AP CHEM

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Kinetic

motion KE=1/2mv^2

Mole fraction

n1 / ntot

∆G positive

not spontaneous

Lewis Structures

o-o-o

single bonds

one sigma bond, one e- pair; longest bond, least energy

melting point

point at which solid→liquid occurs

ideal gas law

pv=nrt

What is the rate law equation?

rate = k[A][B]

viscosity

resistance to flow

electron

small, negatively charged particle surrounding an atom in orbitals

linear geometry

sp hybridization 0 lone pairs ex. BeCl2 & CO2

vapor pressure

stronger IMF= lower... weaker IMF= higher...

solute

substance being dissolved

Second order half life

t1/2 = 1 / k[A]0

Energy

the capacity to do work or make heat

hydration energy

the energy required to break hydrogen bonds

unfavored redox reaction

-E

22.4L

volume of gas @STP

red

when n=3 ->2, color=

blue-green

when n=4 ->2, color=

5% rule

x can be ignored when % ionization is <5%

Finding ∆G when ∆G° and Q are known

∆G = ∆G° + RTlnQ

at low temperatures

∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... - | -

entropy

-S° -measures the randomness/disorder -reactions will favor increases in entropy - (more entropy) gas, aqueous, liquid, solid (less entropy)

electronic shape

-all e- counted; lone pairs counted like bonds

specific heat

-amount of heat needed to raise 1g of a substance 1°C

effective nuclear charge

-as this increases, ionization / binding energy increases -nucleus' pull on electrons, partially weakened by shielding effect

electronegativity

-atom's ability to pull electrons toward itself when involved in a chemical bond -↑ across a period -↓ down a group

mass spectrometry

-can be used to determine the mass of various isotopes of a substance

strong acid

-completely dissociates in water -HCl, HBr, HI, HClO₄, HNO₃, H₂SO₄

kinetic energy

-energy of motion

Deviation of Ideal Gas

-happens at low temp. or high pressure -this is b/c the volume of gas molecules become relevant, raising the volume and gas molecules can start attracting each other, lowering the pressure

types of energy transfer

-heat (energy goes from a warm object to a cold one) -work (substance is stirred, raising its energy)

Hess's Law

-if a reaction happens in multiple steps, you can add the ∆H values of the steps together -if you flip the equation, flip the sign of the ∆H -if you multiply/divide the equation, multiply/divide the ∆H

Gibbs Free Energy, G

-if ∆G is negative, rxn is thermodynamically favored (spontaneous) -if ∆G is positive, rxn is thermodynamically unfavored (NOT spontaneous) -if ∆G = 0, rxn is at equilibrium -∆G° = ∑(n(G° product)) - ∑(n(G° reactant)) (same formula for ∆S, ∆H)

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

-it is impossible to know both the position and velocity of an e- @ any given moment

network covalent bond

-lattice of covalent bonds; usually occurs w/ carbon or silicon -poor conductors of electricity -highest melting and boiling points

metals

-left hand side of periodic table -give up e- in ionic bonds

∆G° = ∆H° - T∆S°

-make sure units are right! 1 kJ = 1000 J (just add 3 zeros) - -H, +S = -G (spontaneous) - -H, -S = -G (@ low temp.), +G (@ high temp.) - +H, +S = -G (@ high temp.), -G (@ low temp.) - +H, -S = +G (not spontaneous)

heat capacity

-measure of how much the temperature of an object is raised when is absorbs heat -large = absorbs a lot w/o changing temp.

entropy (∆S)

-measure of the randomness -entropy of solid < liquid < gas -two moles have more entropy than one

Gibbs free energy (∆G)

-measure of whether a process will proceed w/o outside energy -∆G positive→ won't happen -∆G negative → will happen -∆G = 0 → equilibrium = ∑∆G°ƒ products - ∑∆G°ƒ reactants

electrolytic cell

-outside energy source is used to force a non-spontaneous reaction

oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

-oxidation states of some participating molecules -ex→ Cu²⁺ + 2e- → Cu

more polar molecule....

.... larger dipole moment

when bonds are broken

...energy is absorbed

Standard Temperature and Pressure

0.00°C, 1 atm

stable atoms have

... completed shells

Number of nonbonding pairs in a bent shape?

Bond angle of a tetrahedral shape?

109.5

1. How many sigma and pi bonds are there in C2H4

5 sigma and 1 pi

Alpha

Alpha decay is the loss of an α-particle (a helium nucleus).

Arsenic

Barium

Ba²⁺

Bromine

Oxalate

C2O4(-2)

Curium

Metallic bond

Delocalized electron

Dysprosium

Nernst Equation

Ecell= E°cell -RT/nF x lnQ

Covalent bonding

Electrons are shared by nuclei

Redox reaction

Electrons are transferred

Heat of solution

Enthalpy change formation of a solution, sum of enthalpy values from each step

From fahrenheit to celsius

F=9/5 (C) + 32

Florine

Work

Force acting over a distance

Hafnium

Dipolar or dipole moment

Has center of positive and center of negative charge

Temperature and rate

Higher temperature increases rate

Hydrogen

H⁺

Dipole-dipole forces

IMF that exists in polar molecules

Catalyst

Increases rate of reaction but not consumed

iodide

I¹⁻

1/2mv²

Kinetic Energy per molecule

Surface area and rate

More surface area increases rate

What is the dilution equation?

M₁V₁ = M₂V₂

Neptunium

Octahedral

Nonpolar Sp3d2 90 degrees

Nitride

N³⁻

hydroxide

OH¹⁻

Ideal Gas Equation

PV = nRT -P = pressure in atm -V = volume in liters -n = moles -R = .0821 -T = temperature in Kelvin

Lone pairs

Pairs of electrons localized

Polonium

Sigma Bonds

Present in single bonds

A + A + B --> products

Rate = k[A]2[B]

A + B --> products

Rate = k[A][B]

Phase diagram

Representation of phases of a substance

Interstitial alloy

Small atoms in holes

Sodium

Are common chlorates soluble or insoluble?

Soluble

Are common nitrates soluble or insoluble?

Soluble

Are common perchlorates soluble or insoluble?

Soluble

Reaction mechanism requirements

Sum must give balanced equation, mechanism must agree with rate law

Terbium

Thallium

First law of thermodynamics

The energy of the universe is constant

What is the formula for aluminum sulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for aluminum sulfate is Al2(SO4)3. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and SO4 2-.

Hess's law

The overall enthalpy change in a reaction is equal to the sum of the enthalpy changes of the individual steps of the process.

Charles's Law

V1 / T1 = V2 / T2

Vanadium

Water dissociation constant

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

We cannot know both the position and momentum of an electron (the more we know one, the less we know the other)

7. The central atom in a molecule displays sp3 hybridization. What shape does the charge cloud make? (A) Linear (B) Trigonal Planar (C) Tetrahedral (D) Trigonal Bipyramidal

11. What is the expected hybridization of the central atom in the molecule of TiCl4? (A) sp3d2 (B) sp3d (C) sp (D) sp2 (E) sp3

(E) sp3

Ytterbium

combined gas law

(P1*V1)/T1=(P2*V2)/T2

ideal gas

(gas) high temperature, low pressure, no attractive forces, in constant motion without losing energy

Zeroth order plot

[A] vs. t

Buffer

a solution that resists a change in pH, contains both a weak acid and its conjugate base

prop-

(organics) three carbons

Antoine Lavoisier

* complete stud 1. studied chemical reactions 2. took careful measurements

Isotopic Symbol

* write symbol of element * place atomic # in lower Left side * top left corner is mass number * number of neutrons = protons - electrons

Amedeo Avagadro

** Avagadro's Hypothesis 1. used Gay -Lussac's data and Law of Def. Prop. to predict that the volume of a gas must be directly related to the number of particles in said gas

John Dalton

*stimulated by Proust's work 1. Law of Multiple Proportions

monoprotic acids

acids that yield one H+ per molecule of acid ex) HCl, HNO3

molecular equation

an equation that shows the complete chemical formulas of the reactants and products without indicating ionic behavior

isotope

atoms of the same element with differing mass numbers * same number of protons but a different number of neutrons

Ionic solid

- atoms joined by strong electrical forces between oppositely charged particles - high melting points - nonconducting as solids - conducting when molten or in solution - often water soluble

energy absorbed

bonds broken; endothermic

Physical Change

can see the change

blue

color of Cs (flame test)

aufbau principle

e- are placed in orbitals, subshells, and shells in order of increasing energy

Ideal Gas Law

equation of state

-anoate

ester suffix

Exothermic

expulsion of heat.

ideal gas

follows the KMT; point-mass

Q<K

forward rxn occurs when

equilibrium

happens at lines in phase change charts

-anone

ketone suffix

vaporization

liquid to gas

oxidation

loss of electrons, increase in oxidation #

solid to liquid

melting

Chemical Change

molecules change

Tetrahedral

Nonpolar sp3 109.5 degrees

hydroxide

OH(-)

hydroxide

OH-

rate determining step

slowest step; the rate law = those reactants' molarity raised to the power of their coefficient

Osmium

factors that affect electronegativity

smaller atom; greater EN closer the element is to having a full energy level; higher EN

sublimation

solid to gas

melting

solid to liquid

Oxygen

Potassium

strong electrolytes

solutes that exist in solution completely or nearly completely as separate ions; fully or almost fully dissociate; in chemical equations, represented by a full arrow

weak electrolytes

solutes that exist in solution mostly in the form of molecules with only a small fraction in the form of ions; do not completely dissociate; in a chemical equation, represented by two half arrows

analyte

solution in flask being titrated

Hybridization of a linear shape?

Protactinium

Bronsted-Lowry base

Proton acceptor

Phosphide

P³⁻

Boyle's Law

P₁V₁=P₂V₂

Radium

Radon

Hybridization of a bent shape?

sp2

Rhenium

Rhodium

Hybridization of a trigonal planar shape?

sp2

trigonal planar geometry

sp2 hybridization bond angles 120 0 lone pairs: trigonal planar (three bonds) 1 lone pair: bent (two bonds)

Hybridization of a V shape?

sp3

Hybridization of a tetrahedral shape?

sp3

Hybridization of a trigonal pyramidal shape?

sp3

Hybridization of a T-shape?

sp3d

Hybridization of a linear (2) shape?

sp3d

Hybridization of a see-saw shape?

sp3d

Hybridization of a trigonal bipyramidal shape?

sp3d

Hybridization of a square planar shape?

sp3d2

Hybridization of a square pyramidal shape?

sp3d2

Hybridization of an octahedron?

sp3d2

4.184

specific heat of water

Balmer Series

spectrum of light when an electron drops to energy level n=2

factors that affect rate of effusion

speed of gas molecules (so ________ increases with higher temperature and lower mass)

Basic wave equation

speed of light = wavelength x frequency

3.0x10⁸m/s

speed of light, C

√3kT/m

speed per molecule of gas

∆G negative

spontaneous

STP

standard temp. and pressure

Boltzmann distribution

states molecules at a given temp. vary in kinetic energy along a bell-curve of molecular velocities

le chateliers principle

states that if a stress is applied to a system at equilibrium, the system shifts in the direction that relieves that stress

Strontium

Critical temperature

Temperature above which vapor cannot be liquefied no matter the pressure

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

states that it is impossible to know simultaneously the exact position and momentum of a particle. That is, the more exactly the position is determined, the less known the momentum, and vice versa.

What is the formula for zinc sulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for zinc sulfate is ZnSO4. The ions that make up this compound are Zn2+ and SO4 2-. The oxidation number of S is +6.

Hess' law

states that regardless of the multiple stages or steps of a reaction, the total enthalpy change for the reaction is the sum of all changes. This law is a manifestation that enthalpy is a state function.

hydrogen bonding

strong IMF between two moelcules; F, O, N; have higher melting and boiling points than molecules with other IMFs

retention factor

stronger the attraction between the solute and the solvent front is, the larger the Rf value will be

resonance structures

structures that occur when it is possible to draw two or more valid lewis electron dot diagrams that have the same number of electron pairs for a molecule or ion

solid to gas

sublimation

ionization energy magnitudes

subsequent energies are larger because the e-e repulsion decreases and the remaining valence e- are closer to the nucleus; once a shell is empty the energy required to remove an e- from a full shell is significantly greater than previous energies

solvent

substance present in the greatest quantity and the one the dissolves the other substances

base

substance that accepts (reacts with) H+ ions and produce hydroxide ions (OH-) when they dissolve in water; there are common ____s that do not contain hydroxide, however, like NH4

acid

substance that ionizes in aqueous solutions to form hydrogen ions, thereby increasing the concentration of H+(aq) ions; often called proton donors

catalyst

substance that speeds up a reaction by reducing the activation energy required by the reaction; provides an alternate reaction pathway; no effect on equilibrium conditions

supercritical fluid

substances above the critical temperature and pressure in which the pressure is so high that density and flowing ability of a "gas" resembles that of a liquid

permanent gases

substances w/ critical temperatures below 25°C

Mass Number

sum of all nucleons ( protons & neutrons)

Change in enthalpy for reaction

sum of heat of formations of products - sum of heat of formations of reactions

mass number

sum of protons and neutrons

Elementary Treatise on Chemistry

summary of all known chemical knowledge at that point in time (1789)

First order half life

t1/2 = 0.693 / k

Zeroth order half life

t1/2 = [A]0 / 2k

triple point

temperature-pressure combination at which solid, liquid, and gas states appear

critical point

temperature-pressure point after which gas can no longer form liquid

concentration

term used by scientists to designate the amount of solute dissolved in a given quantity of solvent or solution

Write the name for the formula: P4O10 Write the formula for the name: dinitrogen pentoxide

tetraphosphorous decaoxide N2O5

Solubility

the ability for a given substance, the solute, to dissolve in a solvent. It is measured in terms of the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a solvent at equilibrium. The resulting solution is called a saturated solution.

What is a reduction in an oxidation-reduction reaction?

The result of gaining electrons, causing a reduction in oxidation number.

What is a reducing agent (reductant)?

The species in a oxidation-reduction reaction that loses electrons, gaining a positive charge, to reduce the other species.

Tungsten

molecular formula

actual formula for a substance

standard molar entropies of elements and diatomics

are not 0 unlike standard molar enthalpies

strong bases

bases that are strong electrolytes (completely ionized in solution)

methoxy-

ether prefix

charles law

if pressure is constant: as temp increases, volume increases

l=3

network covalent bonds

lattice of covalent bonds; network solid (acts similar to one molecule); very hard, high melting/boiling points; poor conductors

First order plot

ln[A] vs. t

purpose of a salt bridge

maintains electrical neutrality in the cell

g solute/g solvent x 100

mass percent

base

metal oxide + H20 ->

Molarity

moles of solute / liters of solution

mole fraction

moles of substance A / total moles of solution

experimental yield

the actual amount of product produced in an experiment

doping

the addition of an impurity to an existing lattice

acid

nonmetal oxide + H2O ->

double bonds

one sigma bond, one pi bond; two e- pairs

oxide gas and water

oxoacid solution (such as HSO4-) forms...

anion

particle with more electrons than protons; negatively charged

enthalpy of solution

the amount of energy released or absorbed as heat when a specific amount of solute dissolves in a solvent

coulombs law

the amount of energy that an electron has depends on its distance from the nucleus of an atom; e=k(q1*q20)/r

anode

positive charge, attracts anions

specific heat

q = mc∆T

lanthanides and actinides

rare earth elements; inner transition metals

Limiting reactant

reactant that's completely used up in a chemical reaction

specific heat

the amount of heat required to the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree celsius

Law of Conservation of Mass

the amount of mass in any chemical process must remain constant

half-life

the amount of time it takes for half of a sample to disappear; t1/2=0.693/k

root mean square

velocity of a particle

ΔH°f (heat of formation)

the change in energy that takes place when one mole of a compound is formed from its pure components under STP

conjugate acid

the chemical formed when a base accepts a proton

conjugate base

the chemical formed when an acid donates a proton

molarity

the concentration of a solution expressed as the number of moles in a liter of solution (mol/L)

molarity

the concentration of a solution in terms of moles of solution/volume (L)

first law of thermodynamics

the energy of the universe is constant

bond energy

the energy required to break a bond; endothermic process (add energy)

heat of fusion

the energy that must be absorbed by a solid to melt it

heat of vaporization

the energy that must be put into a liquid to turn it into a gas

3rd law of thermodynamics

the entropy of a pure perfectly formed crystal @0K is 0

electromagnetic radiation

the form in which atoms absorb energy

+∆G

the forward process is nonspontaneous (the reverse is spontaneous)

-∆G

the forward process is spontaneous (the reverse is nonspontaneous)

Enthalpy (heat) of combustion

the heat released or absorbed (enthalpy change) during the formation of a pure substance from its elements, at constant pressure and usually denoted by ΔHf.

Modern Atom

the identity of atoms are determined by the number of protons ( atomic # ( Z #) )

spontaneity

the likelihood that a rxn will occur "by itself"

Law of Definite Proportions

the mass ratio of elements in a compound must always be constant (conversion factor)

calorimetry

the measurement of heat changes during chemical reactions

dipole moment

the measurement of the polarity of a molecule; the unit of measurement is a debye (D)

activation energy

the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction

activation energy

the minimum energy that molecules must possess for collisions to be effective, Ea

Dalton's Atomic Theory (Hard Sphere Theory)

the modern description of matter States: * all matter is composed of hard indestructible spheres called atoms *atom of the same elements are the same while atoms of different elements differ in a fundamental way. * chem. compounds are produced when atoms of diff. atoms combine in specific mass ratios unique to the compound * chem. reactions occur when atoms are reorganized and rebound with no changes in the atoms themselves - est. first table of atomic masses (most were wrong)

pKa

the pH that is halfway to the equivalence point

system

the part of the universe one is focused upon (in thermodynamics)

dipole-dipole forces

the positive end of one polar molecule is attracted to the negative end of another molecule; relatively weak attraction force

vapor pressure

the pressure exerted by a vapor over a liquid

partial pressure

the pressure of each gas in a mixture; is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas in the mixture Pa = (Ptotal) (moles of A/total moles)

vaporization

the process by which molecules with enough KE inside a liquid break the surface of the liquid and transition into the gaseous phase; no outside energy is needed i.e. no heating

distillation

the process that separates the substances in a solution based on their boiling points

10. Which of the following is polar? (A) SF4 (B) XeF4 (C) CF4 (D) SbF5

(A) SF4

2. Which of the following structures has a trigonal pyramidal geometry? (A) BF3 (B) PF3 (C) CH3 (D) CO3

(B) BF3

The shortest bond would be present in which of the following substances? (A) I2 (B) CO (C) CCl4 (D) O2

(B) CO

9. The Lewis dot structure of which of the following molecules shows only one unshared pair of valence electrons? (A) Cl2 (B) N2 (C) NH3 (D) CCl4

6. Which structure contains one double bond? (A) H2O (B) O3 (C) CO2 (D) C2H2

(D) C2H2

8. Which of the following has one lone pair around the atom? (A) H2O (B) CO2 (C) BF3 (D) CH3F

(D) CH3F

3. Which of the following molecules has the largest dipole moment? (A) CH4 (B) PH3 (C) PF5 (D) H2O

(D) H20

4. Identify the hybridization around each of the carbon atoms in H2C = C = CH2 (A) sp, sp2, sp (B) sp2, sp3, sp2 (C) sp3, sp3, sp3 (D) sp2, sp, sp

(D) sp2, sp, sp

van der Waals equation

(P + (n²a/V²))(V-nb) = nRT (a and b are constants for each individual gas)

What is the equation to find percent yield?

(laboratory yield/theoretical yield) * 100 = percent yield

covalent compound

(molecular) atoms are held together by electrons being "shared" within overlapped outer shells * formed between non-metals * identified by 1st element being a non-metal - naming: > first element keeps name >second elements root gets -ide ending > use Greek prefixes to indicate the number of atoms present ** Never place mono on the first element **

alkene

(organics) double-bonded compound

oct-

(organics) eight carbons

pent-

(organics) five carbons

but-

(organics) four carbons

non-

(organics) nine carbons

meth-

(organics) one carbon

hept-

(organics) seven carbons

alkane

(organics) single-bonded compound

hex-

(organics) six carbons

dec-

(organics) ten carbons

alkyne

(organics) triple-bonded compound

eth-

(organics) two carbons

What is the equation to find percent error?

(|lab value-accepted value|/accepted value) * 100 = percent error

Joseph Proust

* father of analytical chemistry 1. studied the composition of elements in compounds

Isotopic Name

* write element name * place hyphen/dash * write mass #

Sig Figs

+- : Answer has same number of decimal places as number with fewest decimal places x/ : Anwer has same number of sig figs as number with fewest sig figs

oxidation number: H

oxidation number: alkali metals

oxidation number: alkaline earth metals

favored redox reaction

spontaneous at high T; non spontaneous at low T

+∆H (unfavorable) +∆S (favorable)

nonspontaneous at all temperatures

+∆H (unfavorable) -∆S (unfavorable)

Network Covalent solids

- atoms joined by a continuous network of covalent bonds - high melting points - nonconductors of electricity - insoluble in water - Ex: diamond, graphite, quartz

metallic solids

- metal cations held together by electrons not attached to any particular metal cation - high electrical conductivity - conduct heat - ductile and malleable -insoluble in water -high range of melting and boiling points

formal charge

-(normal valence e- # for atom) - ((# of lone pair e-) + 1/2(# of shared e-)) -sum of the formal charges must = the charge of the molecule/ion -negative formal charges should reside on the most electronegative atom -the best Lewis structures have mostly 0 formal charges

as the number of covalent bond increases...

-...the bond length decreases -...the bond energy increases

oxidation number: halogens

-1

second order rate law

-1/[A] = kt + 1/[A]₀ -straight line when time v. 1/concentration; slope of k

oxidation number: oxygen

-2

precipitation reaction

-2 aqueous solutions mix and an insoluble salt is created

covalent bonds

-2 atoms share electrons

linear

-2 e- groups -180° apart

bent

-2 e- groups -normally in the molecular shape b/c two lone pairs were lost from tetrahedral (or one pair from trigonal planar)

pi (π) bond

-2nd and 3rd bonds in a covalent compound

trigonal planar

-3 e- groups -120° apart

trigonal pyramidal

-3 e- groups -normally in the molecular shape b/c one lone pair from the tetrahedral was lost

tetrahedral

-4 e- groups -109° apart

trigonal bipyramidal

-5 e- groups -120° (in triangle), 90° (up/down elements) -when lone pairs are removed for molecular, they are removed from the trigonal planar part b/c bond angle is larger--> can become see-saw, T-shaped, or linear

octahedral

-6 e- groups -90° -when lone pairs removed shapes are: square pyramid, square planar

enthalpy change (∆H)

-= H(reactants) - H(products) -energy is released when bonds are formed -energy is absorbed when bonds are broken -positive = endothermic; negative = exothermic

Variation of Ideal Gas Equation

-@ constant temp: PV = PV -@ constant pressure: V/T = V/T -constant temp/pressure: V/n = V/n (n = # of moles)

electron-deficient

-Boron--> only needs 6 e- to be stable (BF₃) -Beryllium--> only needs 4 e- (BeCl₂)

oxidation states--special cases

-Fluorine→o.s. of -1 -Oxygen→o.s. of -2 in covalent; -1 in peroxides; +2 in OF₂ -Hydrogen→o.s. of +1 in covalent w/ nonmetals

effusion

the rate at which a gas will escape from a container through microscopic holes in the surface of the container

Different K's

-Kc → constant for molar concentrations -Kp → constant for partial pressures -Ksp → solubility product -Ka → acid constant for weak acids -Kb → base constant for weak bases -Kw → water ionization

determining order (rate law)

-[A1] times x equals [A2]= rate1 times y equals rate2 -if x⁰ = 1 = y, zero order -if x¹ = y, first order -if x² = y, second order

zero order rate law

-[A] = -kt + [A]₀ -slope of graph = -k -straight line when time v. concentration

what is a galvanic cell

-a redox reaction is separating into the oxidation and reduction parts to generate current

decomposition reaction

-a single compound is split into 2+ compounds

weak acid

-acid that will only dissociate a little when placed in water -Ka = [A⁻][H⁺]/[HA] -greater the Ka, more dissociation, stronger the acid

Bronsted-Lowry Acid-Base Definition

-acid → proton donor -base → proton acceptor

Arrhenius Acid-Base Definition

-acid → substance that produces H⁺ ions -base → substance that produces OH⁻ ions

Intermolecular forces

-aka IMF's -only exist in covalently bonded molecules -includes network covalent bonds, hydrogen bonds, dipole-dipole forces, and london dispersion forces

ionization energy (aka binding energy)

-amount of energy necessary to remove an e- from an atom; related to effective nuclear charge -↑ across a period -↓ down a group -second i.e. > first i.e. -i.e. gradually increases each successive time, until the outer shell is empty, then it increases a lot

photoelectron spectra (PES)

-amount of ionization energy for all e- ejected from a nucleus -graph that charts the binding/ionization energy against the number of electrons -each peak in the graph represents an subshell

acid-base reaction

-an acid reacts with a base to form water and a salt -ex→ HCl + NaOH → H₂O + NaCl

standard state conditions

-are true when you see a °, like H° -include: gases @ 1atm, pure solids/liquids. 1M substances, element @ normal states has energy of formation (∆H°ƒ) of 0

weak base / Kb =

-base that will only dissociate a little when placed in water -Kb = [HA][OH⁻]/[B] -greater the Kb, more dissociation, stronger the base

Coulomb's law

-can calculate the energy an atom has based on its distance from the nucleus -greater the charge of the nucleus, the more energy the e- will have -the closer the e- to the nucleus, the more energy the e- will have

J.J. Thomson

-cathode ray experiment -put forth plum pudding model

Heat of formation, ∆H°

-change in energy when 1 mole of a compound is formed from pure elements -exothermic → H is negative -endothermic → H is positive -pure element → H is zero = ∑∆H°ƒ reactants- ∑∆H°ƒ products

strong base

-completely dissociates in water -alkali metals and Ba, Sr -LiOH, NaOH, KOH, Ba(OH)₂, Sr(OH)₂

solubility rules

-compounds w/ an alkali metal are soluble -compounds w/ an NH₄⁺ are soluble -compounds w/ an NO₃⁻ are soluble

buffer

-consists of weak acid and conjugate base OR weak base and conjugate acid pH = pKa + log([base]/[acid])

Millikan

-created oil-drop experiment to find the mass and charge of an individual electron

reaction quotient, Q

-determined just like equilibrium constant, K, but using initial conditions

energy diagrams

-displays the reaction as a graph

massing objects

-don't mass hot objects; they don't measure correctly -don't weigh stuff directly on a scale

polar covalent bond

-e- are unequally shared b/c atoms have different electronegativities

polar covalent bond

-e- are unequally shared b/c atoms have different electronegativities; greater the difference in electronegativities, more polar the bond -molecule has dipole moment

quantized energy levels

-e- can only exist at specific energy levels -as they get farther from the nucleus, their potential energy increases

anode

-electrode where oxidation happens in a galvanic cell

cathode

-electrode where reduction happens in a galvanic cell

Bohr Model

-electrons are present in specific energy levels -when e- gain energy, they move up energy levels, while e- release energy as they move down

ionic bond

-electrostatic attraction between ions (e- are given up, creating ions) -creates a lattice structure; greater the charges and smaller the ions, greater the lattice energy -high melting/boiling points

dipole dipole forces

-electrostatic force between the positive and negative ends of a polar molecule -stronger than London forces, but weaker than H bonding

exceeding octet rule

-element must be in 3rd period or higher -exceeds by using d orbital -ex--> SF₆, PCl₅, XeO₃, ICl₄⁻, ClF₃

heat of vaporization

-energy needed to turn a liquid into a gas

first law of thermodynamics

-energy of the universe is constant -energy can't be created or destroyed, only converted

bond energy

-energy required to break a bond -always endothermic and positive -∆H° = ∑ bond energy of broken bonds - ∑ bond energy of formed bonds

heat of fusion

-energy that must be put into a solid to melt it

state functions

-enthalpy (H), entropy (S), and free-energy (G) change -don't depend on the actual process of the reaction -depend only the initial and final states

Le Chatelier's Law--Temperature

-exothermic → heat is a product -endothermic → heat is a reactant -treat like concentration problem

sigma (σ) bond

-first covalent bond

law of mass action (Keq)

-for aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, Keq = [C]^c [D]^d / [A]^a [B]^b -only gases and aqueous substances are included

Rutherford

-gold foil experiment→discovered nucleus

Rutherford

-gold foil experiment→fired alpha particles @ gold foil and saw how they scattered -concluded that: (1) atom was mostly empty space (2) all the positive charge was concentrated in the middle of the atom

titration curve--polyprotic acid

-has as many equivalence points as it does H⁺'s -equivalence points are equidistant from each other

polyprotic acids

-have more than one H⁺ -ex → H₂SO₄, H₃PO₄ -will give off one H⁺ at a time; each successive acid is weaker

comparing K and Q

-if K > Q, then more products need to be made -if Q > K, then more reactants are needed -if Q = K, then the reaction is at equilibrium

second law of thermodynamics

-if a reaction happens spontaneously (on its own) in one direction, it won't happen spontaneously in the reverse direction -entropy of universe increases during spontaneous reaction

What does the Keq mean?

-if it's large, then products are favored at equilibrium -if it's small, then reactants are favored at equilibrium

K in a multistep reaction

-if reactions are added together, then their K's must be multiplied

Le Chatelier's Law--Concentration

-if the concentration increases equilibrium will shift away from that substance -if the concentration decreases equilibrium will shift towards that substance

Le Chatelier's Law--Pressure

-if the pressure decreases (increases) then equilibrium will shift toward the side with more (less) molecules of gas -if a inert gas is added, there will be no change

Le Chatelier's Law--Volume

-if the volume decreases (increases) then equilibrium will shift toward the side with less (more) moles of gas molecules

oxidation states--covalent compound

-if they are identical atoms, the e- are split equally (o.s. of 0) -if they are different atoms, the e- are given to the atom with stronger attraction to e-

phase diagram

-in water (when solid is less dense than liquid) line between solid/liquid slopes downward

photon

-increase the energy of the photon by increasing the frequency

conductors: ionic compounds

-ionic solids do not conduct electricity -ionic liquids do conduct electricity

oxidation states--atom/one element

-is always 0 -ex→F₂, Hg

hydrogen bond

-like a dipole-dipole, but stronger -hydrogen end of molecule attracted to F/O/N -high melting/boiling points

electromagnetic radiation spectrum

-listing in increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength -radio / infrared / visible / UV / x-ray / gamma

first order rate law

-ln[A] = -kt + ln[A]₀ -straight line when time v. ln(concentration); slope of this line is -k

-log [H+]

pKa

-log [Ka]

pKb

-log [Kb]

pOH

-log [OH-]

-logK

-log[H+]

how to find pH

-log[H⁺]

pOH

-log[OH-]

catalyst

-lowers the activation energy by displaying an alternate path -in a rxn mechanism, it would be in reactants of 1st step and products of last step, but not in overall equation

Ksp

-measure of how much a salt disassociates in a solution -higher the Ksp, more soluble the salt

temperature

-measurement of the average kinetic energy of a substance (not the same as heat)

metallic bonds

-metals can bond with themselves, forming a sea of electrons -metals can bond with other metals, forming alloys; alloys are interstitial if between atoms w/ vastly different radii or substitutional when between atoms w/ similar radii

hybridization

-mixing atomic orbitals to from special orbitals for bonding -individual atom (normally center atom in a molecule) does this -based on how many e- areas (lone pair groups, bonds)are around the atom; for ea. e- area, one orbital added -ex-->O in H₂O has 4 e- areas, so: sp³ C in CO₂ has 2 e- areas, so: sp P in PCl₅ has 5 e- areas, so: sp³d

VSEPR Model

-model used to predict molecular geometry

VSEPR Model

-model used to predict molecular geometry -double/triple bonds treated same way as single bonds -lone e- pairs occupy more space than bonding pairs

phase and IMF's

-molecules w/ weak IMF's tend to be gases at room temperature -molecules w/ strong IMF's tend to be solids @ room temp.

∆G° = -nFE°

-n = number of moles of e- -F = Farday's constant (96,500 C / mol e-) -E = energy potential (1V = 1 J / C)

Molecular substances

-nonconductors of electricity - insoluble in water - low melting and boiling points

resonance form

-occurs when 2+ Lewis structures can be made for a molecule -can be flipped to resemble each other -'real' molecule is an average of these structures

oxidation states

-of a compound, they must = 0 or the charge of the ion -help keep track of e- in redox rxns

chromatography

-paper is somewhat polar, so if your solvent is non-polar the polar molecules will be low on the paper while the non-polar molecules will travel with the solvent to the top

equivalence point

-point in a titration where H⁺ and OH⁻ concentrations are equal

dipole-dipole force

-positive end of one polar molecule attracted to negative end of another -greater the polarity, greater the dipole-dipole -low melting/boiling points

dipole-dipole force

-positive end of one polar molecule attracted to negative end of another -low melting/boiling points

vapor pressure

-pressure of the molecules as they escape from the surface -water boils when vapor pressure = atmospheric pressure

John Dalton

-proposed 5 different postulates of atomic theory said there are different types of atoms, called elements -elements combine, forming compounds -compounds have the same ratio of elements -atoms are never created or destroyed in chemical reactions

titration lab

-rinse buret with solution to be used -if it's rinsed with water, the solution will be diluted and the volume of the titrant will be too much

John Dalton

-said there are different types of atoms, called elements -elements combine, forming compounds -compounds have the same ratio of elements -atoms are never created or destroyed in chemical reactions

parts of a galvanic cell

-salt bridge--> maintains neutrailty; ions flow into anode side -wire--> e- move from anode to cathode -solid and aqueous ions--> same type are together in a container

oxidation states--ionic compounds

-same as the ion charge

thermodynamics

-says whether a rxn will occur; not how fast it will ocurr

reaction mechanism

-series of individual chemical (elementary) steps by which an overall chemical reaction occurs

synthesis reaction

-simple compounds combined to form one, more complex, compound

intermediate

-species that is formed in one elementary step and consumed in the next so it is NOT a product or reaction in the overall equation

net ionic equation

-spectator ions that stay aqueous on both the reactants and products side are not included

titration curve--SA w/ SB

-starts near 1, ends near 14 -equivalence point at 7

titration curve--WA w/ SB

-starts near 3, ends near 14 -equivalence point above 7

amphoteric

-substance that can act as a base or an acid

galvanic cell equation

-take both half-reactions and decide to 'flip' one of them to make in an oxidation reaction -'flip' the one that, when its E° turns negative, adding the E°'s together won't make a negative number -note: current and work can only be done if E° is positive

molecular shape

-the electronic shape minus the lone pairs

heat

-total energy due to molecular motions in a substance (not the same as temperature)

Dalton's Law

-total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all the partial pressures of gases

non-metals

-upper right hand of periodic table -gain e- in ionic bonds

Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

-use for buffers; when you have a weak acid and conjugate base or weak base and conjugate acid pH = -log(Ka) + log([base] / [acid])

electron configuration

-use the periodic table to do this; note that the p's start w/ 2, d's w/ 3, and f's with 4 -shorthand method: write noble gas to stand for the configuration up to that element

conjugate base

-used to be part of an acid; now acts as a base because it will accept an H⁺ -ex → Cl⁻ from HCl

conjugate acid

-used to be part of an base; now acts as a acid because it will donate an H⁺ -ex → NH₄⁺ from NH₃

-water dissociation constant = 1.0 x 10⁻¹⁴ = [H⁺][OH⁻] = KaKb

London Dispersion Forces (LDF's)

-weak attraction due to e- movement that forms a temporary dipole -larger the molecule, larger the LDF -low melting/boiling points

an atom is oxidized

-when the atom's o.s. decreases as it gains e-

an atom is reduced

-when the atom's o.s. increases as it loses e-

Le Chatelier's Law

-whenever stress is placed on a reaction @ equilibrium, the equilibrium will shift to relieve the stress -stress can be concentration, temp., pressure, volume

electron attractedness

-↑ attraction when closer to nucleus -↑ attraction when more protons in nucleus -repelled by other e-

atomic radius

-↓ across a period -↑ down a group -cations < atoms -anions > atoms

spontaneous at all temperatures

-∆H (favorable) +∆H (favorable)

spontaneous at low T; nonspontaneous at high T

-∆H (favorable) -∆S (unfavorable)

substances with only london dispersion forces usually...

... are gases at room temp, and boil/melt at extremely low temps

ionic

... compounds are most conductive

reaction rate increases...

...as concentration of reactants increases -as temperature increases -as surface area increases -as volume decreases -when a catalyst is added

when bonds are formed

...energy is released

STP Conditions

0 degrees Celsius, 22.4 L

law of mass action

the rate of a chemical reaction is proportional to the product of the concentrations of the reactants

a solution is at equilibrium when

the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction

What is the value of 'R' in the ideal gas law when using atm?

0.0821

Number of nonbonding pairs in a see-saw shape?

Number of nonbonding pairs in a square pyramidal shape?

Number of nonbonding pairs in a trigonal pyramidal shape?

1 standard atmosphere

1 atm, 760 mm Hg, 760 torr, 101,325 Pa

single bond

1 sigma bond

double bond

1 sigma bond, 1 pi bond

triple bond

1 sigma bond, 2 pi bonds

Kinetic Molecular Theory

1. Particles volume is close to zero 2. No IMFs 3. Kinetic energy does not change at a constant temperature for all gasses; KE is dependent on temperature 4. Gases are in constant motion and pressure comes from collisions against the sides of the container

standard state conditions

1. all gases are at 1 atm 2. all liquids are pure 3. all solids are pure 4. all solutions are at 1-M 5. the energy of formation of an element in its normal state is defined as 0 6. temperature used for standard state values is almost invariably room temperature. standard state values can be calculated for other temperatures, however.

Ernest Rutherford

1. conducted Gold Foil Experiment 2. discovered * atoms are mainly empty space * they have a massive center * they are positively charged

Robert Millikan

1. conducted oil drop experiment 2. determined mass and change of electron ** mass = 9.109 x 10^3 kg ** change = 1.6 x 10^-19 coulombs (-1 fundamental charge)

percent dissociation

the ratio of the amount of a substance that is dissociated at equilibrium to the initial concentration of the substance in a solution, multiplied by 100

How to Draw a Lewis Structure

1. count up number of total valence e- (add e- for anions; subtract for cations); this is how many e- should be in your final answer 2. draw molecule w/ bonds so that each molecule has full octet

Robert Boyle

1. first true quantitative experimenter 2. est. the idea of elements

reduction agent

the reactant that is being oxidized, brings about reduction

JJ Thomson

1. idea of an atom made sense from previous work of other scientists 2. studied cathode rays 3. observed deflection of rays by electric & magnetic fields ** m/e = -1.766 x 10^8 c/g

rules of hess's law

1. if you flip the equation, flip the sign on ΔH 2. if you multiply or divide an equation by a #, multiply ΔH by the same # 3. if several equations in summation create a new equation, you can also add the ΔH values of those component equations to get the ΔH value for the new equation

electroplating conversions

1. know that 1 amp = 1 C / sec and that there are 96,500 C / mol e- 2. starts with the time given, convert to seconds, then C, then mol e-, then the moles of e- in problem, and then moles of the metal (or vice verse) note: moles of the metal is found when making/canceling out the equation

limiting reactant problems

1. pick one product, and see how many moles of that product each reactant would make 2. the reactant making the least amount of the product is the limiting reactant

Joseph Gay-Lussac

1. studied volume changes associated with gaseous chemical reactions under constant conditions * used law of def. prop. & law of mult. prop. 2. observed that gases react in specific ratio

Kinetic Molecular Theory

1. volume of gas particles = 0 (b/c they're so small compared w/ distance between them) 2. Pressure is caused by collisions of particles with walls 3. Particles don't attract/repel each other 4. Avg. kinetic energy = 1.5R/T

1.0x10^-14

Second order integrated rate law

1/[A] = kt + 1/[A]0

Second order plot

1/[A] vs. t

second

1/[A] vs. time is a ...-order reaction

Bond angle of a trigonal planar shape?

120

Bond angles of a trigonal bipyramidal shape?

120, 90

Bond angle of a linear (2) shape?

180

Bond angle of a linear shape?

180

What is the full electron configuration of Sulfur (S)?

1s²2s²2p⁶3s²3p⁴

Number of a bonds in a V shape?

Number of bonds in a bent shape?

Number of bonds in a linear (2) shape?

Number of bonds in a linear shape?

Number of nonbonding pair in a square planar shape?

Number of nonbonding pairs in a T-shape?

Number of nonbonding pairs in a V shape?

oxidizing agent

the reactant that is being reduced, brings about oxidation

Q = K

the reaction is at equilibrium; voltage in a voltaic cell reaches zero

neutralization reaction

the reaction that occurs when a solution of an acid and a solution of a base are mixed

surroundings

the rest of the universe (in thermodynamics)

dissociation

the separation into component ions that occurs when an ionic compound dissolves

paper chromatography

the separation of a mixture by passing it through a medium in which the components of the solution move at different rates

titration

the slow addition of a solution at a known concentration to another solution in order to determine the concentration of the unknown solution; color change is often used as an end point

? L/mol

22.4 L

One mole of an ideal gas has a volume of

22.4 litres at STP

rate-determining step

the slowest step in a reaction mechanism that determines the overall rate of the reaction

Number of bonds in a trigonal planar shape?

Number of bonds in a trigonal pyramidal shape?

Number of nonbonding pairs in a linear (2) shape?

limiting reactant

the substance that controls the quantity of product that can form in a chemical reaction; moles of each reactant divided by moles used in reaction

Number of bonds in a tetrahedral shape?

tetrahedral geometry

4 e- pairs, sp3 hybridization angles 109.5 0 lone pairs: tetrahedral (four bonds) [CH4, NH4+, ClO4-, SO4 2-, PO4 3-] 1 lone pair: trigonal pyramidal (3 bonds) [NH3, PCl3, SO3 2-] 2 lone pairs: bent (2 bonds) [H2O, OF2, NH2-]

solute

the substances in a solution that are being dissolved (of the least quantity)

Number of bonds in a square pyramidal shape?

Number of bonds in a trigonal bipyramidal shape?

trigonal bipyramidal geometry

5 e- pairs, sp4 hybridization 0 lone pairs: trigonal bipyramidal (5 bonds) [PCl5, PF5] 1 lone pair: seesaw (4 bonds) [SF4, IF4+] 2 lone pairs: t-shaped (3 bonds) [ClF3, ICl3] 3 lone pairs: linear (2 bonds) [XeF2, I3-]

kinetic molecular theory

the theory that all matter is composed of particles (atoms and molecules) moving constantly in random directions

1st law of thermodynamics

the total energy of the universe is constant, all systems tend towards minimum energy

2nd law of thermodynamics

the total entropy is always increasing, all systems tend towards maximum entropy

daltons law

the total pressure of a mixture of gases is just the sum of all the partial pressures of the individual gases in the mixture

octahedral geometry

6 e- pairs, sp5 hybridization 0 lone pairs: octahedral (6 bonds) [SF6] 1 lone pair: square pyramidal (5 bonds) [BrF5, IF5] 2 lone pairs: square planar (4 bonds) [XeF4]

avogadros number

6.022 E23

mol

6.022x10^23

R (in thermo, not gases)

8.31 J/mol*K

Bond angle of a square planar shape?

half-reactions

the two parts of an oxidation-reduction reaction, one representing oxidation, the other reduction

Bond angle of a V shape?

<109.5

Bond angle of a trigonal pyramidal shape?

<109.5

Bond angle of a bent shape?

<120

Bond angle of a T-shape?

<90

Bond angle of a square pyramidal shape?

<90

Partial Pressure

= (total pressure)(moles of gas A/ total moles of gas)

[H⁺] =

= 10^-pH

∆G°rx

= ∑n∆G(f°products) - ∑n∆G°reactants

r₁/r₂

=√M₂/M₁

Beer's Law

A = abc -A = absorbance -a = molar absorptivity constant -b = path length (how far light travels thru solution) -c = concentration of soln. -used w/ a spectrophotometer to find absorbency and concentration

Define chemical formula and give an example.

A chemical formula is the representation of chemical substances using their chemical symbols and appropriate subscripts for the number of atoms. A simple formula is CA(NO3)2. This formula indicates a compound with one calcium atom, two nitrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms.

What is a voltaic cell?

A device that allows the transfer of electrons between the reactants of an oxidation-reduction reaction without contact between the reactants.

Define a hydrate and give and example.

A hydrate is a substance that contains a fixed number of water molecules. The water molecules are written separately from the formula itself and connected to it with a dot in the center of the line between the chemical formula and the water molecules. For example, cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate is CoCl2*6H2O.

What is electron affinity?

A measure of the energy change present when gaseous atoms take electrons into their valence shells, creating negatively-charged ions.

What is effective nuclear charge?

A measure of the nuclear charge experienced by an atom, meaning as the effective nuclear charge increases for electrons they will be pulled closer to the nucleus.

Define metal.

A metal is a substance with characteristic properties of high electrical conductivity, malleability, and a metallic-silver or yellow luster. A metal can also be described as the nucleus and core electrons in a "sea of valence electrons."

Define metalloid.

A metalloid is an element that has properties of both metals and nonmetals. They are useful as semiconductors. Examples are silicon and germanium, which are used for transistors and integrated circuits.

What is an oxidation number?

A number that represents the ionic charge of an ion.

What is an elementary step?

A process in a chemical reaction that only involves a single step.

Define proton.

A proton is one of the three particles that make up the atom along with an electron and a neutron. The proton has a positive charge, equal in magnitude (but with the opposite sign) to the charge of the electron. The number of protons is equal to the atomic number of an element. Protons, along with neutrons, are located in the nucleus and make up the bulk of an atom's mass.

What is an oxidation reduction reaction?

A reaction that occurs with the transfer of electrons from one species to another.

What is an electrode?

A sample of metal that is connected to another by an external circuit.

Describe the three states of matter.

A solid retains both volume and shape and molecules are relatively rigid in a crystal lattice. A liquid retains volume but not shape, molecules move freely in close contact, and strong attractive forces are present. A gas assumes the volume and shape of a container, molecules are almost totally independent of each other, there is little in the way of attractive forces, and it is highly compressable.

gas

A state of matter with no definite shape or volume

beer's law

A=abc A=absorbance a=molar absorptivity b=path length; the distance the light is traveling through the solution c=concentration of the solution

when electron drops to a lower energy level

then electromagnetic radiation is released (energy)

% error

theoretical yield-experimental yield/theoretical yieldx100

collision theory

theory that collisions occur because reactants are constantly moving around and colliding with one another

spontaneous

thermodynamically favored; -ΔG

nonspontaneous

thermodynamically unfavored; +ΔG

d orbitals

these orbitals are diagonal

p orbitals

these orbitals are perpendicular

s orbitals

these orbitals are spherical

viscosity

thickness

rate law

this MUST be determined experimentally

Arrhenius equation

to find activation energy use the...

Alchemists tried...

to make gold through chemistry

1st Law of Thermodynamics

total energy lost/gained is equal to the total energy gained/lost by its surrounding system. ΔE=q+w

bonding

transfer or sharing of electrons

complex ions

transition metals with ammonia, hydroxide, cyanide or thiocyanate form...

pauli exclusion principle

two electrons who share an orbital cannot have the same spin (must be clockwise and counterclockwise); magnetic moment

geometric isomers

two molecules with identical connectivity but different geometries

Pauli exclusion principle

two or more identical fermions (particles with half-integer spin) cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum system simultaneously.

mole

unit used to represent large numbers of small particles such as atoms, molecules, electrons, or ions

current

unit: amperes (amps); the flow of electrons from one place to another

London dispersion forces

universal IMF for nonpolar molecules

Hydrogen bonding

unusually strong dipole forces found when H is bonded to N, O, or F

More reactive trend

up and to the right

formal charge

used to find which structure is most likely to occur; valence - assigned

voltaic cells

uses a spontaneous redox rxn to generate electrical energy, consists of 2 half cells

Colligative properties

vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression, osmotic pressure

liquid to gas

vaporization

n (first quantum number)

variable for energy of e-, goes from 1,2,3 on up

m (third quantum number)

variable for orientation of orbital (-1 through +1)

s (fourth quantum number)

variable for spin of electron (+.5 or -.5)

l (second quantum number)

variable for type of orbital

ion

variation of an element/atom

groups

vertical rows

Wave nature of matter

wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum of a particle.

lambda

wavelength symbol

Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

we cannot simultaneously determine an atom's exact path or location

buffers

weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH

London dispersion forces

weakest IMFs, found in all molecules

Atomic Mass

weighted average mass of all isotopes in an element * Fractional Abundance (mass #) + FA + FA...

Percent Yield

what you got/what you should've gotten

Hund's Rule

when an e- is added to a subshell, it will always occupy an empty orbital if avaliable

hunds rule

when an electron is added to a subshell it will always occupy an empty orbital if one is available

synthesis reaction

when elements or simple compounds are combined to form a single, more complex compound

dissociation

when ionic substances break up into ions into solution

blue-violet

when n=5 ->2, color=

violet

when n=6 ->2, color=

equilibrium

when the rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction

Combined gas law

when we put Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Gay-Lussac's law together, we come up with the combined gas law, which shows that: Pressure is inversely proportional to volume, or higher volume equals lower pressure. Pressure is directly proportional to temperature, or higher temperature equals higher pressure.

anode

where oxidation takes place

cathode

where reduction takes place

Hund's Rule

within a sublevel, place one e⁻ per orbital before pairing them

Pauli Exclusion Principle

within an atom no 2 e- can have the same set of quantum numbers; if an orbital has 2 e-, they must have different spins

Write the name for the formula: XeF4 Write the formula for the name: sulfur trioxide

xenon tetrafluoride SO3

first order rate law

y= ln[a] subscript (t) m= -k x= time b= ln[a] subscript (0)

Gibbs free-energy

ΔG; a measure of whether or not a process will proceed without the input of outside energy ∆G=∆H-T∆S (T in degrees Kelvin) when ΔG=0, the reaction is at equilibrium

Bond enthalpy

ΔH when 1 mol of bonds is broken in the gaseous state

enthalpy

ΔH; heat of a system at constant pressure

entropy

ΔS; a measure of the randomness or disorder of the system

∆G

∆G° + RT(lnQ)

standard free energy

∆G°(rxn) is the free energy change of a reaction when it occurs under standard conditions; when reactants in their standard states are converted to products in their standard states.

∆G°

∆H - T∆S

heat of formation

∆H = ∑H(products)-∑H(reactants)

spontaneous endothermic reaction

∆H > 0 ∆S > 0

at high temperatures

∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... + | +

never

∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... + | -

always

∆H | ∆S is spontaneous... - | +

state function

∆H, ∆S, ∆G

∆Hº of pure elements=

entropy change ∆S

∑S°(products) - ∑S°(reactants)

third

AP doesn't deal with ...-order reaction, don't pick it!

T-shape

AX3E2

see-saw

AX4E

square planar

AX4E2

trigonal bipyramidal

AX5

square pyramidal

AX5E

octahedral

AX6

linear

AX₂, AX₂E₃

bent

AX₂E, AX₂E₂

trigonal planar

AX₃

trigonal pyramidal

AX₃E

t-shape

AX₃E₂

tetrahedral

AX₄

seesaw

AX₄E

square planar

AX₄E₂

trigonal bipyramidal

AX₅

Electronegativity

Ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons to itself

Acid dissociation constant

Actinium

How to change the pressure of a reaction system?

Add or remove gas, add an inert gas, change volume

Electron Capture

Addition of an electron to a proton in the nucleus is known as electron capture or K-capture. The result of this process is that a proton is transformed into a neutron.

List the insoluble halide compounds.

AgX, Hg₂X, PbX₂

Define alkali metals.

Alkali metals are the elements in the first group (column) of the periodic table (1A or 1.). All: have ns1 electrons as valence electrons, are extremely reactive elements, have low ionization energies, have low electronegativities, are metals that form 1+ ions.

Define alkaline earth metals.

Alkaline earth metals are the elements in the second group (column) of the periodic table. All: have ns2 electrons for valence electrons, are very reactive elements, are very reactive elements, are metals that form 2+ ions.

strong bases

All Group 1A metal hydroxides (LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH) and heavy Group 2A metal hydroxides (Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2)

Strong Bases

All Group IA elements with OH- Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2,

Aluminum

Aluminium

Al³⁺

Americium

What is an amorphous substance?

Amorphous means without structure. Amorphous substances have no long-range crystal structure. Glass is an example of an amorphous substance.

Henry's Law

Amount of gas dissolved proportional to pressure of gas above solution

What is an Atom?

An atom is the smallest fundamental particle of matter that contains its own properties.

Define electron, neutron, and proton.

An electron occupies space outside the nucleus. (Mass = 0, charge = 1-, symbol is e-). A neutron is an uncharged particle in the nucleus. (Symbol is 1n, mass = 1). A proton is a positively charged particle in the nucleus. (Symbol is 1p, mass = 1, charge = 1+) (Number of protons defines the identity of an atom.)

What concept includes allotropes?

An element exhibits allotropy when it can exist as two or more distinct chemical structures. For example: the three allotropes of carbon-graphite, diamond, and C60 (buckminsterfullerene). Not all elements have allotropes.

Precipitation reaction

An insoluble substance is formed as a result of the reaction

Define ion.

An ion is an element that has lost or gained one or more electrons. A cation has lost one or more electrons. An anion has gained one or more electrons. A polyatomic ion is a group of elements bound together covalently that also carries a charge.

Define isotope.

An isotope is an atom with a specific number of neutrons in addition to the protons and electrons defined by the atomic number. A given element may have several isotopes, each of which has a different number neutrons while having the same number of electrons and protons. For example: C-12, C-13, and C-14. Each has 6 electrons and 6 protons; however, they have 6,7, and 8 neutrons, respectively.

Argon

What theories or concepts are used to describe a base?

Arrhenius Theory: any compound which increases the hydroxide concentration of a solution. Bronsted Theory: a substance that is a proton acceptor. Lewis Theory: a base is an electron pair donor.

k=Ae^(-Ea/RT)

Arrhenius equation

Nuclear Model

Atoms are composed of mainly empty space with a small positively charged center called a nucleus, surrounded by negatively charged electrons

Root mean square velocity

Average velocity of gas particles

metathesis reaction

Ax + By -> Ay + Bx; these reactions include both single and double replacement reactions

Barium

Berkelium

Beryllium

Beta

Beta decay is the loss of a β-particle (a high energy electron).

London dispersion forces

Between non polar molecules

Beryllium

Be²⁺

Bismuth

1.38x10⁻²³J/K

Boltzmann constant, used in calculating speed of gas per molecule

Pi bond

Bond between the p orbitals

Sigma bond

Bond between the s orbitals

Bromide

Br⁻

acetate

C2H3O2(-)

acetate

C2H3O2-

From celsius to fahrenheit

C=5/9 (F-32)

cyanide

CN(-)

cyanide

CN-

cyanide

CN¹⁻

What is the formula for carbon dioxide? Write the chemical equation when it is dissolved in water. Is carbon dioxide a polar or nonpolar molecule?

CO2 (g) CO2(g) + H2O <-----> H2CO3 (aq) O----C-----O the molecule is linear and nonpolar.

carbonate

CO3 2-

carbonate

CO3(2-)

carbonate

CO₃²⁻

Cadmium

Calcium

Solubility Rules Exceptions

Calcium, Barium, Strontium, Mercury, Silver, Lead (Sulfates) Mercury, Silver, Lead (Halogens)

Amphoteric

Can behave as an acid or a base (water)

Carbon

insoluble

Carbonates, Hydroxides, Oxides, Phosphates, Sulfides

JJ Thomson

Cathode Ray, discovered the electron

Oxidizing agent

Causes oxidation (is often reduced)

Reducing agent

Causes reduction (is often oxidized)

Calcium

Ca²⁺

Cerium

Ceslum

Le Chatlier's Principle

Change imposed, equilibrium shifts to lessen change

Lattice energy

Change in energy when separated gas ions form an ionic solid Equation: LE = k(Q1Q2 / r) k is proportionality constant, Q is charge of ions, r is shortest distance between centers of ions

Reaction rate

Change of concentration over time (Rate = delta [A] / delta t)

Acid-base indicator

Changes color at the end point (not same as equivalence point)

What is the concept behind a chemical compound?

Chemists envision a chemical compound as a substance that has a fixed ratio (by either mass or atoms) of two or more different atoms. Chemical compounds have definite physical properties that can be used to identify the compound. Chemical compounds also have characteristic chemical properties that indicate what reactions they participate in and what reactions they do not.

Solubility Rules

Chlorates, Acetates, Sulfates, Halogens, Nitrates, Group IA

Chlorine

Chromium

hypochlorite

ClO(-)

chlorite

ClO2(-)

chlorate

ClO3(-)

perchlorate

ClO4(-)

chlorite

ClO₂¹⁻

chlorate

ClO₃²⁻

perchlorate

ClO₄¹⁻

chloride

Cl¹⁻

Chloride

Cl⁻

Cobalt

Amorphous solids

Components frozen in place with no arrangement

Crystalline solids

Components organized in a lattice

Integrated rate law

Concentrations depends on time

Weak Electrolytes

Conduct currents very weakly

Alloy

Contains a mixture of elements and has metallic properties

Copper

dichromate

Cr2O7 2-

dichromate

Cr2O7(2-)

chromate

CrO4(2-)

chromate

CrO₄²⁻

Critical point

Critical temperature and critical point

dichromate

Cr₂O₇²⁻

Cesium

Cs⁺

acetate

C₂H₃O₂¹⁻

oxalate

C₂O₄²⁻

Atomic radius trend

Decreases across a period (more effective nuclear charge), increases down a group (more electron shielding)

Distillation

Depends on differences in volatility

Coagulation

Destruction of colloid by heating or adding electrolyte

Hund's rule

Different electrons to different orbitals, same spin

Polyprotic acids

Dissociates in a stepwise manner, find Ka of each step

energy/ wavelength/ frequency

E = hv = hc / λ -E = energy change -h = Plank's constant-6.63 x 10^-34 -v = frequency -λ = wavlength -c = speed of light 3.00 x 10^8 -higher frequency and short wavelength means more energy

Dalton's Atomic Theory

Each element is made up of tiny particles called atoms. The atoms of a given element are identical. Chemical compounds are forms when atoms of different elements combine with each other. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of the atoms (changes in the way they are bound together.)

Photoelectric effect

Effect occurring when electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal when light strikes it

Define electron configuration.

Electron configuration is a listing of the electrons within an atom based upon the sublevels that are filled and the relative energies of these sublevel. The electron configuration for silicon is 1s22s22p63s23p2. It is also the sequence in which the sublevel fills can be read, row by row, from the periodic table.

Lewis base

Electron pair acceptor

Lewis acid

Electron pair donor

Pauli exclusion principle

Electrons with the same spin cannot occupy the same space

Define element.

Element is the term given to any one of the 118 distinct particles of known atoms. Each has distinct chemical and physical properties. Elements are organized on the basis of atomic numbers in the periodic table.

Positive delta H

Energy absorbed

Law of conservation of energy

Energy can be converted but never destroyed

Electron affinity

Energy change associated with the addition of an electron to a gaseous atom

Kinetic energy

Energy from motion

Potential energy

Energy from position or composition

Endothermic

Energy into the system

Bond energy

Energy needed to break bond

Coulomb's law

Energy of interaction between a pair of ions

Dissociation Energy

Energy of taking the bond apart Narrower the bond, the higher the energy

Exothermic

Energy out of the system

Negative delta H

Energy released

Ionization energy

Energy required to remove a valence electron from an atom

Equivalence point

Enough titrant added to analyte

Heat of fusion

Enthalpy change which occurs at the melting point when a solid melts

Nonpolar

Equal sharing of electrons

Nonpolar covalent bond

Equal sharing of electrons

Weak acid

Equilibrium is far to the left

Strong acid

Equilibrium is far to the right, has weak conjugate base

Q = k

Equilibrium, no shift

Strong acid-strong base titration curve

Equivalence point is 7

Weak acid-strong base titration curve

Equivalence point is greater than 7, has a halfway equivalence point

Erbium

How can you determine reaction orders?

Experimentation

96,500

Faraday's constant

Common Type 2 Cations

Fe 3+ / Fe 2+ Cu 2+ / Cu + Co 3+ / Co 2+ Sn 4+ / Sn 2+ Pb 4+ / Pb 2+ Hg 2+ / Hg2 2+ (Mercury I) Ag + Zn 2+ Cd 2+

What is the compound name for iron (III) hydride?

FeH₃

Fermium

pH of weak acids

Find Ka and use an ice chart

How do you find the empirical formula of a compound?

First, determine mol by dividing the percent comp or mass of elements by their molar mass, then divide the mol values by the smallest mol value.

How do you find the molecular formula of a compound?

First, determine the mass of the empirical formula, then divide the mass of the molecular formula by the mass of the empirical and finally multiply the empirical formula by the ratio obtained between the masses.

Francium

Colligative properties

Freezing point depression, boiling point elevation, osmotic pressure

The frequency of a photon is __________________ to its wavelength. a. directly proportional b. inversely proportional c. not related If a or b is chosen, write the appropriate equation.

Frequency is inversely proportional to wavelength, as shown in the equation: wavelength x frequency

flouride

F¹⁻

Fluoride

F⁻

alkali metals

G1 elements

halogens

G17

noble gases

G18

alkaline earth metals

G2 elements

transition metals

G3 through G12

Gadolinium

Reduction

Gain of electrons (GER)

Gallium

Effusion

Gas into a vacuum

Germanium

Gold

Rutherford

Gold Foil Experiment, discovered nuclei, atoms have a lot of space

Strong Electrolytes

Good conductors, easily ionized

strong bases

Group 1 and heavier Group 2 bases

Alkali metals

Group 1 metals

soluble

Group 1, Ammonium, Nitrates, Acetates, Sulfates, Halides

Alkaline earth metals

Group 2 metals

Cations & Names

H+ Hydrogen Li + Lithium Na + Sodium K + Potassium Cs + Cesium Be 2+ Beryllium Mg 2+ Magnesium Ca 2+ Calcium Ba 2+ Barium Al 3+ Aluminum

Anions & Names

H- Hydride F- Fluoride Cl - Chloride Br - Bromide I - Iodide O 2- Oxide S 2- Sulfide N 3- Nitride P 3- Phosphide

dihydrogen phosphate

H2PO4(-)

What is the formula for hydrosulfuric acid? Write the reaction when the gas form, hydrogen sulfide, is dissolved in water.

H2S(aq) H2S(aq) + H2O <----> H3O +(aq) + HS - (aq)

What is the formula for sulfurous acid? What are the two Ka expressions?

H2SO3 Ka1 [H+][HSO3 -]/[H2SO3] or [H3O+][HSO3 -]/[H2SO3] Ka2 [H+]pSO3 2-]/[HSO3-] or [H3O+][SO3 2-]/[HSO3 -]

What is the formula fro phosphoric acid? What are the three ionization reactions?

H3PO4 H3PO4 <-----> H2 PO4 - + H + H2PO4 - <-----> HPO4 2- + H + HPO4 2- <-----> PO4 3- + H +

What is the formula for hydrobromic acid? Is it a weak or strong acid? What is the ionization reaction?

HBr(aq) Strong acid HBr ----> H+(aq) + Br-(aq)

What is the formula for hydrogen bromide? What is the ionization reaction?

HBr(g) HBr(g) ----> H+(aq) + Br-(aq)

hydrogen carbonate

HCO3(-)

acid-base reaction

HCl + NaOH → H₂O + NaCl

What is the formula for hydrochloric acid? Is it strong or weak and where is it found? What is the ionization reaction?

HCl(aq) Strong acid Also, stomach acid and used for cleaning cement HCl(aq) ----> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

strong acids

HCl, HBr, HI, HClO3, HClO4, HNO3, H2SO4

strong acids

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO₃, HClO₄, H₂SO₄

What is the formula for chloric acid? What is the Ka expression?

HClO3 Ka = [H+][ClO3 -]/[HClO3] or [H3O+][ClO3 -]/[HClO3]

What is the formula for perchloric acid? Is this a weak or strong acid? Write the reaction when dissolved in water.

HClO4 strong acid HClO4 ----> H + + ClO4 - or HClO4 + H2O <----> H3O + + ClO4 -

weak acid strong base rxn

HF+ OH⁻→H₂O

Strong Acids

HF, HBr, HCl, HClO4, HI, HClO3, HNO3

What is the formula for nitrous acid? What is the Ka equation?

HNO2 Ka= [H+][NO2 -]/[HNO2] or [H3O+][NO2-]/[HNO2]

What is the formula for nitric acid? Is it a weak or strong acid? Write the equation when nitric acid is dissolved in water.

HNO3 Strong acid HNO3 --> H+ +NO3 - or HNO3 + H2O --> H3O+ + NO3 -

hydrogen phosphate

HPO4(2-)

hydrogen sulfate

HSO4(-)

Define halogen.

Halogens are the elements in the next to last group of the periodic table (Group VIIA or 17). They are reactive elements with an ns2, np5, valence electron structure. Halogens commonly form salts (halide is another name for salt) with metals. Halogens generally have high electronegativities. Fluorine has the highest electronegativity in the periodic table. In simple compounds, halogens tend to form only one bond. However, halogens form multiple bonds with oxygen and other halogens.

Helium

Cg=kPg

Henry's Law, solubility of gases is directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas

Mercury

Hg(2)(+2)

IMFs and vapor pressure?

High IMFs --> low vapor pressure, Low IMFs --> high vapor pressure

Holmium

Define Hund's Rule

Hund's Rule states that all orbitals in a sublevel must fill with one electron before a second electron of opposite spin can be added to any orbital in that sublevel.

List the seven strong acids.

Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Hydrobromic acid (HBr), Hydroiodic acid (HI), Nitric acid (HNO₃), perchloric acid (HClO₄), chloric acid (HClO₃), sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄)

Hydrogen

Strong acid weak base rxn

H⁺+NH₃→NH₄

strong acid strong base rxn

H⁺+OH⁻→H₂O

Hydrogen bonding

IMF that occurs with FON

london dispersion forces

IMFs that occur between all molecules; occur because of the random motions of electrons on atoms within molecules to create instantaneous polarities; molecules with more e- will have greater _________________ forces

not spontaneous

If K<1, then Gº>0 and reaction will be...at chemical equilibrium

LeChatelier's Principle

If a system @equilibrium is stressed, the system will shift so as to reestablish equilibrium

Explain Le Châtelier's Principle.

If a system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in temperature, pressure or reactant or concentrations, then the system will respond by shifting its equilibrium position to counteract the effect of the disturbance.

Ionization energy trend

Increases across a period (electron shielding not complete), decreases down a group (more electron shielding)

Pressure and solubility

Increases solubility of a gas

Temperature and solubility

Increases solubility of solid, decreases solubility of gases

Endpoint

Indicator changes color

Indium

Initial rate

Instantaneous rate after reaction begins

Iodine

How is ionization energy related to atomic radius?

Ionization energy increase as atomic radius decreases and decreases as atomic radius increases.

Spectator ions

Ions that do not participate in the reaction

Iridium

Iron

Iodide

I⁻

Kelvin to celsius

K= C+273.15

Write an equilibrium expression.

Kc = ([C][D]/[A][B])

3/2RT

Kinetic Energy per mol

Krypton

1.0x10⁻¹⁴

Potassium

K⁺

Lanthanum

Lawrencium

Lead

Positive deviation from Raoult's law

Less IMFs, more molecules escape, higher vapor pressure

Bond strength and acid strength

Less bond strength, more acid strength

Localized electron model parts

Lewis diagram, VSEPR model (geometry), type of atomic orbitals

Dual nature of light

Light acts as a wave and as particulate matter

Diffraction

Light is scattered from points or lines

Lithium

Li⁺

Oxidation

Loss of electrons (LEO)

Lutetium

What is the molarity equation?

M = mol/Liters

Dilution Formula

M1V1 = M2V2

Name of a V shape?

M2X

Name of a linear shape?

MX2

Name of a trigonal planar shape?

MX3

Name of a trigonal pyramidal shape?asily ionized

MX3

Name of a square planar shape?

MX4

Name of a tetrahedral shape?

MX4

Name of a square pyramidal shape?

MX5

Name of a trigonal bipyramidal shape?

MX5

Name of an octahedron?

MX6

Magnesium

Manganese

Demokritus & Leucippos

Matter is composed of tiny indivisible objects called "Atomos".

Mendelevium

Mercury

Substitutional alloy

Metal atoms replaced by metal atoms of same size

Define metallic crystal.

Metalli0c crystals form from the metals in the periodic table. These crystals are malleable, ductile, and conduct electricity. Chemists view metallic crystals as a lattice of nuclei and core electrons in a "sea" of mobile valence electrons.

Describe where on the periodic table metals, nonmetals, and metalloids are found. Describe their properties.

Metals are found on the lower left of the periodic table, nonmetals on the upper right of the table, and metalloids are on either side of a staircase line that starts between boron and aluminum, aluminum to silicon, and then to the bottom of the table. Metals typically have a silvery luster (except gold and copper), conduct electricity easily, and are malleable and ductile. Nonmetals have none of the properties that metals have. Metalloids have properties in between metals and nonmetals. They are semiconductors of electricity.

List the insoluble fluoride compounds.

MgF₂, CaF₂, SrF₂, BaF₂, PbF₂

Magnesium

Mg²⁺

Diffusion

Mixing of gases

permanganate

MnO4(-)

permanganate

MnO4-

permanganate

MnO₄¹⁻

Localized electron model

Molecule is composed of atoms bound together by sharing pairs of electrons

Double and Triple Bonds

Molecules that have double/triple bonds are closer together and have a higher energy compare to single bonds. Double bonds (1 sigma, 1 pi) Triple bonds (1 sigma, 2 pi)

Molybdenum

Negative deviation from Raoult's law

More IMFs, lower vapor pressure

Resonance

More than one valid Lewis structure

What is the formula for dinitrogen pentoxide? Write the equation when it is dissolved in water What is the oxidation number of nitrogen in this compound?

N2O5 N2O5 + H2O ---> 2HNO3 (5 oxygen)(-2) + (2 nitrogen) (x) = 0 x = +5 is the oxidation number of each nitrogen.

Thiocyanate

NCS (-1)

ammonium

NH4(+)

ammonium

NH4+

ammonium

NH₄¹⁺

What does NH₄OH dissociate into?

NH₄⁺ and OH⁻

nitrite

NO2(-)

nitrate

NO3(-)

nitrate

NO3-

nitrite

NO₂¹⁻

nitrate

NO₃¹⁻

Sodium

Na⁺

What are anions?

Negatively charged ions.

Neodymium

Neon

Nickel

Niobium

Nitrogen

Nobelium

Define noble gas.

Noble gases are in the last group of the periodic table (Group VIIIA or 18). They are unusually unreactive with an octet of valence electrons ns2np6. Helium was first found in the sun's spectrum. Xenon was the first noble gas that was made into a compound.

Define noble gases.

Noble gases are the elements in the last group in periodic table (Group VIIIA or 18). They are unusually stable elements and all, except He, have ns2, np6 valence electrons. The noble gases include: helium He, neon Ne, argon Ar, krypton Kr, xenon Xe, radon Rn.

Linear

Nonpolar sp 180 degrees

Trigonal Planar

Nonpolar sp2 120 degrees

Trigonal Bipyramid

Nonpolar sp3d 120 degrees in plane; 90 degrees in perpendicular

Electronegativity differences

Nonpolar covalent (0-0.4), polar covalent (0.4-1.67), ionic (above 1.67)

Raoult's Law

Nonvolatile solute simply dilutes the solvent

Describe nuclear charge and the concept of effective nuclear charge.

Nuclear charge is the number of positive charges in the nucleus. This is the same as the number of protons in the nucleus (Z) and is also the atomic number. The concept of effective nuclear charge is that inner (core) electrons shield outer electrons from the nuclear charge. The outer electrons are attracted by a nuclear charge that is approximately equal to the number of valence electrons. The atomic radius decreases from left to right across the periodic table because the effective nuclear charge increases as the number of valence electrons increases. The increase in effective nuclear charge increases the attractive force on the valence electrons, resulting in a smaller atom.

peroxide

O2(2-)

Dipole Moment

Occurs within bonds with a sizable electronegativity. Polar bonds that have elements that are far apart on the periodic table are most likely to have dipole moments.

Millikan

Oil Drop Experiment, determined mass and magnitude of the electron

Monoprotic acids

One acidic proton

Lewis Structure

Orbital diagram that shows the electrons and the bonds in a molecule

Oxide

O²⁻

oxide

O²⁻

Boyle's Law

P1V1 = P2V2

phosphate

PO4 3-

phosphate

PO4(3-)

phosphate

PO₄³⁻

Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT

What is the ideal gas law equation?

PV = nRT

Palladium

Vapor pressure formula (Hg column)

Patmosphere = Pvapor +Pmercury column

Phosphorus

Energy of a photon equation

Planck's constant x speed of light / frequency

6.63x10⁻³⁴Js

Planck's constant, used to calculate energy w/frequency

Platinum

Plutonium

Bent

Polar sp2 120 degrees

Bent

Polar sp3 104.5 degrees

Trigonal Pyramidal

Polar sp3 107.5 degrees

What are cations?

Positively charged ions.

Praseodymium

Types of Chemical Reactions

Precipitation reactions, Acid-Base reactions, and Redox reactions

Pi Bonds

Present only in multiple bonds

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Pressure is caused by collisions of particles with walls 3. Particles don't attract/repel each other 4. Avg. kinetic energy = 1.5R/T

Vapor pressure

Pressure of vapor at equilibrium

Critical pressure

Pressure required to produce liquefaction at the critical temperature

Arrhenius acid

Produces H+ (H3O+) in water

Arrhenius base

Produces OH- in water

Equilibrium expression

Products raised to coeffs over reactants raised to coeffs

Aufbau principle

Progressively add electrons to each sub level

Promethium

Bronsted-Lowry acid

Proton donor

Dalton's law of partial pressures

Ptot = P1 + P2 + P3...

Dalton's Law

Ptotal=Pa+Pb+Pc....

reaction quotient

P₁= X₁P₁°

Raoult's Law, relations between vapor pressure and concentrations

Zeroth order rate law

Rate = k

A --> products

Rate = k[A]

First order rate law

Rate = k[A]

A + A --> products

Rate = k[A]2

Second order rate law

Rate = k[A]2

A + B + C --> products

Rate = k[A][B][C]

Rate law

Rate depends on concentration

Buffer

Resists a change in pH

Rubidium

Ruthenium

Thiosulfate

S2O3(-2)

What is the formula for sulfur trioxide? Write the equation when it is dissolved in water. What compound is formed? Is the acid weak or strong.

SO3 SO3(aq) + H2O ---> H2SO4(aq) Sulfuric acid Strong acid

sulfite

SO3(2-)

sulfate

SO4 2-

sulfate

SO4(2-)

sulfite

SO₃²⁻

sulfate

SO₄²⁻

Samarium

Scandium

Tyndall effect

Scattering of light by particles

Selenium

Filtration

Separating a solid from a liquid

Chromatography

Separating substances through differences in rates

Reaction mechanism

Series of steps

Common ion effect

Shift in equilibrium because of addition of common ion

More reactant added

Shift to product

Q < k

Shift to products

More product added

Shift to reactants

Q > k

Shift to reactants

the common network solids

SiO2,

Silicon

Silver

Model

Simplified presentation of something * space filling model * ball and stick

First order slope

Slope = -k

Zeroth order slope

Slope = -k

Second order slope

Slope = k

Rate determining step

Slowest step

List the six strong bases.

Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Lithium hydroxide (LiOH), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), Strontium hydroxide (Sr(OH)₂), Barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)₂)

Sublimation

Solid directly to gas

Ksp

Solubility product

Are common acetates soluble or insoluble?

Soluble

Are common ammonium ions soluble or insoluble?

Soluble

Are compounds of Group 1 metals soluble or insoluble?

Soluble

Positron Emission

Some nuclei decay by emitting a positron, a particle that has the same mass as but an opposite charge to that of an electron.

Hydrogen bond

Special type of dipole, hydrogen with N, F, or O atom

Amphoteric and amphiprotic substances have the same underlying concept. Explain.

Substance that can both donate and accept protons are amphiprotic. Example: H2PO4-. Substances that can react as both an acid and a base are amphoteric. Example: Al2O3.

Briefly explain the collision theory.

Suggests that chemical reaction occur when molecules or atoms collide with sufficient kinetic energy-the activation energy-and the collision occurs in a favorable orientation.

Write the name for the formula: SO3 2- Write the formula for the name: carbon dioxide.

Sulfite ion CO2

Sulfur

Colloid

Suspension of particles

Who was the first to suggest the collision theory?

Svante Arrhenius in 1888.

standard entropy

S° is the absolute entropy of a mole of a substance at 1 atm and 35°C. J/Mol K. for all elements and compounds the standard entropy is always positive.

Sulfide

S²⁻

sulfide

S²⁻

Tantalum

Technetium

Tellurium

What changes the rate constant?

Temperature

Define Bohr atom.

The Bohr atom is the model of the atom developed by Niels Bohr. This model viewed electrons circling the nucleus like a miniature solar system. Each orbit had a definite energy and electrons moving from one orbit to another and either absorbed or emitted the energy difference between the orbits. This theory replicated the Rydberg Constant to less that +/-0.5%.

What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle?

The Pauli Exclusion Principle requires that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of four quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms. This also means that no two electrons with the same wave equations can coexist. Another interpretation is that now two electrons can occupy exactly the same space at the same time.

What is ionization energy?

The amount of energy required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion, forming a positive-charged ion.

Define periodic table, period, and group.

The arrangement of the elements in an orderly fashion that shows the relationships of their electronic, chemical, and physical characteristics is the modern periodic table. Each row in the table is called a period. Each column in the table is called a group (and sometimes family).

What is an atom?

The atom was named for the smallest indivisible particle in nature; however, discoveries in physics in the late 1800s showed this was not true. The atom is the fundamental particle defining one of the 118 elements.

What is the concept behind the atomic number?

The atomic number is the number that specifies the position of an element in the periodic table. It is also a number representing the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The atomic number defines the identity of an element. The basic idea is that each element must fall in some sort of order. Medeleev originally based the order on atomic masses. It was later found that the order should be based on the number of protons in the nucleus of an element.

What is an atomic orbital?

The atomic orbital is the region in space, outside the nucleus, that has a high probability or containing an electron. Atomic orbitals have specific shapes and sizes as defined by quantum numbers.

Define reaction rate.

The change in amount of substance as it disappears or the other appears (measured in mol) divided by the elapsed time.

Define precipitation.

The formation of an insoluble compound in an aqueous solution.

What is the formula for aluminum fluoride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for aluminum fluoride is AlF3. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and F-.

What is the formula for aluminum nitrate nonahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for aluminum nitrate nonahydrate is Al(NO3)3 * 9H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and NO3 -.

What is the formula for ammonium nitrate (fertilizer)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for ammonium nitrate is NH4NO3. The ions that make up this compound are NH4 + and NO3 -.

What is the formula for ammonium sulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nitrogen in the ammonium ion?

The formula for ammonium sulfate is (NH4)2SO4. The ions that make up this compound are NH4 + and SO4 2-. The oxidation number of N is -3.

What is the formula for ammonium sulfite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for ammonium sulfite is (NH4)2SO3. The ions that make up this compound are NH4+ and SO3 2-. The oxidation number of S is +4.

What is the formula for barium hydroxide octahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for barium hydroxide octahydrate is Ba(OH)2 * 8H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Ba 2+ and OH-.

What is the formula for calcium bromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for calcium bromate is Ca(BrO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and BrO3-. The oxidation number of Br is +5.

What is the formula for calcium carbonate (limestone)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for calcium carbonate is CaCO3. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and CO3 2-.

What is the formula for calcium chlorate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for calcium chlorate is Ca(ClO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and ClO3-. The oxidation number of Cl is +5.

What is the formula for calcium chloride dehydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for calcium chloride dehydrate is CaCl2 * 2H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Ca+ and Cl-.

What is the formula for calcium hydrogen sulfite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for calcium hydrogen sulfite is Ca(HSO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and HSO3-. The oxidation number of S is +4.

What is the formula for calcium nitride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for calcium nitride is Ca3N2. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and N3-.

What is the formula for calcium oxide (lime)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for calcium oxide is CaO. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and O2-.

What is the formula for calcium sulfate (plaster of Paris)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for calcium sulfate is CaSO4. The ions that make up this compound are Ca2+ and SO4 2-.

What is the formula for chromium(III) phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for chromium(III) phosphate is CrPO4. The ions that make up this compound are Cr3+ and PO4 3-. The oxidation number of P is +5.

What is the formula for chromium(III) sulfite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for chromium(III) sulfite is Cr2(SO3)3. The ions that make up this compound are Cr3+ and SO3 2-.

What is the formula for cobalt(III) chloride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for cobalt(III) chloride is CoCl3. The ions that make up this compound are Co3+ and Cl-.

What is the formula for copper sulfate pentahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for copper sulfate pentahydrate is CuSO4 * 5H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Cu 2+ and SO4 2-.

What is the formula for gold(III) phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for gold(III) phosphate is AuPO4. The ions that make up this compound are Au 3+ and PO4 3-.

What is the formula for iron(III) nitrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for iron(III) nitrate is Fe(NO3)3. The ions that make up this compound are Fe3+ and NO3-. The oxidation number of N is +5.

What is the formula for lead(II) acetate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for lead(II) acetate is Pb(C2H3O2)2. The ions that make up this compound are Pb2+ and C2H3O2 -.

What is the formula for lead(IV) phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for lead(IV) phosphate is Pb3(PO4)4. The ions that make up this compound are Pb4+ and PO4 3-.

What is the formula for lithium bromide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for lithium bromide is LiBr. The ions that make up this compound are Li+ and Br-.

What is the formula for lithium bromite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for lithium bromite is LiBrO2. The ions that make up this compound are Li+ and BrO2-. The oxidation number of Br is +3.

What is the formula for lithium carbonate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for lithium carbonate is Li2CO3. The ions that make up this compound are Li+ and CO3 2-. The oxidation number of C is +4.

What is the formula for magnesium chloride hexahydrate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for magnesium chloride hexahydrate is MgCl2 * 6H2O. The ions that make up this compound are Mg2+ and Cl-.

What is the formula for magnesium hydroxide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for magnesium hydroxide is Mg(OH)2. The ions that make up this compound are Mg2+ and OH-.

What is the formula for magnesium phosphide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for magnesium phosphide is Mg3P2. The ions that make up this compound are Mg2+ and P3-.

What is the formula for mercury(I) iodide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for mercury(I) iodide is Hg2I2. The ions that make up this compound are Hg2 2+ and I-.

What is the formula for nickel(II) hydrogen carbonate or nickel(II) bicarbonate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for nickel(II) hydrogen carbonate is Ni(HCO3)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ni2+ and HCO3-. The HCO3- ion is also called bicarbonate.

What is the formula for potassium dichromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for potassium dichromate is K2Cr2O7. The ions that make up this compound are K+ and Cr2O7 2-. The oxidation number of Cr is +6.

What is the formula for potassium dihydrogen phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for potassium dihydrogen phosphate is KH2PO4. The ions that make up this compound are K+ and H2PO4-.

What is the formula for potassium permanganate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for potassium permanganate is KMnO4. The ions that make up this compound are K+ and MnO4-. The oxidation number of Mn is +7.

What is the formula for rubidium perbromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for rubidium perbromate is RbBrO4. The ions that make up this compound are Rb+ and BrO4-. The oxidation number of Br is +7.

What is the formula for silver chloride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for silver chloride is AgCl. The ions that make up this compound are Ag+ and Cl-.

What is the formula for silver chromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for silver chromate is Ag2CrO4. The ions that make up this compound are Ag+ and CrO4 2-.

What is the formula for sodium chloride? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for sodium chloride is NaCl. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and Cl-.

What is the formula for sodium chromate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for sodium chromate is Na2CrO4. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and CrO4 2-. The oxidation number of Cr is +6.

What is the formula for sodium hydrogen phosphate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for sodium hydrogen phosphate is Na2HPO4. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and HPO4 2-. At times, the HPO4 2- ion is called monohydrogen phosphate. The oxidation number of P is +5.

What is the formula for sodium hypobromite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for sodium hypobromite is NaBrO. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and BrO-. The oxidation number of Br is +1.

What is the formula fro sodium hypochlorite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for sodium hypochlorite is NaClO. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and ClO-. The oxidation number of Cl is +1.

What is the formula for sodium nitrite (food preservative)? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for sodium nitrite is NaNO2. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and NO2-.

What is the formula for sodium nitrite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for sodium nitrite is NaNO2. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and NO2-. The oxidation number of N is +3.

What is the formula for sodium oxalate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for sodium oxalate is Na2C2O4. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and C2O4 2-.

What is the formula for sodium oxide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for sodium oxide is Na2O. The ions that make up this compound are Na+ and O2-.

What is the formula for strontium iodide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for strontium iodide is SrI2. The ions that make up this compound are Sr2+ and I-.

What is the formula for tin(II) carbonate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for tin(II) carbonate is SnCO3. The ions that make up this compound are Sn2+ and CO3 2-.

What is the formula for titanium(II) chlorite? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula for titanium(II) chlorite is Ti(ClO2)2. The ions that make up this compound are Ti2+ and ClO2-. The oxidation number of Cl is +3.

What is the formula for tungsten(VI) oxide? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound?

The formula for tungsten(VI) oxide is WO3. The ions that make up this compound are W 6+ and O 2-.

What is the formula for aluminum hydrogen sulfate or aluminum bisulfate? What are the symbols for the ions that make up this compound? What is the oxidation number of the nonoxygen element in the polyatomic ion?

The formula fro aluminum hydrogen sulfate is Al(HSO4)3. The ions that make up this compound are Al3+ and HSO4-. The oxidation number of S is +6. The HSO4- ion is often called the bisulfate ion.

Define precipitate.

The insoluble compound formed out of precipitation.

Define nucleus.

The nucleus is the center of the atom that contains the protons and neutrons. It comprises an extremely small fraction of the atom's volume. The nucleus is extremely dense while the rest of the atom is primarily empty space.

Define and describe the four quantum numbers.

The principle quantum number, n, indicates the shell (or principal energy level) of the atom in which an electron resides and is rough measure of the distance from the nucleus. n can have any value from 1 to infinity. The azimuthal quantum number, l, specifies the sublevel (or orbital) that an electron is located in. This number may be any number from zero up to n-1. This number specifies the shape of an atomic orbital. The magnetic quantum number, m1, indicates the orientation of a sublevel in space. The value of the m1 quantum number can be any number from -l to zero to +l. The spin quantum number, m3, indicates the spin of the electron. An electron is not actually spinning but it is a useful way of visualizing this property. Acceptable values for spin are +1/2 and -1/2. Each electron possesses four quantum numbers. Each electron in an atom must have a set of four quantum numbers different from all other electrons in that atom.

What is an oxidation in an oxidation-reduction reaction?

The result of losing electrons, causing an increase in oxidation number.

What concept states that only a few three-dimensional basic structures exist for chemical molecules?

The shapes of chemical molecules may be linear, triangular planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, or octahedral. Additional shapes are derived from these basic structures. The basic shape may be deduced from the Lewis structure.

What is an oxidizing agent (oxidant)?

The species in an oxidation-reduction reaction that gains electrons from the reductant, giving it a negative charge.

What are reaction mechanisms?

The steps that occur during a chemical reaction as the reactants change into products.

What are the subatomic constituents of the atom?

The subatomic constituents of the atom are protons and neutrons in the nucleus and electrons around the nucleus. The atomic number Z = # of protons. The mass number A = # protons +# of neutrons.

What is a solvent?

The substance present in the largest quantity by volume, usually water.

What is a solute?

The substance that is dissolved in the solvent.

Dalton's Law

The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the individual pressures (Ptotal=P1+P2+P3...)

Thorium

Thulium

Tin

Titanium

Ionic bond

Transfer of electrons

Heat

Transfer of energy with temperature

Define transition elements and inner transition elements.

Transition elements are sometimes called d-block elements because the last electrons added to form the element are electrons occupying d orbitals. They occupy the 10 groups in the center of the periodic table. They often form colored ionic compounds. They often have multiple possible oxidation states. They often form polyatomic anions. Inner transition elements have electrons occupying f orbitals as the last electrons added to their electron configuration. They occupy the 14 groups that are often placed outside the periodic table. They contain many of the radioactive and manmade elements.

Polar

Unequal sharing of electrons

Polar covalent bond

Unequal sharing of electrons

Uranium

Henderson Hasselbach Equation

Used to find the pH of a buffer

VSEPR

Valence shell electron pair repulsion theory is a model used in chemistry to predict the geometry of individual molecules from the number of electron pairs surrounding their central atoms.

Temperature and vapor pressure?

Vapor pressure increases significantly with temperature

KMT

Volume of individual particles is negligible Particles are in constant motion Particles exert no forces on each other Collisions of particles with container walls are cause of pressure from gas

de Broglie's equation

Wavelength of a particle

Define weight and mass.

Weight is the force developed due to the gravitational attraction of two masses toward each other. The weight of an object changes as the gravitational acceleration changes. Mass is the amount of material in a sample. Mass does not change with the acceleration of gravity. weight = force = mass x acceleration of gravity.

Triple point

Where all three states exist

Write the names for these elements: Sb W

Write the symbols for these elements: antimony tungsten

Write the names for these elements: Au Ag Cu

Write the symbols for these elements: gold silver copper

Write the names for these elements: Pb Hg Sn

Write the symbols for these elements: lead mercury tin

Write the names for these elements: Na K Fe

Write the symbols for these elements: sodium potassium iron

5. Which of the following structures has a linear geometry? XeF2 IF2 CO2

XeF2, IF2, CO2

Xenon

Yttrium

Zinc

Zirconium

Zeroth order integrated rate law

[A] = -kt + [A]0

zero

[A] vs. time is a ...-order reaction

second order rate law

[a] sub. (t) = concentration of reactant A at time (t) [a] sub. (0) = initial conc. of A k = rate constant t = time elapsed

column chromatography

a column is packed with stationary substance, then the solution to be separated (analyte) is injected into the column where it adheres to the stationary phase, then the eluent solution is injected into the column. as the eluent solution passes through the stationary phase the analyte molecules will be attracted to it with varying degrees of strength based on polarity

common ion effect

a decrease in the solubility of an ionic compound caused by the addition of a common ion

potential energy diagram

a diagram that shows the changes in potential energy that takes place during a chemical reaction

heating curve

a diagram that shows the temperature changes and changes of state of a substance as it is heated

galvanic (voltaic) cell

a favored redox reaction in a cell is used to generate an electric current

Descriptive chemistry - the halogens

a group in the periodic table consisting of five chemically related elements: fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), and astatine (At).

solvent

a liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances

entropy

a measure of randomness or disorder

elecroplating

a process that uses electric current to reduce dissolved metal cations so that they form a thin metal coating on an electrode

precipitation reaction

a reaction in which an insoluble substance (salt) forms and separates from the solution

oxidation-reduction reaction

a reaction that results in the change of the oxidation states of some participating species

acid-base reaction

a reaction when an acid reacts with a base to form water and a salt

decomposition reaction

a reaction where a single compound os split into two or more elements or simple compounds, usually in the presence of heat; opposite of a synthesis

voltage vs favorability

a redox reaction is favored if voltage is (+)

elementary steps

a series of simple reactions that represent the progress of the overall reaction at the molecular level

aqueous solution

a solution in which the water is the dissolving medium

standard solution

a solution used in titrations whose concentration is known

amphoteric

a substance that can act as both an acid and a base; ex. H2O

nonelectrolyte

a substance that does not form ions in solution, commonly molecular compounds

Arrhenius acids

a substance that ionizes in water and produces hydrogen ions

Arrhenius bases

a substance that ionizes in water and produces hydroxide ions

Brønsted-Lowry bases

a substance that is capable of accepting a proton

Brønsted-Lowry acids

a substance that is capable of donating a proton

electrolyte

a substance whose aqueous solutions contain ions, commonly with ionic compounds

gravimetric analysis

a type of quantitative analysis in which the amount of a species in a material is determined by converting the species to a precipitate that can be isolated completely and weighed

indicator

a weak acid that changes color at or near the equivalence point

synthesis reaction

a+b=ab

decomposition reaction

ab= a + b

Endothermic

absorption of heat.

strong acids

acids that are strong electrolytes (completes ionized in solution)

weak acids

acids that are weak electrolytes (partly ionize in solution)

polyprotic acids

acids that can donate more than one H+

oxoacids

acids that contain oxygen; the more oxygens, the stronger the acid

diprotic acids

acids that yield two H+ per molecule of acid ex) H2SO4

n-doping

add a substance with one MORE valence e- which leaves a free e- to travel freely i.e. si + p

-anal

aldehyde suffix

Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+

all cations are soluble with bromide, chloride and iodide EXCEPT

Ag+, Pb2+, Hg2+, Sr2+, Ca2+, Ba2+

all cations are soluble with sulfate EXCEPT

work

all forms of energy except for heat

standard state conditions

all gases are 1 atm all liquids are pure all solids are pure all solutions are 1 molar the energy of formation of an element in its normal state is defined as zero the temperature used is 25C or 273K

Amino-

amine prefix

ionization energy

amount of energy necessary to remove electrons from an atom (electromagnetic energy exceeds binding energy)

Specific Heat Capacity

amount of energy required to raise 1g 1C heat= (g heated)(specific heat)(change in temperature) oorrr q=mΔT

heat capacity

amount of heat needed to change a system by 1˚C

Theoretical yield

amount of product produced when limiting reactant is used up

solubility

amount of substance that can be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent at the given temperature (at a given temperature)

ion

an atom which has either gained or lost electrons

net ionic equation

an equation for a reaction in solution showing only those particles that are directly involved in the chemical change

complete ionic equation

an equation written with all strong soluble electrolytes shown as ions

rate law

an expression relating the rate of a reaction to the concentration of the reactants

precipitate

an insoluble solid formed by a reaction in solution

spectrophotometer

an instrument that measures the proportions of light of different wavelengths absorbed and transmitted by a pigment solution

Manometer

an instrument that uses a column of liquid to measure pressure, although the term is currently often used to mean any pressure measuring instrument.

salt

an ionic compound made from the neutralization of an acid with a base

hydrocarbon

an organic compound composed only of carbon and hydrogen

electrolyctic cell

an outside source id used to force an unfavored redox rxn to take place

salt

any ionic compound whose cation comes from a base and whose anion comes from an acid; ____ and water are the products of neutralization reactions

atomic radius

approximate distance from the nucleus of an atom to its valence electrons

Electrolytes

are salts or molecules that ionize completely in solution. As a result, electrolyte solutions readily conduct electricity

properties of ionic solids

are solid at room temperature; high melting and boiling points

Write the name for the formula: AsF3 Write the formula for the name: phosphorous pentafluoride

arsenic trifluoride PF5

if volume is constant:

as pressure increases, temperature increases

AMU

atomic mass units (1/12 mass of a carbon-12 isotope)

Law of Multiple Proportions

atoms combine in fixed whole # ratios

KE=0.5mv^2

average kinetic energy of a single gas molecule (ideal gas)

molar mass

average mass of a single atom measured in amus; also the average mass for one mole of the atom in grams

√3RT/M(in kg)

average speed of gas

chemical equilibrium

balance that produces a state in which the relative numbers of each type of ion or molecule in the reaction are constant over time

weak bases

bases that are weak electrolytes (partly ionize in solution)

-∆S

becomes more ordered

+∆S

becomes more random; disordered

real gas

behaves like ideal gases except at very low temperatures & high pressures and has volume.

Write the name for the formula: BeCl2 Write the formula for the name: arsenic trioxide

beryllium dichloride AsO3

ΔTb= kb x molality

boiling point elevation formula

effects of IMF

boiling point, melting point, viscosity, vapor pressure, surface tension

ionic bond

bond between metal and nonmetal; electrons are NOT shared: the cation gives an e- up to the anion

metallic bonding

bond between two metals; sea of electrons that make metals such good conductors; delocalized structure allows for malleability and ductility

covalent bonds

bond in which two atoms share electrons; each atom counts the e- as a part of its valence shell

energy released

bonds formed; exothermic

titrant

buret solution used in titration

frequency and wavelength

c = λv -c = speed of light-3.00 x 10^8 -λ = wavelength -v = frequency

millikans experiment

calculated charge on an electron by examining the behavior of charged oil drops in an electric field

C + 273

calculation from K to C

hydrocarbons

carbon & hydrogen compounds

Write the name for the formula: CS2 Write the formula for the name: boron trifluoride

carbon disulfide BF3

carbohydrates

carbon, hydrogen, oxygen compounds

-anoic acid

carboxylic acid ending

thomsons experiment

cathode ray tube; deflection of charges that concluded atoms are composed of positive and negative particles

Standard enthalpy of formation

change in enthalpy with formation of one mole of compound from its elements

isothermal

change that occurs at constant temperature

adiabatic

change without heat transfer between the system and its surroundings

photoelectron spectra (pes)

charted amounts of ionizations energies for electrons ejected from a nucleus; can be used to identify elements

compounds are...

chemical combinations of two or more elements

solid CO2

chemical composition of dry ice

Molecular formula

chemical formula that gives the exact number of atoms present in each compound

Imperical formula

chemical formula that gives the simplest whole number ratio of atoms in a compound * lowest terms

effective collisions

collisions in which the conditions of the collision theory are met (and therefore the reaction occurs)

ineffective collisions

collisions in which the conditions of the collision theory are not met (and therefore reaction does not occur)

green/yellow

color of Ba (flame test)

red/orange

color of Ca (flame test)

purple

color of K (flame test)

red

color of Li (flame test)

yellow

color of Na (flame test)

red

color of Sr (flame test)

ionic compound

compound held together by electrostatic attractions getting between oppositely charged ions

ionic solid

compound held together by electrostatic attractions that are in a lattice structure; weak conductors (e- are localized around a single atom); no IMFs

gas to liquid

condensation

salt bridge

connects the 2 half cells in a voltaic cell

p-doping

create a hole (positively charged) that draws electrons through the substance (add a substance with one LESS valence e-) i.e. si + al

heating/cooling curves

curves that display what happens to the temperature of a substance as heat is added

Molar mass of a gas

dRT / P

addition of catalyst

decreases activation energy only

entropy (S)

degree of disorder in a system

Internal energy (delta E)

delta E = q + w

Enthalpy (delta H)

delta H = delta E + P(delta V)

vapor pressure is primarily dependent on

dependent on IMFs

gas to solid

deposition

kinetic molecular theory

describes a gas as a large number of submicroscopic particles (atoms or molecules), all of which are in constant rapid motion that has randomness arising from their many collisions with each other and with the walls of the container.

Shielding effect

describes the attraction between an electron and the nucleus in any atom with more than one electron shell. Shielding effect can be defined as a reduction in the effective nuclear charge on the electron cloud, due to a difference in the attraction forces of the electrons on the nucleus.

electrons...

determine all chemical properties * found outside nuceus * ignorable mass *-1 charge

wavelength

determined by the formula h/m(in kg)v, (v=velocity)

+ ∆S

diatomic molecules forming mixed molecules, e.g. H2 + I2 -> 2HI, means...

allotrope

different form of same element

Write the name for the formula: N2O4 Write the formula for the name: Sulfur hexachloride

dinitrogen tetroxide SCl6

strong acids

dissociate completely in water; reaction goes to completion and never reaches equilibrium

Wavelength

distance between two peaks or troughs in a wave

quantized

e- can only exist at specific energy levels separated by specific intervals

quantum energy equation

e=hv

bohr model

each energy level is represented by a row in the periodic table

Pauli Exclusion Principle

each orbital can hold two e⁻s each w/ opposite spins

Graham's Law

effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass

oxidation number

either the actual charge of a monatomic ion or the hypothetical charge assigned to an atom in a neutral molecule or charged species

atoms are...

electrically charged due to the gain or loss of electrons

quantum theory

electromagnetic energy is quantized; for a given frequency of light or radiation, all possible energies are multiples of a certain unit (a quantum)

shielding electrons

electrons between a valence electron and the nucleus that decreases the attraction between the nucleus and the valence electron

Aufbau principle

electrons occupy lowest available energy level

isotope

element with a different number of neutrons

Transition metals

elements in groups 3-12

diamagnetic

elements which have all electrons paired and relatively unaffected by magnetic fields

paramagnetic

elements which have unpaired electrons and highly affected by magnetic fields

-anol

ending for alcohols

Quantum Theory

energy changes occur in steps

heat of vaporization

energy given off when substance condenses

electron affinity

energy involved in gaining an electron to become a negative ion

bond energy

energy needed to break a bond

∆Hvap

energy needed to vaporize a mole of a liquid

kinetic energy

energy of motion

1st Law of Thermodynamics

energy of universe is constant

heat of vaporization

energy required for liquid→gas

heat of fusion

energy required for melting to occur

heat of fusion

energy taken in by substance when melts

at low temperature

enthalpy is dominant; ΔH

increasing

entropy in the universe is always...

at high temperature

entropy is dominant; ΔS

Gas Law

equal volumes of all ideal gases (at the same temperature and pressure) contain the same number of molecules.

ln (k1/k2) = (Ea/R)(1/T2-1/T1)

equation to find Ea from reaction rate constants at two different temperatures

Hund's rule

every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly occupied orbitals have the same spin.

polarity

exists when a molecule has a clustering of negative charge on one side due to unequal sharing of electrons (e- are pulled to the more electronegative side); creates dipoles in molecules

% yield

experimental yield/theoretical yieldx100

Aufbau Principle

e⁻s fill the lowest energy orbital first, then work their way up

rutherfords experiment

fired alpha particles at gold foil and observed how they scattered; concluded that all of the positive charge was concentrated in the center and that an atom is mostly empty space

Van't Hoff factor

for colligative properties for electrolytes, the # of mols of ions/ mols of solute

Pressure

force / area

work

force exerted on an object that causes it to move

Pressure

force per unit area

intermolecular forces (IMFs)

forces that exist between molecules in a covalently bonded substance; not bonds

electrolytes

free ions in solution that conduct electricity

liquid to solid

freezing

ΔTf= kf x molality

freezing point depression formula

frequency symbol

state functions

functions that depend only on the change between the initial and final states of a system and therefore independent of the reaction pathway (catalyst has no effect) ΔS, ΔH, ΔG

reduction

gain of electrons by a substance, and therefore increase in negative charge

reduction

gain of electrons, decrease in oxidation #

+/-

gaining - losing +

Types of electromagnetic radiation (smallest to largest)

gamma, X-rays, UV, visible, IR, micro, radio

+ ∆S

gas > liquid > solid and (aq)>(s) cause...

condensation

gas to liquid

deposition

gas to solid

Entropy of a system increases when

gases are formed from solids or liquids, liquids or solutions are formed from solids, the number of gas molecules changes during a chemical reaction

phosphate, sulfide, carbonate, sulfate

generally insoluble anions (names)

+ ∆S

greater # of moles of gas formed and greater volume formed cause...

Element is..

groups of atoms with the exact same chemical properties * atoms of the same type * contains the same number of protons and electrons, but may differ in the number of neutrons

anode

half cell in which oxidation occurs

cathode

half cell in which reduction occurs

N=N.(0.5)^time/time half-life

half-life equation

monoatomic ions

have an -ide suffix added to nonmetal roots

2 moles of substance

have higher entropy value than one mole

Heat capacity

heat absorbed / increase in temperature

specific heat

heat needed to change 1 g of substance to 1˚C

heat capacity

heat required to raise the system 1°C

heat capacity

heat ÷ ∆T

solution

homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

periods

horizontal rows

rate

how fast or slow a reaction occurs, becomes slower as it reaches equilibrium

electronegativity

how strongly the nucleus of an atom attracts the electrons of other atoms in a bond

hydrocarbon combustion

hydrocarbon + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water a substance is ignited (usually a hydrocarbon) and it reacts with oxygen in the atmosphere; products are always CO2 and H2O

Write the name for the formula: H2O2 Write the formula for the name: nitrogen monoxide

hydrogen peroxide NO

Write the name for the formula: H2S(g) Write the formula for the name: antimony trichloride

hydrogen sulfide SbCl3

insoluble

hydroxides are soluble or insoluble?

no precipitate forms

if Q<Ksp

a precipitate forms

if Q>Ksp

second law of thermodynamics

if a process is favored in one direction, then it cannot be favored in the reverse reaction; and an increase in entropy promotes favored reactions

hess's law

if a reaction can be described by a series of steps, then ΔH for the overall reaction is the sum of the ΔH values for all the steps

-ic acid

if anion ends in -ate, acid name ends in...

hydro-ic acid

if anion ends in -ide, acid name ends in

-ous acid

if anion ends in -ite, acid name ends in...

Law of Multiple Proportions

if multiple compounds can be produced by a set of elements, the ratio of elements varies by whole numbers ** This occurs because the number of atoms, which were not yet discovered, varied by whole numbers

boyles law

if temperature is constant: as pressure increases, volume decreases as volume increases, pressure decreases

Phase transitions

if the process is melting, the ∆H is the same as the heat of fusion. if the process is freezing, the ∆H is the negative value of the heat of fusion. if the process is boiling, the ∆H is the heat of vaporization. if the process is condensing, the ∆H is the negative value of the heat of vaporization.

particles

in solution have higher entropy values than solids

mendeleev & meyer

independent proposals of early periodic tables

Calorimeter insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released through a chemical or physical process

insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat absorbed or released through a chemical or physical process

frequency and wavelength are

inversely proportional; c=hv

salts have __________ bonding

ionic bonding

spectator ions

ions that appear in identical forms among both the reactants and products of a complete ionic equation

Density

is an intensive property- does depend on the amount. ex: heat.

Hybridization

is the idea that atomic orbitals fuse to form newly hybridized orbitals, which in turn, influences molecular geometry and bonding properties.

heisenberg uncertainty principle

it is impossible to know both the position and momentum of an electron at a particular instant; means electron orbitals do NOT represent specific orbits

0.512°C

kb of water

polyatomic cations...

keep their metal name * divalent cations must be specifically named (ous/ic)

polyatomic ions...

keep their original name

1.86°C

kf of water

unit for binding energy

kj/mol or Mj/mol

l=0

l=1

l=2

London dispersion forces

larger molecules which have higher mass and therefore electron density have stronger...

EN trends

left to right; EN increases down a group; EN decreases

like dissolves...

freezing

liquid to solid

activity series

list of metals arranged in order of decreasing ease of oxidation; active metals are top and noble metals bottom; any metal on the list can be oxidized by the ions of elements below it

First order integrated rate law

ln[A] = - kt + ln[A]0

first

ln[A] vs. time is a ...-order reaction

assigned e-

lone pairs of e- count as two and bonds count as one

oxidation

loss of electrons by a substance

melting & boiling points of a covalent substance is almost always _____________ than that of ionic substances

lower

catalyst

lowers activation energy

Density

mass / volume

percent composition

mass of element / mass of compound

percent composition

mass of element / mass of compound x 100

mass spectrometry

mass of various isotopic elements to create a mass spectrum graph

Law of Conservation of Mass

mass reactants= mass products

Density

mass/volume

law of conservation of mass

matter can be neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction

entropy

measure of disorder of system

Gibbs free energy

measure of spontaneity of process

fusion

melting

substitutional alloy

metal atoms with similar radii combine; ex. brass

interstitial alloy

metal atoms with vastly different radii combine; ex. steel

Diffusion

mixing of gases

valence shell electron-pair repulsion model (VSEPR)

model used to predict molecular geometry based on the principle that electrons repel each other and therefore are as far apart as possible in a structure

dalton

modern atomic theory; elements combined in different ratios; are never created nor destroyed in chemical reactions

Molarity

mol/L, concentration of a solution

Molality

mol/kg of solvent, used in calculating colligative properties

moles solute/kg solvent

molality =

Concentration

molarity/Liters

collision theory

molecules must collide with correct orientation and enough energy in order to react

cohesion

molecules' tendency to stick to one another

adhesion

molecules' tendency to stick to the container

Molarity

moles / L

mole fraction

moles of substance/total moles in solution

mol Fraction

mols A/ total mols, XA

weak acid

most of the acid molecules remain in solution and very few dissociate

cathode

negative charge, attracts cations

exothermic

negative enthalpy, heat flows into surroundings

Exothermic Reactions

negative ∆H, favors spontaneity but does not guarantee it.

neutron

neutral particles in the nucleus of an atom

Write the name for the formula: NI3 Write the formula for the name: carbon monoxide

nitrogen triiodide CO

Nonelectrolytes

nonelectrolytes do not dissociate into ions in solution; nonelectrolyte solutions do not, therefore, conduct electricity.

Frequency

number of cycles per second

atomic number

number of electrons/protons in the atom

triple bonds

one sigma bond, two pi bonds; 3 e- pairs; shortest bond, most energy

spontaneous process

one that proceeds on its own without assistance, they are irreversible unless the surroundings are changed and they can be fast or slow

hybrid orbitals

orbitals that have the properties to explain the geometry of bonds between atoms

condensation

organic reaction in which two functional groups come together, resulting in the release of water

hydrolysis

organic reaction in which water breaks apart a molecule (splitting into two hydroxides)

amine

organic w/ -NH2

ether

organic w/ -O-

alcohol

organic w/ -OH group

pi=(nRT)/v

osmotic pressure formula

charge of the ion

oxidation number for monatomic ions

oxidation number of elemental ions

Write the name for the formula: O3 Write the formula for the name: nitrogen dioxide

ozone NO2

how to find pH

pH = -log[H⁺] pOH = -log[OH⁻] pH + pOH = 14

henderson hasselbach

pH = pKa + log([A-]/[HA])

cation

particle with less electrons than protons; positively charged

Effusion

passage of gas through tiny orifice

activated complex (transition state)

peak of energy diagram

percent composition

percent by mass of each element that makes up a compound; mass part/mass whole

periodic trend: anions

periodic trend: ... are larger than atoms; e- is added, electron-electron repulsions increase and valence electrons move farther apart

periodic trend: cations

periodic trend: ... are smaller than atoms; e- is removed and a shell is lost and electron-electron repulsions are reduced

periodic trend: left to right

periodic trend: atomic radius decreases; protons are added to the nucleus so valence electrons are more strongly attracted ionization energy increases (protons are added to the nucleus)

periodic trend: down a group

periodic trend: atomic radius increases; shells of electrons are added which shield the more distant shells and valence e- get farther away ionization energy decreases (shells of e- added, each inner shell shields more and reduces the pull on valence e- so they are easier to remove)

deposition

phase change from gas to solid

sublimation

phase change from solid to gas

boiling point

point at which liquid→gas occurs

end point

point at which the titrated solution changes color

boiling point

point at which vapor pressure=air pressure above

equivalence point

point where acid completely neutralizes base

endothermic

positive enthalpy, heat flows into system

proton

positively charged particle in the nucleus; # of which determines the properties of an element

Q < K

precipitate does not form; reaction shifts right

Q > K

precipitate forms; reaction shifts left

2 factors that affect melting points in ionic substances

primary factor: charge on the ions (greater charges, greater Coulombic attraction) secondary factor: smaller atoms (greater Coulombic attraction)

dilution

process in which solutions of lower concentrations can be obtained by adding water

2nd Law of Thermodynamics

process spontaneous in one direction can't be spontaneous in reverse direction

solvation

process that helps stabilize the ions in solution and prevents the cations and anions from recombining; this process is symbolized by aq in reactions and causes ions to become dispersely uniform throughout a solution

large k eq value

products are favored at equilibrium

exothermic

products have stronger bonds than the reactants; heat is released, - ΔH

Georg Stahl & Joseph Priestly

1. intensely studied combustion 2. * Priestly discovered oxygen (dephlogisticated air)

finding half-life

1. take the rate law equation (either 0, 1, or 2 order) and plug 1 in for [A₀] and 1/2 in for [A] 2. solve for t to find half-life Hint: for 1st order it's .693/k

1 mole =

22.4 L @ STP /// 6.02 x 10^23 /// 1 AMU

Number of bonds in a T-shape?

Number of bonds in a see-saw shape?

Number of bonds in a square planar shape?

Bronsted-Lowry base

proton acceptors, must have an unshared pair of e⁻s

Bronsted-Lowry acid

proton donors

base and hydrogen gas

pure metal or metal hydride + H20 ->

Arrhenius acid

puts H⁺ into solution

Number of bonds in an octahedron?

Arrhenius base

puts OH⁻ into solution

1 atm

760 mmHg, 760 torr

Calorimetry equation

q = mCAT

heat added/ calorimetry equation

q = mc∆T -q - heat added (J or cal) -m - mass -c - specific heat -∆T - temperature change

Bond angle of an octahedron?

Bond angle of a see-saw shape?

<120, <90

=h(nu)

=lambda(nu)

Types of electromagnetic radiation (largest to smallest)

radio, micro, IR, visible, UV, X-rays, gamma

What is a solution?

A homogeneous mixture made up of two or more substances that do not chemically combine; instead, the substances mix uniformly in the solution.

methods of increasing rate

raising heat, adding catalyst, heighten concentration, bigger surface area

insoluble

A substance is described as ______ if they have a solubility less than 0.01 mol/L

zero order rate laws

rate does not depend on the concentration of the reactants at all therefore rate is always the same at a given temperature; rate=k

rate law

rate law = k[A]ⁿ[B]∧m[C]∧p -[x] = concentration of reactant -n/m/p = 0,1, or 2 -k = rate constant -greater the order, the more that reactant affects the rate

excess reactant

reactant which doesn't get used up completely in a chemical reaction

small k eq value

reactants are favored at equilibrium

endothermic

reactants have stronger bonds than the products; heat is absorbed, + ΔH

exothermic reaction

reactants start higher than products

endothermic reaction

reactants start lower than products

∆G = 0

reaction at equilibrium

oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

reaction in which electrons are transferred between reactants

what does Q stand for

reaction quotient: the mass action expression at non-equilibrium conditions. the spontaneity of a reaction that has not reached equilibrium has to be measured in terms of ∆G which is not synonomous with ∆G° because the substances are not in standard state

precipitation reaction

reaction that results in the formation of an insoluble product

displacement reaction

reactions in which the ion in solution is displaced/replaced through oxidation of an element

Quantum numbers

refer to the outermost valence electrons of the Carbon (C) atom, which are located in the 2p atomic orbital, are; n = 2 (2nd electron shell), ℓ = 1 (p orbital subshell), mℓ = 1, 0 or −1, ms = ½ (parallel spins).

atomic mass

relative mass of an element measured in AMU's

Q>K

reverse rxn occurs when

square pyramidal

AX₅E

octahedral

AX₆

Percent dissociation

Amount dissociated M / initial concentration M x 100%

Antimony

Astatine

Boron

bromate

BrO₃¹⁻

Californium

Isomers

same formula but different structure.

bomb calorimeter sealed, insulated container used for measuring the energy released during combustion

sealed, insulated container used for measuring the energy released during combustion

oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

Cu²⁺ + 2e- → Cu

pH of strong acids

Depends on concentration of H+ ions

Einsteinium

Europium

∆H

H(products)-H(reactants)

What is the formula for sulfuric acid? Is it a weak or strong acid? What is the ionization reaction?

H2SO4 The first proton is a strong acid. H2SO4(aq) ----> H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq)

Hydride

H⁻

spontaneous

If K>1, then Gº<0 and reaction will be...at chemical equilibrium

Hess's Law Rules

If a reaction is reversed, the sign of delta H is reversed delta H is proportional to the quantities of reactions and products

pH of indicator

Ka/[H+] = [In-]/[HIn] = 1/10, ratio reversed for bases

Write the name for the formula: SeCl4 Write the formula for the name: diphosphorous pentaoxide

selenium tetrachloride P2O5

maxwell-boltzmann diagrams

shows the range of velocities for molecules of a gas

Write the name for the formula: SiC Write the formula for the name: carbon tetrachloride

silicon carbide CCl4

Define malleable.

Malleable is a property of metals. Malleable means that the substance can be hammered into new shapes.

Law of conservation of mass

Mass is neither created nor destroyed

Write the name for the formula: SiO2 Write the formula for the name: Sulfur dioxide

AP CHEM

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