-primary-functions-proteins-5372.html Protiens are composed of 20 different amino acids linked by polypeptide chains. The "R" groups form from these amino acids and they are side chains. A protiens structure consists of primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures. The primary strucutre is held togehort with peptide bomds and is the polymer of amino acids. The secondary structure is alpha helix or beta pleaded sheet held togethor by hydrogen bonds between the backbone. The tertiary strucutre has a single specific polypeptide backbone chain. This is in a globular shape. The quaternary strucutre is held togehtor by hydrogen bonds. An exmaple of this is hemoglobin.

properties of water

- water is polar ( it is polar because it has positive and negative charges that attract) - is a universal solvent (except metal) - has high heat capacity (takes more energy to increase the temp of water) - has cohesive properties (creates surface tension... helps plants absorb water in their roots) -has adhesive properties (allows water to stick to other molecules) -has a high surface tension (held together by strong hydrogen bonds) Water is polar covalent and has unequal sharing of electrons amongst elements (atoms). It creates a partial charge throughout the molecule. This makes the molecules as a whole, netural. Some parts like Oxygen, are negative while other parts, like Hydrogen may be positive. Another property of water is that it is a really good solvant and can dissolve almost anything. Water most easily dissolves polar substances, like NaCl. Water also has adhesive and cohesive properties. The adhesion gives water the ability to stick to other molecules. The cohesion allows water to stick to itself, producing surface tension.

stages of cellular respiration

1. Glycolysis 2. Krebs Cycle 3. Electron Transport Chain

questions on final: 1. to evaluate the reliability of the results it would be best to know which of the following 2. The results of the experiment can be used as evidence in support of which of the following scientific claims about mitochondrial activity? also: - Iridium - blue flowered african violet

1. number of males 2. ATP production https://quizlet.com/399038796/ap-bio-exam-review-flash-cards/

mitochondria function and structure

Function of mitochondria: The Powerhouse of the cell. It converts chemical energy of glucose in the form of ATP and fuels other cellular processes. Strucutre of mitochondria: the mitochondria has an inner and outter membrane with intermembrane space in between. There are folds on the insde called cristae. Matrix of mitochondria: The matrix perfroms the process of aerobic respration and contains ribosomes and DNA. It plays an important role in energy production and is where the Krebs Cycle take place. inner mitochondria membrane: Site of electron transport chain, which is an important step of aerobic respiration Cristae: a fold in the inner membrane that provides surface area and allows for a chemical reaction to occur. The ETC occurs within the cristae, which pumps protons and powers the production of ATP. Outer mitochondria membrane: Surrounds the inner membrane with inter membrane space in between. The outer membrane is semi-permeable and has protein channels that allow ions and proteins to pass through.

researchers grew population of identical e coli bacteria... after 30,0000 generation,,, Cit + (a) Describe one outcome that would demonstrate that a given population has evolved.

One outcome that would demonstarte that a given population has evolved is that the Cit+ bacteria can use citrate as a growth medium while the Cit- bateria cannot. The dependent variable in this experiment is the number of colonies that are formed and how much off the citrate that is used. One may predict that Cit+ will grow much faster than Cit- with a medium that inly contains citrate. The researches claim that the Cit+ mutation increases the fitness of bacteria becuase it allows for citate to be used quicker, instead of of using the energy in glucose that helps generate citrate.

movement of water when place in a solution

hypertonic: if a solution is hypertonic, the solution has a lower concentration then the cell and water will move out of the sell hypotonic: if a solution is hypotonic, it has less solute concentration and water will move into the cell through the cell membrane. isotonic: if a solution is isotonic, there will be no net movement of water and the cell size will remain

identify variables

independent: -what the experimenter changes (age and time) dependent: - the thing that is measured and being changed as a result of the independent variable -- what responds to the change control: doesn't change (placebo effect) https://www.thoughtco.com/independent-and-dependent-variable-examples-606828

organice vs inorganic molecules

organic molecules - carbon backbone - only has covalent bonds - large - 4 macromolecules (carbs, proteins...) inorganic molecules - simple - non living - water, carbon dioxide, NaCl

harder Weinberg equation (two boxes)

p+q=1.0 (100%)

photosynthesis - what organelles they occur in where each steps occur - explain parts - what would happen if affected

photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplast and they contain cholorphyll. if the cycle of photosynthesis was affected, plants and animals would not exist. This process allows for CO2 would be recycled and oxygen to be produced. All living things would be affected and life would not be able to take placed

electron transport chain - know products and reactants for each of the three phases - know what would happen if they were disrupted... would it affect each other as a whole? - know where each part take place

reactants: NADH and FADH2 products: h20 and ATP takes place in the mitochondria If this was disrupted, the H+ protons wouldn't be pumped into the intermembrane space and the H+ concentration will decrease and the pH will increase If one step in the cycle didn't occur, the next steps wouldn't work and the cell would die. Each cycle is the starting reaction for the next and it repeats so cellular respiration as a whole wouldn't not be able to happen.

glycolysis - know products and reactants for each of the three phases - know what would happen if they were disrupted... would it affect each other as a whole? - know where each part take place

reactants: glucose, 2 ATP, 2NAD+ products: 2 pyruvate, 2 atp, 2NADH takes place in the cytoplasm if glycolysis couldn't take place, the cells would lose their ability to maintain the sodium-potassium pumps and the cell would die

Describe TWO features of natural selection that lead to the spread of antibiotic resistance in a population over many generations. Give ONE reason that the development of antibiotic resistance is an example of evolution.

selective advantage - with antibiotic have higher survival rate than those without reproductive fitness allows them to produce more offspring this is an example because the phenotypes show the change over the years

Lipids structure and function

structure: made up of glycerol and fatty acid tales. function:they are a great resource for storing energy (triglycerides and phospholipids)

things that affect enzymes

temperature - at high temperature, the enzyme can denature and lose its form, no longer functioning pH - the higher the pH, the slower the enzyme is enzyme concentration: - increasing enzyme concentration will speed up the reaction if there is a substrate it can bind too inhibitors: - competitive(substrate that binds to an enzyme at the activation site.) - non competitive(type of inhibitor that binds to an allosteric site and lowers the efficiency of the enzyme)