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Russification
Before the early soviets, many nations that Russia ruled over adopted Russian culture, language etc. which is termed Russification. However, once the soviets took power, they believed they needed to reverse this russification so that their colonies and faraway lands would be socialist/soviet in content but also have a hint of their own nationality in order for it be a successful system.
"Iron Chancellor"
As much as he disliked constitutions, Bismarck was named this. He had this policy of "iron and blood" and accepted a constitution that united the 25 German states in a federal form of government. This constitution, though it reflected Bismarck's tendency toward authoritarian government, also allowed for rights for individual states because of the rural nature of the region. Each state had its own domestic matters, including education, law enforcement, and local taxation. Southern states had some special rights, such as Bavaria's right to control its military.
Red Shirts
Guerrilla army of Guiseppe Girabaldi who invaded Sicily in 1860 in an attempt to "liberate" it and won the hearts of the Sicilian peasantry.
Tsar Alexander II
This new tsar (r. 1855-1881), told the serf owners that it would be better if reform of serfdom came from above. Military disaster thus forced him and his ministers along the path of rapid social change and general modernization.
Magyarization
This was the imposition of the Hungarian language on the annexed groups of Romanians, Croatians, and Serbs.
"Blood and Iron"
"Blood and Iron" was the speech that Otto Von Bismarck gave with the belief that a strong industry and military was needed in a country to have success. The blood represented the military while the iron represented the industry of Germany.
pogrom
"devastation" in Russian; an organized, often officially encouraged massacre or persecution of a minority group, especially against Jews. Often sanctioned by the government
Franz Josef II
(1906-1989) - Prince of Lichtenstein who saw its transformation from a backwater country to a modern state. Also gave women the right to vote.
Alsace & Lorraine
(The Paris Commune)-When the division between the provinces and Paris became sharper after fighting with Germany stopped. Adolph Thiers (1797-1877) was given executive power and negotiated a settlement with Prussia (The Treaty of Frankfort) whereby parts of France remained occupied by Prussian troops until large indemnity had been paid. France also lost Alsace and part of Lorraine. The treaty was officially ratified on May 23 1871.
Kulturkampf
(cultural struggles) An exetreme church state conflict waged by Bismark in Germany during the 1870's in response to a perceived threat to German political unity from the Roman Catholic church.
Louis Blanc
A Paris journalist, editor of Revue de Progres and author of Organization of Work. Proposed social workshops/state supported manufacturing centers as a way to deal with the problems of industrialization, recognized the developing hostility toward the owning class/bourgeoisie.
Leopold von Ranke
1795 to 1886, most eminent of German historians and founder of scientific method/school of historical writing. He doubted if western principles suited the German character. Thought Germans had a mission from God - and that was nationalism. His nationalis feelings shown in books such as Latin and Teutonic Peoples. Yet also believed in Europe's uniqueness due to interplay between peoples and balance of power policies to resist domination by any one country/ruler.
Austro-Sardinian War
A liberal revolution in 1821 forced Victor Emmanuel I to abdicate in favour of his brother, Charles Felix. On the death of the latter in 1831, Charles Albert, of the Carignano branch of the family, obtained the throne. He contributed to the cause of unification under Piedmont's leadership by modernizing his government (granting a constitution in 1848) and fighting against Austrian power in Italy in the First War of Independence of 1848-49.
Ferenc Deák
A moderate Hungarian leader who helped work out a compromise that created a new political power known as the dual monarchy of Austria- Hungary.
Paris Commune
A radical government created out of an anarchy brought about by the Franco-Prussian war.
June Days
A revolt during the month of June as a result of the abolishment of national workshops. This event ended the liberal capitalist and the radical socialists tension ending in victory for liberalism and Capitalism.-Also with the June Days it led to having a new constitution demanding a strong executive, which led to the rise of Louis Napoleon.
Ems Dispatch
A telegram edited by Bismark to insult the French people while making it sound as though they had insulted the Prussians. This led to the Franco-Prussian wars which Prussia won handily and violently. The French people never forgave the Prussians, setting the stage for World War I
Second French Republic
After the 1848 revolution in France, which caused Louis-Philippe to flee, this government system was put in place by revolutionists and guaranteed universal male suffrage. Louis-Napoleon (later known as Napoleon III), nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, was overwhelmingly elected president, and France enjoyed a period of stability and prosperity. This government was later overthrown in yet another coup d'etat.
Second Reich
After the Germans conquered the French palace of Versailles; Bismarck became the empire's first prime minister, and King William I of Prussia was crowned Kaiser (Caesar); because of this, Germany was able to achieve a solid economic foundation. By 1870 they were the world's 3rd largest producer, behind USA and Britain.
League of the Three Emperors
Alliance among the three largest Eastern and Central European powers of the time- the emperors of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Considered a long-term cause of WWI. Against increasingly liberal Western reform. Caused by the unification of Germany by Prussia after France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian war. Socialism and republicanism were evil. Disintegrated after Russia's dissatisfaction with Congress of Berlin.
Catholic Centre Party
Catholic political party in Germany that wanted Catholic power in a primarily Protestant state. Strongly opposed by Bismarck.
Plombières Agreement
Cavour of Sardinia created a diplomatic alliance with Napoleon III against Austria for help in driving Austria out of Lombardy and Venetia and uniting Northern Italy.
Empress Eugénie
Doña María Eugenia, 16th Countess of Teba and 15th Marquise of Ardales, known as Eugénie de Montijo, was the last Empress consort of the French from 1853 to 1871 as the wife of Napoleon III, Emperor of the French.
Dual Monarchy
Dual monarchial union state between Austria and Hungary. Replaced the Austrian Empire on the same territory and originated in a compromise between Hapsburgs and Magyars. Political life dominated by disputes among the 11 principle national groups. Economic and social life marked by rapid economic growth through the Age of Industrialization and social modernization through many liberal and democratic reforms.
Florence Nightingale
English nurse remembered for her work during the Crimean War (1820-1910). Est 1st nursing school. Est. Standards for hospitals. Est. nursing education, made nursing a respectable occ. for women.
Napoleon III
Following his victory in the December 1848 elections, Lois Napoleon became the first and only president of the short lived Second Republic. He used a tool developed by his uncle, Napoleon. Following a constitutional dispute with the legislature, he staged a plebiscite in 1851 that polled the people about whether to grant him dictatorial powers for a ten year period. After wining this vote, Napoleon moved on the following year and staged another plebiscite, this time on the question of whether to create a second French Empire.
Giovane Italia (Young Italy)
Founded by Mazzini, the goal of this political movement was to create a united Italian Republic. Instigated fighting against Austrian imperial forces and the papal states. Ultimately failed as counterrevolutionary forces gained control of the papal states, Naples, Tuscany, and Modena.
Alphonse de Lamartine
French poet and politician (1790-1869) he was a "political" republican who came to political prominence during the 1848 French Revolution. As the head of the Constituent Assembly he opposed Louis Blanc and pushed for the abolition of slavery and the death penalty; he would later run for president against Napoleon III and only got 18,000 votes.
Expedition of the Thousand
Garibaldi and the Thousand... The democratic movement refused to acknowledge that the national revolution was in any way complete so long as parts of the peninsula remained under the old sovereigns. Sicily, where autonomist opposition to the Bourbon government was endemic and extreme, was the most obvious place for a democratic revival. In April 1860 a Mazzinian-inspired insurrection broke out in Palermo (the Gancia revolt), and, although it was quickly quelled, it spread throughout the island. After the insurrection, Sicilian democrats gave evidence that they could overcome their deep divisions of ideology and class. In May they had the opportunity to assist Garibaldi's Expedition of the Thousand, a volunteer force that had set sail from Liguria to free the Italian south from Bourbon rule.
Social Democratic Party
German Party in late 1870s that were committed to a Marxist critique of capitalism and cooperation with other socialist parties internationally. Bismark saw them as threat to stability of Germany and outlawed the party, although candidates stood for election. Socialist strength steadily grew.
Realpolitik
German, =Machievellianism. realistic politics, or politics based on practical rather than idealogical notions. "a term to imply politics imposed by means of physical violence, political extortion or economic suppression, or to imply completely amoral politics aimed solely to achieve the goals by any means."
Pope Leo XIII
He wrote his papal letter on the conditions of workers in 1891 but he didn't realize that he was beginning a great modern legacy of catholic social-justice teaching. In a way, his message told working and poor people that they did not have to turn to Marxism for justice, that the catholic church was on their side. He criticized both extreme socialism and extreme capitalism. While he uphled the right to own private property, he also emphasized the responsible sharing of private property.
Hegelian dialectic
Hegel was a German, 1770-1831, and probably the most outstanding of all 19th century philosophers. He emphasized the importance of the state. Became the philosopher of "change." The Hegelian dialectic described the tendancy of the mind to proceed from the creation of opposites. A thesis, he claimed, was usually followed by an antithesis and from these two came, ultimately, a synthesis. His ideas then stimulated historical studies seeking to find this "Hegelian dialectic" in man's recorded past.
Johann Gottfried von Herder
Influential German Writer (1744-1803) he wrote Ideas on the Philosophy of the History of Mankind in which he said that each country should have its own national identity not one borrowed from another country, he called it Volksgeist., German philosopher who advocated intuition over reason (1744-1803); advocated intuition over reason
Johann Gottlieb Fichte
Inspired by his reading of Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte developed during the final decade of the eighteenth century a radically revised and rigorously systematic version of transcendental idealism, which he called Wissenschaftslehre of "Doctrine of Scientific Knowledge." Perhaps the most characteristic, as well as most controversial, feature of the Wissenschaftslehre is Fichte's effort to ground his entire system upon the bare concept of subjectivity, or, as Fichte expressed it, the "pure I." During his career at the University of Jena Fichte erected upon this foundation an elaborate transcendental system that embraced the philosophy of science, ethics, philosophy of law or "right." and philosophy of religion.
Victor Emmanuel II
King of Piedmont, Savoy, and Sardinia. Eventually became first king of a united Italy. Led the north in Italian unification and united with Garibaldi's south in 1861. Drove the pope into the Vatican city, and eventually made Rome the capital of Italy.
Piedmont-Sardinia (ELABORATE)
Located in northwestern Italy, it was the most independent state on the Italian peninsula. The Congress of Vienna had restored the kingdom as a buffer between French and Austrian ambitions.
Giuseppe Mazzini
Most important romantic republican nationalist -"Nationality is the role assigned by God to a people in the work of humanity. It is its mission, its task on earth, to the end that God's thought may be realized in the world." -Founded the Young Italy Society --Function: drive Austria from the peninsula and establish an Italian republic (1805-1872) an Italian liberal nationalist. Wanted democratic revolution against Austrian overlords. Became head of the Republic of Rome in 1849 when Pope Pius IX fled Rome. Mazzini was supported by Garibaldi and the red shirts until the French troops restored the pope. Resistance to troops (including Austrian Hapsburgs) failed because Italian nations didn't work in unity.
zemstvo
Most of the later reforms were also halfway measures. In 1864 the gov't established a new institution of local government, the zemstvo. Members of this local assembly were elected by a three-class system of towns, peasant villages, and noble landowners. A zemstvo executive council dealt with local problems. Russian liberals hoped that this reform would lead to an elected national parliament, but they were soon disappointed. The local zemstvo remained subordinate to the traditional bureaucracy and the local nobility.
Otto von Bismarck
Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck was a German-Prussian statesman of the late 19th century, and a dominant figure in world affairs. As Ministerpräsident, or Prime Minister, of Prussia from 1862-1890, he oversaw the unification of Germany. In 1867 he became Chancellor of the North German Confederation. He designed the German Empire in 1871, becoming its first Chancellor and dominating its affairs until he was removed by Wilhelm II in 1890. His diplomacy of Realpolitik and powerful rule gained him the nickname the "Iron Chancellor".
Pan-Slavism
Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid-19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples. The main focus was in the Balkans where the South Slavs had been ruled for centuries by other empires, Byzantine Empire, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Venice. It was also used as a political tool by both the Russian Empire and the Soviet Union, which gained political-military influence and control over all Slavic-majority nations between 1945 and 1948.
Georges Haussmann
Paris underwent a remarkable transformation from medieval city to a modern one under the guidance Georges Haussmann, who cleared many of the slums of the city and in their place built wide avenues that have become the hallmark of Paris. Besides making the city more attractive visually, this new Paris was much cleaner and sanitary. With aqueducts to bring fresh water into the city and sewers to remove waste, which removed one of the biggest problems of the time-cholera.
mir
Peasant village assembly - which took over administration of peasant land as collective property. Village as a whole was to make redemption payments and mir could deal with defaults. Could prevent peasants moving away. Government prevented selling of mortgage of land to outsiders and hence helped preserve peasant society.
Nationalism
Political ideology that stresses people's membership in a nation-a community defined by a common culture and history as well as by territory. In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, nationalism was a force for unity in western Europe.
Count Camillo Cavour (ELABORATE)
Prime Minister with liberal ideas who favored monarchy and Realpolitik. Helped reform Sardinia's economy by improving agriculture, building railroads, and encouraging commerce by supporting free trade. Wanted to end Austrian power in Italy and annex Lombardy and Venitia.
National Workshops
Product of the new government in France. Imagined as nearly socialist cooperatives. In reality they were really temporary relief programs. Disliked by the moderates. Disbanded in June (bad move). Incited 3 day revolution (June Days) where workers fought against troops (and lost).
Schleswig
Schleswig or South Jutland is a region covering the area about 60 km north and 70 km south of the border between Germany and Denmark; the territory has been divided between the two countries since 1920, with Northern Schleswig in Denmark and Southern Schleswig in Germany. The region is also known archaically in English as Sleswick.
Reichstag
Seated Germany's lower house of Parlimrent, it burned in 1933 and Hitler blamed it on the communist, this event led to Hitler becoming the absolute dictator in Germany.
Battle of Sedan
September 2, 1870. France defeated. Napoleon surrendered and taken prisoner. On September 4 there was an insurrection in Paris and the Third Republic was proclaimed.
Treaty of Paris (1856)
Settled the Crimean War between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Piedmont, France, and the UK. Made the Black Sea neutral territory- so it was closed to all warships and fortifications were not allowed on the shore. Moldavia and Wallachia were under Ottoman rule, but given independent constitutions. Confirmed Nicholas I's failures, including lost territory at the mouth of Danube and loss of influence over Romanian principalities.
National Liberal Party
Supported legislation useful for further econ. and legal unification of Germany Period of great dominance between 1871 and 1879, when they were Bismarck's chief allies in the Reichstag. They were avid supporters of the Kulturkampf Bismarck broke with the Liberals in 1879 when he turned to protection, which violated the free trade principles of the National Liberals
Volksgeist
Term originally used by Johan Gottfried von Herder in 1784 which says that all true culture or civilization must arise from the native common people of a country. In other words each country needs its own unique national character.
Battle of Balaklava
The Battle of Balaclava, fought on 25 October 1854 during the Crimean War, was part of the Anglo-French-Turkish campaign to capture the port and fortress of Sevastopol, Russia's principal naval base on the Black Sea. The engagement followed the earlier Allied victory in September at the Battle of the Alma, where the Russian General Menshikov had positioned his army in an attempt to stop the Allies progressing south towards their strategic goal. Alma was the first major encounter fought in the Crimea since the Allied landings at Kalamita Bay on 14 September, and was a clear battlefield success; but a tardy pursuit by the Allies failed to gain a decisive victory, allowing the Russians to regroup, recover, and prepare their defence.
Carbonari
The Carbonari ("charcoal burners") were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. Although their goals often had a patriotic and liberal focus, they lacked a clear political agenda. They were a focus for those unhappy with the political situation in Italy following 1815, especially in the south of the Italian peninsula. Members of the Carbonari, and those influenced by them did take part in important events in the process of Italian Unification (often referred to as the Risorgimento) and in the further development of Italian nationalism.
Crimean War [1853-1856]
The Crimean War [1853-1856] • Roots:Russia wanted to extend influence over Ottoman Empire which ment they wanted to extend borders too • Two disputes led to war 1. Russians = protector of Orthodox Christians [France = protector of Roman Catholics] • Both pressured Ottomans, but Ottomans yielded to French pressure and the sultan assigned care of certain holy places in Palestine to Roman Catholics • Angered the Russians 2. Russia wanted to extend its control over Russian provinces of Moldavia and Walachia • 1853: Russia used the excuse that they were protecting Orthodox Christians in the Ottoman Empire [two provinces now full of Russians] • Russia was hoping to extend influence at the cost • France and Britain both noticed difficulties in the Ottoman government & how they could use it to their advantage too -- didn't like Russian expansion because they had naval and commercial interests • 1854: France & Britain in alliance with Ottomans declare war on Russia • Austria & Prussia stated neutral [pussies lmao kidding smart] • Russia eventually defeated
Edict of Emancipation
The Emancipation Reform of 1861 in Russia was the first and most important of liberal reforms effected during the reign of Alexander II of Russia. The reform amounted to the liquidation of serf dependence previously suffered by Russian peasants.
The French Second Republic
The French Second Republic was the republican government of France between the 1848 Revolution and the coup by Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte which initiated the coming of the Second Empire. Had the motto "Liberty, Justice and, Fraternity. The Second Republic witnessed the tension between the Democratic Republic and a liberal form of Republic, which exploded during the June Days Uprising of 1848.
Northern German Confederation
The North German Confederation 1866-71, was a federation of 22 independent states of northern Germany. Austria was excluded. It was formed by a constitution accepted by the member states in 1867 and controlled military and foreign policy. It included the new Reichstag, a parliament elected by universal manhood suffrage and a secret ballot. The Reichstag could debate and deal with budgets, but it had limited power compared to the Federal Council which represented the member states. The Confederation was dominated by its designer and first and only Chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, who was also the prime minister of the Kingdom of Prussia, which had 80% of the population.
Battle of Sevastopol
The Siege of Sevastopol took place on the Eastern Front of the Second World War. The campaign was fought by the Axis powers; Germany, Romania and Italy against the Soviet Union for the control of Sevastopol, a port in the Crimea on the Black Sea. On 22 June 1941 the Axis invaded the Soviet Union under Operation Barbarossa. The Axis land forces reached the Crimea in the autumn, 1941, and overran the area. The only objective not in Axis hands was Sevastopol. Several attempts were made to secure the city in October and November 1941. A major attack was planned for late November. Under the command of Erich von Manstein, the Axis forces were unable to capture Sevastopol. The Soviets launched an amphibious landing on the Crimean peninsual at Kerch in December 1941, to relieve the siege and force the Axis to divert forces to defend their gains. The operation saved Sevastopol for the time being, but the landing was checked and repulsed in May 1942.
Philology
The art of language, or study of words and their origins and meanings, which was a main focus of humanists, or a"humanity". Lorenzo Valla used this to prove that the Donation of Constantine was, in fact, a much more recent forgery and a papal lie.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
The most systematic of the post-Kantian idealists, Hegel attempted, throughout his published writings as well as in his lectures, to elaborate a comprehensive and systematic ontology from a "logical" starting point. He is perhaps most well-known for his teleological account of history, an account which was later taken over by Marx and "inverted" into a materialist theory of an historical development culminating in communism. For most of the twentieth century, the "logical" side of Hegel's thought had been largely forgotten, but his political and social philosophy continued to find interest and support. However, since the 1970s, a degree of more general philosophical interest in Hegel's systematic thought has also been revived.
"Sick Man of Europe"
The phrase is used to describe economic poverty in a European country. This term was coined when the Ottoman empire was in decline and increasingly began to lose territory to the Europeans through defeats in battle.
Bundesrat
The upper house in the German federal system; its members, who are appointed directly by the Länder (states), exercise mostly informal influence in the legislative process.
General Cavaignac
Took control during the June Days of rioting as the national workshops were being dispersed. At its height - known as Bloody June Days (June 24-6) there was a type of class war in the streets of Paris. Both men and women "manned" the barricades. 10,000 were killed or wounded. 11,000 were taken prisoner. Many were subsequently deported. This was all evidence of the increased tensions between the working class and the capital owning bourgeoisie.
Tsar Alexander III
Tsar of Russia from 1881 1894 who strongly resisted the liberal movement emerging in Russia at the time. Undid many of his father's liberal reforms, but allowed institutions like zemstvos to continue. Extremely reactionary.
Franco-Prussian War [1870-1871]
War between france and germany. prussia intentionally goaded france's empire by getting involved in spanish succession- a relative of Napoleon III. France declared war. This united the southern states of germany against france and with bismarck. louis napoleon was captured. william I is proclaimed emperor of germany. france lost and had to pay huge money to germany. germany took alsace and lorraine. thus germany is united.
Austro-Prussian [7 Weeks] War, 1866
War fought between Austria and its German allies, and Prussia and its German allies and Italy, which resulted in Prussian dominance over the German States. Main campaign occurred in Bohemia, and notably utilized railroads to concentrate troops and telegraphs to enhance communication. Bismarck instigated it to cement Prussian dominance, and this ended up being the resulting case.
Giuseppe Garibaldi
Was an Italian military and political figure. In his twenties, he joined the Carbonari Italian patriot revolutionaries, and fled Italy after a failed insurrection. Garibaldi took part in the War of the Farrapos and the Uruguayan Civil War leading the Italian Legion, and afterward returned to Italy as a commander in the conflicts of the Risorgimento. He has been dubbed the "Hero of the Two Worlds" in tribute to his military expeditions in both South America and Europe. He is considered an Italian national hero.
Frankfurt Assembly
national assembly met in Frankfurt as a curious revolutionary body-serious middle-class body of lawyers, professors, doctors, officials, and businessmen-convened to write a constitution, absorbed in battle with Schleswig and Holstein-debated ponderously and called on Prussian army to oppose Denmark in name of German nation
Risorgimento
the italian nationalistic movement, which its goal of liberation and unification. secret societies had to form because nationalists could not support their cause openly. this term is the italian word for 'resurgence'.
Kaiser
the title of the Holy Roman Emperors or the emperors of Austria or of Germany until 1918
