AP Euro Chapter 16: Enlightenment
Robert Boyle (1627-1691) [Scientific Revolution]
Anglo-Irish chemist who helped found the modern science of chemistry. Boyle's law (1662) governing pressure of gases.
Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) [Enlightenment]
Author of the "Historical Critical Dictionary" (1685), used by philosophes against the Christian faith
Empiricism
a theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation
natural philosophy
an early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; it encompassed what we would call "science" today
Salon
regular social gathering held by talented and rich Parisians in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy
Copernican Hypothesis
the idea that the sun, not the earth, was the center of the universe
Cameralism
view that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good
Isaac Newton (1642 -1727) [Scientific Revolution]
1. English scientist and mathematician who wrote the "Principia Mathematica" 2. Set forth the law of universal gravitation, synthesizing previous findings of motion and matter 2. Viewed the universe as a vast machine governed by the universal laws of gravity and inertia 3. Mechanistic view of the universe strongly influenced deism
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) [Scientific Revolution]
1. Polish clergyman and astronomer who wrote "On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres" 2. Helped launch the Scientific Revolution by challenging the widespread belief in the geocentric theory that the earth is the center of the universe 3. Offered a new heliocentric universe in which the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun
Adam Smith (1723-1790) [Enlightenment]
1. Scottish economist, wrote "An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" 2. Opposed mercantilist policies 3. Advocated free trade and "the Invisible Hand of competition" 4. "The Theory of Moral Settlements" (1759): our moral ideas and actions are a product of our very nature as social creatures. It argues that this social psychology is a better guide to moral action than is reason
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716) [Enlightenment]
German philosopher and mathematician known for his optimistic view of the universe
Law of Universal Gravitation
Newton's law that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the object's quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them
Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) [Enlightenment]
Wrote "On Crimes and Punishments" with basic laws of justice based on reason, Including equality before the law; opposed death penalty.
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) [Scientific Revolution]
a Flemish surgeon who dissected human cadavers and thus is considered the father of modern anatomy, wrote "On the Structure of the Human Body" (1543), revolutionizing the understanding of human anatomy.
Philosophes
a group of French intellectuals who proclaimed that they were bringing the light of knowledge to their fellow humans in the Age of Enlightenment
Law of Inertia
a law formulated by Galileo that states that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object, and that an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force
Rococo
a popular style in Europe in the 18th century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids
Rationalism
a secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason
Public Sphere
an idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics, and politics
Enlightenment
the influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries that introduced a new worldview based on the use of reason, the scientific method, and progress
Reading Revolution
the transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal and communal reading of religious texts to a society where literacy was commonplace and reading material was broad and diverse
Paracelsus (1493-1541) [Scientific Revolution]
Swiss physician and alchemist who pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address illness
John Locke (1632-1704) [Enlightenment]
"Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690), insisted that governments are formed to protect natural rights
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) [Enlightenment]
"What is Enlightenment?" (1784): encouraged people to use their own understanding instead of relying on another's guidance; "On the Different Races of Man" (1775): 4 human races created by the different climates of Earth,
What intellectual and social changes occurred as a result of the Scientific Revolution?
- Bacon's empiricism, Descartes' deductive reasoning both utilized - science communities became hub of new ideas, fostered competition which led to even more ideas - scientific communities led to a critical view on authority and thus popularized the idea of questioning the established power - as European powers colonized, they brought scientists to study the land in order to best exploit it
What revolutionary discoveries were made in the 16th & 17th centuries?
- shift away from Aristotelian cosmology - university promoted free inquiry - Renaissance interest in learning, patrons - technological advancements led to better instruments (telescope), promoted experimentation vital to the Sci. Rev. - Copernican hypothesis: heliocentric universe, instead of Aristotle's geocentric universe - Experimental method by Galileo - Kepler's universe were made up of math - Newton synthesized all of these into one system, using 3 laws of motion
Voltaire (1694-1778) [Enlightenment]
1. French philosophe and voluminous author of 70+ essays and letters 2. Championed the enlightened principles of reason, progress, toleration, and individual liberty 3. Opposed superstition, intolerance, and ignorance 4. Criticized organized religion for perpetuating superstition and intolerance
Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) [Enlightenment]
Early enlightenment thinker excommunicated from the Jewish religion for his concept of a deterministic universe. He was a Dutch Jewish philosopher who borrowed Descartes's emphasis on rationalism and his methods of deductive reasoning, but rejected the French thinker's mind-body dualism.
Denis Diderot (1713-1784) & Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783)[Enlightenment]
Edited "Enyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts"; sought to teach people critical thinking and objective reasoning
William Harvey (1578-1657) [Scientific Revolution]
English physician who discovered the circulation of blood (1628)
What new ideas about society and human relations emerged in the Enlightenment, and what new practices and institutions enabled these ideas to take hold?
Progress through reason - ppl thought scientific reasoning could be applied to society to better it; - ex: Bayle criticized religions thus raising doubt as to whether or not religious intolerance was necessary race: whites superior to non-whites - way of justifying slavery - shows application of reasoning and scientific thought on humans Philosophes, Royal Society, Salons - French intellectuals met in salons to discuss literature, science, philosophy - cheapness of printing, coffeehouses, libraries spread ideas to everyone - Royal Society
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) [Scientific Revolution]
Used Brahe's data to mathematically prove the Copernican hypothesis; his new laws of planetary motion united for the first time natural philosophy and mathematics; completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1627
René Descartes (1596-1650) [Scientific Revolution]
Used deductive reasoning to formulate the theory of Cartesian dualism; "I think, therefore I am."
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) [Scientific Revolution]
1. Italian scientist who contributed to the scientific method by pioneering the experimental method 2. Major accomplishments included using the telescope for astronomical observation in order to prove the Copernican theory , formulating laws of motion, and popularizing the new scientific ideas 3. Condemned by the Inquisition for publicly advocating Copernicus's heliocentric theory
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) [Enlightenment]
1. The foremost French political thinker of the Enlightenment, whose most influential book, The Spirit of Laws, expanded John Locke's political study and incorporated the ideas of a division of state and separation of powers. 2. His work also ventured into sociology ("The Persian Letters"): he spent a considerable amount of time researching various cultures and their climates, ultimately deducing that climate is a major factor in determining the type of government a given country should have.
David Hume (1711-1776) [Enlightenment]
Central figure of the Scottish Enlightenment; "Of Natural Characters" (1748), emphasized religious skepticism and civic morality
Tycho Brahe (1546 -1601) [Scientific Revolution]
Danish astronomer who built an observatory and compiled data for the Rudolphine Tables, a new table of planetary data. Agreed with Copernicus.
Cartesian Dualism
Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter
What impact did new ways of thinking have on political developments and monarchical absolutism?
Enlightenment --> Enlightened Absolutism - Gov. officials heavily influenced by Enlightenment - Absolutist rulers influenced by these bureaucrats - Frederick the Great of Prussia: freedom of religion, improved education, abolished torture in legal system - believed that making ppl happy = stronger state - prime example of Cameralism - Catherine the Great of Russia: westernization of Russia (winning support for her from Western Europeans), attempted to ease religious tolerance and education - Austrian Rulers: - Maria Theresa strengthened bureacracy, lessened papal influence, lessened power of noble over serfs - Joseph II abolished serfdom; met violently The Enlightenment led absolutists to think of new ways of bettering the state, namely by making their populace happy through social reforms.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) [Enlightenment]
French dude who wrote "The Social Contract" (1762): political theory - general will is of utmost importance, government served common interests of everyone, popular sovereignty. Emphasized gender roles.
Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) [Enlightenment]
Major philosopher of the Haskalah, or Jewish Enlightenment, advocated for Jewish rights and religious tolerance
Enlightened Absolutism
term coined by historians to describe the rule of 18th century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance
Haskalah
the Jewish Enlightenment of the second half of the 18th century, led by the Prussian philosopher Moses Mendelssohn
experimental method
the approach, pioneered by Galileo, that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation
