Ap Euro Chapter 15

Reformed Church

A group of Protestants that agreed with Luther on important doctrines like "Justification by Faith" and opposition to Rome. They only followed the practices directly commanded in Scripture and not Roman Catholic practices like what Luther and the "Lutherans" did. Their services were much plainer and simpler than "Lutheran" services.

Anglican Church

Anglican Church

Anne Boleyn

Anne Boleyn

Desiderius Erasmus

(1466-1536) A Dutch scholar and famous Christian humanist who dominated early-sixteenth-century Europe. Also known as the Prince of Humanism, he was on intimate terms with kings and popes, studied Greek and Latin Classics, and believed that individuals could reform themselves only through education. His ideal society was a unified, peaceful Christendom in which charity and good works, not empty ceremonies would mark true religion in which learning and piety would dispel the darkness of ignorance He was ordained in priesthood but devoted life to study of classics because he wanted to get a deeper understanding of the Bible. His most famous works were Praise of Folly & Handbook of the Christian Knight, which both satirized the church and explained how to lead a moral but active life. He published annotated edition of New Testament in Greek which revealed errors in the church's accepted version of Bible. He saw religion and learning as bound together. While he was a critic of abuses by church, he was not a Protestant. He believed thought institution could reform itself from within, opposed Luther's reformation and believed he was even more doctrinaire and intolerant than the church. He was deeply disturbed by the religious upheavals unleashed in the 1520s and 1530s before his death.

Michelangelo Buonarroti

(1475-1564) The artist (he was a sculptor, painter, and architect) who led the way for Renaissance masters from his David sculpture and his painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling. He matured his multiple talents for the Medici family, but after the family was overthrown, he became Pope Julius II's favorite artist. The Renaissance genius painted the Sistine Chapel and worked on a never-finished tomb and sculpture for the pope. He was also asked by Pope Paul III to design the palaces in Rome, one of which was St. Peter's Basilica. The artist's work signified the transition from the Renaissance time period to the age of religious conflicts, and his artistic talents served to glorify a papacy under attack.

Baldassare Castiglione

(1478-1529) He is most famous for being the author of The Courtier, which was about education and manners and had a great influence. He was a servant of the duke of Urbino and the pope and a smooth diplomat. He tried to represent court culture as a combination of military virtues and literary and artistic cultivation. He represents that belief in The Courtier.

Thomas More

(1478-1535) A close friend of Erasmus and a very well-known English humanist who wrote a conservative criticism of contemporary society called Utopia. He believed that politics, property, and war fueled human misery. Because he studied law, he had legal talents that served him well in government. He was a member of Parliament, later a royal ambassador, and then a lord chancellor (a chief official in government). He became one of Henry VIII most trusted diplomats, but his repudiation of the Act of Supremacy (which made the king of England head of the English church in place of the pope) and his refusal to recognize the king's marriage to Anne Boleyn led to his execution

Martin Luther

(1483-1546) A Catholic monk and professor of theology who noticed big differences between scripture and Church practices. Although his father wanted him to study law, he became a monk and lived in terror of God's justice in spite of his frequent confessions and penance. He brought the public's attention to the hypocrisy he saw among high church officials, first by writing the 95 Theses, which questioned indulgence peddling and the purchase of church offices, and then by writing many other written works. His supporters were mostly young, educated Christian humanists, German princes, city officials, professors, priests, ordinary men and women living in cities, and clerics, and he believed that faith, not good works, saves sinners from damnation, distinguished between true Gospel teaching, and invented church doctrines. German princes supported and protected him, because freedom from the Catholic Church would mean freedom from the taxes, tax exemptions, and power the Church held over them. Pope Leo X and Charles V ordered him to recant at the Diet at Worms, but he refused.

Huldrych Zwingli

(1484-1531) The chief preacher of the Swiss city of Zurich and leader of Swiss Reformation. He attended a university, became a priest, served as an army chaplain, and extended the Reformation in Germany, although he was an independent of Martin Luther. He was deeply influenced by Erasmus, and thus adopted his vision of social renewal through education. He attacked the corruption among the church hierarchy and the church rituals of fasting and the clergy not being able to marry, and agreed to disagree with Luther about the Eucharist--Luther believed that Christ was both truly and symbolically present in the Eucharist, but he thought that the Eucharist was simply a ceremony symbolizing Christ's union with believers. Also, unlike what Martin Luther believed, he said that there isn't any difference between the ideal citizen and the perfect Christian. He was found wounded by the Lutherans on the battlefield of the Swiss Civil War. They cut him up into little pieces, burned them and scattered his ashes over the land. Luther said he got what he deserved. Like John Calvin, he did not tolerate dissenters, and imposed death sentences on Anabaptists because they refused to bear arms and swear oaths of allegiance.

Maximilian I

(1493-1519) The Holy Roman Emperor that attempted to centralize the administration by creating new institutions common to the entire empire, but he was really only successful in marriage alliances since German princes stopped his attempts of centralizing the Holy Roman Empire. He was a visionary who dreamed of restoring Christian chivalry and even toyed with the idea of ruling as pope and emperor. He married Mary (daughter of Duke Charles the Bold of Burgundy). This gained his family Franche-Comte' in east-central France Luxemburg, and a large part of the Low countries. This made their dynasty an international power and made themselves great enemies of the French Monarchy. Much was expected of him. Paintings of him showed him with the characteristics of Reason, Nobility and power: the theme of idealism through art. In one painting of him, his carriage positioned the figures of Justice, Temperance, Prudence, and Fortitude at a level above the seated emperor.

Charles V

(1500-1556) The Holy Roman Emperor, who embodied the ideal Christian knight, that called for the Diet of Worms. He was the son of P-Hot (Phillip I) and J-Mad (Joanna the Mad). He was a supporter of Catholicism and tried to crush the Reformation by use of the Counter-Reformation. He succeeded his grandfather and became the Holy Roman Emperor. He was assisted by both a long tradition of Habsburg imperial rule and a massive Fugger campaign chest, which secured the votes of the seven electors. He was in part elected by the electors because he agreed to a revival of the Imperial Supreme Court and the Council of Regency and promised to consult with a diet of the empire on all major domestic and foreign affairs that affected the empire. The Venetian painter Titan glorified him as a very proud and majestic in a very idealist way, which fits into the theme of idealism in sixteenth-century art. During the Franco-Spanish struggle, he let the Ottoman Empire, who were fighting against the Holy Roman Empire, use the city of Nice, on the southern coast of France, as a temporary military fort.

John Calvin

(1509-1564), This brilliant French intellectual theologian was the leading French Protestant Reformer and very important to the second generation of the Christian Reformation. He earned a law degree, he didn't work for the government, and instead, like Martin Luther, intensely studied theology. He joined forces with Guillaume Farel, Geneva's former bishop who threatened him with God's curse if he did not stay and labor at Geneva, and together they brought the reform party to Geneva, which had its supporters triumphed over the old Genevan families, who were unfairly ruled by the strict moral regulations of the Holy Roman Empire clergy. He believed that if God was almighty and humans cannot earn their salvation by good works, then no Christian can be certain of salvation. His challenge to the Catholic church deeply influenced religion in North America and Protestantism in Europe, including the German-speaking lands of central Europe, England, The Netherlands, Scotland, the Low Countries, France, Poland, and eastern Europe. The form of Protestantism that was named after him has had a great impact on the development of the modern world, and included the Huguenots. One thing he specifically believed in was predestination: the belief that God knows before a person is born whether they are going to heaven or hell. He also didn't tolerate dissenters.

95 Theses

(1517) A list of arguments against the Catholic Church and indulgences that was written by Martin Luther. It was originally written in Latin, and it questioned indulgence peddling and the purchase of church offices. Martin Luther posted on the door of Wittenberg's All Saints Church. Among other things, he argued that indulgences had no basis in the Bible, that the pope had no authority to release souls from purgatory, and that Christians could only be saved through faith (the "by faith alone" belief). Once it became public, it unleashed a sudden and violent outpouring of pent-up resentment and frustration among the laypeople.

Act of Supremacy (1529)

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Catherine of Aragon

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Council of Trent

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Defender of the Faith

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Edward VI

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Henry II (France)

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Henry VIII (England)

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Huguenots

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Ignatius of Loyola

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John Knox

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Mary Stuart/Queen of Scots

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Mary Tudor/Mary I

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Peace of Augsburg (1555)

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Schmalkaldic League

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The Fuggers

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Thomas Cromwell

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Tommas Crammer

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War of the Schmalkaldic League

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The Courtier

A book by Baldassare Castiglionne which was about education and manners and had a great influence. In the books, different characters debate the qualities of an ideal man. It describes the ideal Renaissance man (the qualities of a true gentleman), who was well versed in the Greek and Roman classics, is well educated in many academic subjects, carries himself with nobility in dignity and nobility when he talks to his prince and lady, is an accomplished warrior, could play music, dance, has a modest but confident personal behavior, and of course, sports the finest, most luxurious threads.

Wittenberg, Holy Roman Empire

A city in Eastern Germany were Martin Luther studied theology, and the place where he posted the 95 Thesis, to challenge key beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church, and also where Johann Tetzel sold indulgences to the city's citizens. It is the capital of the German region of Saxony.

Geneva, Switzerland

A city where Calvinism became the official religion, and the new center of the Reformation. Its government was a theocracy (a disciplined Christian republic). John Calvin and Guillaume Farel traveled to this city and gained enough reform party supporters, who were mainly French refugees, to overrun the previous government there, which was leaded by old families from this city, who were unfairly ruled by the strict moral regulations of the Holy Roman Empire clergy. Now, great importance was put on religious living, citizens lives were regulated strictly and certain actions could lead to severe punishments. The government that John Calvin and Guillaume Farel helped create in Geneva was based off of John Calvin's book, Institutes of the Christian Religion. As a result of Calvin's influence, this city became a single moral community, as reflected in its very low rate of extramarital births and crime in the sixteenth century. However, critics of these moral standards accused the city as being tyrannical.

Anabaptists

A paciest religious sect started in Zurich, Switzerland, in the 16th century that, true faith was based on reason and free will and that people must knowingly select the Christian faith through rebaptism as adults, and thus the people who belonged to this religion were rebaptized. These men and women, who were mostly artisans from the middle and lower classes, attempted to re-create the perfect Christian community on earth, rejected the authority of the state and the courts, abolished private property, and believed themselves to be true Christians who lived according to the standards established in the Bible. The movement gained most of its support from artisans and the middle and lower classes, who were attracted by its simple message of peace and salvation. They were persecuted by both Catholic and Protestant authorities, and Zurich's magistrates, angered at the pacifist sect's refusal to bear arms, ordered that hundreds of them be put to death, thereby making them the Reformation's first martyrs of conscience. This religion quickly spread from Zurich to many cities in southern Germany, even though the Holy Roman Empire didn't approve of the religion, and in northwestern Europe.

Utopia

A perfect world, or paradise. Thomas More wrote a this book, which describes an imaginary land and socially criticized England, which was spurred by the encountering of new cultures in the New World. This book's title is an oxymoron: it means both "no place" and "best place" in Greek, and was named that because it is describing the opposite of England at the time. In this book, everyone worked the land for two years, and since the people in this book enjoyed public schools, communal kitchens, hospitals, and nurseries, there was no need for money or private property, and crime nor war exists in this book because the people in the book loathed it. The idea explored was that communal living and equality, without greed for gold, silver or personal gain, would bring universal happiness.

In Praise of Folly

A piece that was written by Desiderius Erasmus and dedicated to Thomas More. It praised self-deception, madness, and moves and satirized the examination of the pious but superstitious abuses of Catholic doctrine and corrupt practices that were held dear in parts of the Roman Catholic Church. It is considered to be one of the most notable works of the Renaissance and one of the catalysts of the Protestant Reformation.This satire had special meaning for a Renaissance audience, especially in its criticisms of specific religious sects and practices, but it appeals to modern readers in its satire of universal human foibles and its scathing indictment of war. It also says that modesty, humility, and poverty represented the true Christian virtues in a world that worshiped pomposity, power, and wealth. It also says that the wise appeared foolish because their wisdom and values were not of this world.

Protestants

A reformer who protested against the abuses of the Catholic Church in the sixteenth century, or a member of a specific church descended from those that seceded from the Roman Catholic Church during the sixteenth century. The former definition got its name since the people of this term rebelled against imperial authorities. This term was started by Martin Luther, and were originally called Evangelicals.

Peasant's War (1525)

A widespread rural uprising in the German-speaking areas of Central Europe (1524-1536) that threatened the entire social order. It involved 300,000 peasants, who consisted of peasants, town-dwellers, and nobles, and about 100,000 people were killed. The reason why this war happened was because they were sick of paying taxes to their lord and the Catholic church. The peasants plundered monasteries, refused to pay church taxes, and demanded village autonomy, the abolition of serfdom, and the right to appoint their own pastors. It resulted in splitting the reform movement the establishment of Serfdom, the small income, and random punishment. It also resulted in the reduction of socage with appropriate compensation for conducted ones, free use of woods and ponds for hunting, and the right for every community to elect their own priests. Martin Luther had tried to mediate this conflict initially, criticizing the princes fro their brutality toward the peasants but also warning the rebels against mixing religion and social protest. He considered mixing religion and politics, "the devil's work," to be the greatest danger to the Reformation. Although the rebels of this conflict pursued anti-Roman Catholic beliefs, Martin Luther called on the princes to restore the divinely ordained social order and slaughter the radical rebels.

William Tyndale

An English translator and Protestant martyr. His translation of the Bible into English (which later formed the basis for the King James Version) aroused ecclesiastical opposition; he left England in 1524 and was burned at the stake in Antwerp as a heretic. After his death, the English government promoted an English Bible based on his translation of it since Henry VIII religiously broke with Rome and adopted the Reformation.

Christian humanists

Intellectuals, like Thomas More and Desiderius Erasmus, in the late 15th and early 16th centuries who dreamed beautiful visions for a better future and sought to realize the ethical ideals of the classical world and the Scriptures, dreamed of ideal societies based on piece and morality, and envisioned a better world based on education. They criticized the church's leaders and clergy for failing to provide the authority the people sought. What they found horrifying was that more extreme voices of dissent, like Martin Luther, had not used their methodology to find ways to better the Catholic Church, but to justify why the church had strayed from the will of God.

'By faith alone"

It was one of the central features of the Reform movement, and was based on the teachings of Martin Luther. It means that Christians only needed to have a faith in God will give you salvation since each Christian could appeal directly to God for salvation, not the priests who charge you for indulgences or "good works."

"Priesthood of all believers"

It was one of the central features of the Reform movement, and was based on the teachings of Martin Luther. It said that as long as Christians believed in God, all Christians had equal connections with God and that clergymen were no longer needed to provide the link between man and God, the Bible provided all the teachings necessary for Christian living, and that people can interpret the Bible however they want. Essentially, the movement presented the idea that all believers were their own priests (a link between god and man), and that the opinion of the priest should not dictate what the laypeople should believe in.

Institutes of the Christian Religion

John Calvin's seminal work on Protestant systematic theology. The book was written as an introductory textbook on the Protestant faith for those with some learning already and covered a broad range of theological topics from the doctrines of church and sacraments to justification by faith alone and Christian liberty. Some of the beliefs mentioned in the book are the ultimate authority of the word of God, the depravity of humankind, its condemnation under the judgement of God in a doctrine of predestination, and his belief that the Bible is the only source of Revelation. Using scriptural evidence to back up this theory, it also says that humans are born as slaves to sin and that we are at the mercy of divine judgement and that God has preselected who he will save uses

The Vulgate

The Latin edition of the Bible translated from Hebrew and Greek mainly by St. Jerome at the end of the 4th century. When it was revised for its errors of translation from the Greek and Hebrew in 1592, it was adopted as the official text for the Roman Catholic Church. Martin Luther translated Erasmus's Greek New Testament into German, which became the first full vernacular translation in that language. Luther's German translation of the Old Testament, which had a very good reputation, became a treasure for by many Christians; Luther's Bible became a occupied a central place in a Christian family's history. The French humanist Jacques Lefere d'Etaples translated the New Testament of edition of this Bible into French; the free distribution of this Bible to the poor represented an early attempt to reform the French church without breaking with Rome.

Diet of Worms

The formal assembly that was ruled by the powerful Holy Roman Emperor, which was a young Charles V at the time. This assembly was in a series of meetings at the Germain city of Worms in 1521 at which Martin Luther was ordered to recant his ninety-five theses because people were beginning to follow Martin Luther's teachings, which angered the church. Luther refused, and shocked Germans by declaring his admiration for the Jan Hus, a Czech heretic (a person that holds religious opinions that go against the right teachings of the church). Charles V issued an official proclamation condemning the 95 Thesis, declared Martin Luther an outlaw although he was protected by the Elector (or Prince) of Saxony (one of the seven electors that choose the Holy Roman Emperor), Frederick the Wise, and other German princes. At Fredrick the Wise's castle, Martin Luther translated the Bible into German and wrote hymes.

Society of Jesus/Jesuits

The most important religious order of Catholic Europe in the sixteenth century. This Catholic organization established an excellent system of secondary education for colleges. This organization was established to compete with the Protestant gymnasia, and hundreds of colleges established by this organization dotted Catholic Europe by the late sixteenth century.

The Elect

The name for the people who are the ones who God only knows and has chosen to save in predestination. This belief demands rigorous discipline: the knowledge that only the people belonging to this term, a small group of people, would be saved should guide the actions of the godly in an uncertain world. This is a belief of the Calvinism religion and that only these people can be saved and ordinary people cannot earn salvation. This belief was started by John Calvin in 1536 in France when he published "Institutes of the Christian Religion" and is still the belief of Calvinists today.

Indulgences

These were sold as an alternative to confession and penance, which were uncomfortable and inconvenient. This was a "portion of the treasury of good works of Christians throughout the ages." Thus, a person could buy the purity or good deeds of another, and thus spend less time in both purgatory and confession. They could be purchased on special occasions or at pilgrimage sites, or could be earned by performing religious tasks: going on pilgrimage, attending Mass, or doing holy works. They were started by Pope Leo X to help fund the construction of his death tomb (St. Peter's Basilica) in Rome, which showed that he was more interested in making money than saving Christian souls. Johann Tetzel was an eminent salesman of this term; he traveled to the Holy Roman Empire and had great success selling these certificates.

Predestination

This was a traditional doctrine, which was developed by John Calvin, that said that God has already chosen who will be saved (go to heaven) and who is damned (go to hell) before the creation of the world, which means that a person's actions in his life doesn't affect whether he goes to heaven or hell. This belief said that those who are already chosen for salvation must lead, and those who are damned must also be governed. This put a special emphasis on discipline when Calvin lead the reformation in Geneva.