AP Euro Chapter 18- Toward a New World View

Time period of SR

-1543 (heliocentric theory- Copernicus)-1687 (Principia/Principles of Mathematics- Newton)

Hobbes (1588-1679)

-Leviathan- social contract →give up rights for stability & order -need centralized power -context of English Civil War

Scientific & religious implications of Copernicus' theory

-Protestantism- fundamental factor in rise of modern science→ not initially -further scientific discovery & question -role of church set aside

Enlightenment trilogy

-REASON, OPTIMISM, PROGRESS -Europeans look at world as their domain →head towards positive progression →rise of progress until 1914

SR in context of history

-Renaissance -Reformation -printing press -universities in HMA -navigation -absolutism -religious wars -new world -mercantilist wars

Rococo

-18th century -follows baroque -soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids

Kepler

-3 laws of planetary motion →1609- orbits of planets around sun elliptical →planets don't move at uniform speed in orbits →1619- time a planet takes to make complete orbit precisely related to distance from sun -proves Copernicus

Old Aristotelian-medieval world view

-384 BC-322 BC -geocentric theory- motionless earth fixed at center of universe -10 separate transparent crystal spheres -beyond was Heaven w/ throne of God & souls of saved -angels kept spheres moving in perfect circles -spheres consisted of perfect, incorruptible "quintessence" -earth/sublunar world- 4 elements: air, fire, water, earth -fit neatly w/ Christian doctrines- unchallenged for 1500 years -uniform force moved object at constant speed & object would stop when force removed

Frederick the Great successes in the Seven Years War (1756-1763)

-Austria ally w/ France & Russia- goal to conquer Prussia & divide territory, take Silesia back →war on Prussia in Saxony →War for Prussian Survival -1762- Peter III called off attack- admired Frederick, dimwit, remove Russia from alliance →France busy w/ French-Indian War →Austria alone so Prussia survives

Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757)

-Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) →natural law- get power from people →turn SR into trashy romance novel to popularize ideas of SR -modern thinker in Louis XIV courts -Eulogies of Scientists- rational, progressive scientists vs prejudiced, reactionary priests

John Locke

-Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) →tabula rasa=blank slate→ideas derive from experience, direct attack on religion- born w/out original sin -good individuals→ good society -people choose ruler, consent of governed -disagree w/ Descartes -not born good/evil -2nd Treatise of Civil Govt (1690) →life, liberty, property (most important for Locke) →govt protects rights →govt institutions by men →based on Thomas More →individual rights protected but can conflict w/ each other

Condorcet

-French aristocrat -Progress of the Human Mind (1793/1795) →9 stages of human progress →10th is utopia -subject to reign of terror -leader of legislative assembly- Jacobins -embrace constitutional monarch, reform -complete equality 1792 of everyone -free public education

Montesquieu (1689-1755)

-French baron -The Persian Letters (1721)- satire, criticize French society- preach tolerance, open mind -The Spirit of Laws (1748)- apply critical method to problem of govt -separation of powers -best form of govt?- observe many govt, conclude England b/c sep of power →checks & balances →more judiciary powers

Why most philosophes French

-French was international language of educated classes in 18th C -wealth -religious toleration- deists -use of reason -faith in progress -secularization of society -censorship in France

Catherine the Great (1762-1796) personal story so intriguing

-GERMAN princess from Anhalt-Zerbst→ totally insignificant principality -father commanded regiment of Prussian army -mother related to Romanovs of Russia -Peter the Great abolished hereditary succession of tsars →Elizabeth came to throne -named nephew Peter the heir & chose Catherine to be his wife (1744) →most beautiful woman in Europe marry ugliest man- no one likes him -Catherine carefully studied Russian, endlessly read writers like Bayle & Voltaire, made friends at court -w/ her military conspirators- deposed Peter III in palace revolution & murdered him -new lover Gregory Orlov- tall, dashing young officer -bedroom for political gain -greatest czarina of Russia

England during SR

-Henry VIII→James II -reformation -spanish armada -Glorious Revolution

Netherlands during SR

-Golden Age -80 Years' War

France during SR

-Henry II→Louis XIV -St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre -War of 3 Henry's -Edict of Nantes & revocation -Richelieu

Pierre Balle (1647-1706)

-Huguenot -Historical & Critical Dictionary (1697) -skepticism -challenge religious authority -open-minded toleration

Russia during SR

-Ivan the Terrible→Peter the Great -Reign of Terror -Times of Troubles

Rousseau (1712-1778)

-Swiss philosopher -most significant next to Locke -most important for Euro history -people born good →if bad b/c society -outsider, father left him during childhood -The Social Contract (1762)- GENERAL WILL always prevail in society →not free, enter rules of society, establish order & discipline →protect group as a whole, best interest →best interest- any rule -fear democracy- mobs -egalitarian society- laws treat everyone equally -social reform -POPULAR SOVEREIGNTY -people are selfish -noble savage→ natural man untouched by society →corrupted by society/civilization →evil impulses outgrowth of society -good of society must always take precedent- supercedes right of individual →no display of religious affiliation

d'Holbach (1723-1789)

-System of Nature (1770)- human beings were machines completely determined by outside forces -no such thing as freewill, God -aggressive atheism, determinism, deep hostility toward religion -ignorance & fear created gods -God was created by people →people distort what God means -member of prominent salon

Joseph II (1780-1790)

-ahead of his time -truly Enlightened -fails b/c Europe still in Mach age -improve agricultural production -controlled Catholic church more closely in attempt to ensure that produce better citizens -granted religious toleration & civic rights to Protestants & Jews→ in an overwhelming Catholic state -1781- abolished serfdom -1789- all peasant labor obligations be converted into tax payments →violently rejected by nobles & peasants -serfs treated the best & now have to pay taxes -don't want freedom -Leopold II- cancel Joseph's radical edicts to re-establish order

Descartes (1596-1650)

-analytical geometry -deductive reasoning- doubt everything: info, pattern, tentative hypothesis, theory -Cartesian dualism- mind & matter -"I think, therefore I am." -skeptic -foundation of modern philosophy

New world view

-break away from old medieval world view -religion questioned, changed -break away from traditional/religious beliefs -scientists struggle to find meaning →secularism: here & now -birth of modern world -change in traditional way of thinking -interest in magic- Hermetic Alchemy→scientific advancement

General reality of 18th century govt hampered all Enlightened Monarchs in their attempts at reform

-choose improve power of state over people -religious toleration to undercut power of church -degree of reform -Joseph II of Austria- truly enlightened

Diderot (1713-1784)

-compile works of Enlightenment- Encyclopedia -popularize Enlightenment →upper middle class

Enlightened Monarch

-degree of embracing enlightenment -don't have deep faith in people -improve lives of common people -Voltaire lives w/ Fred the Great

Importance of public opinion as new political force

-diverse but educated public could debate issues & form its own ideas -all who were educated & civilized had equal rights in elaboration go this new & powerful force

Comeback of French nobility under Louis XV (1715-1774)

-duke of Orléans governed as regent until 1723- nobility made strong comeback →1715- restored high courts of France- parlements- ancient right to evaluate royal decrees publicly in writing before they were registered & given force of law →high court judges from middle class risen to become hereditary nobles -protest of Parlement of Paris→ monarchy retreated, new tax on every individual regardless of social status dropped -doesn't have same authority as Louis XIV →inherit all problems→ debt -attempts 5% tax- rich say no -lose in French Indian War -help in American Rev -nobles no taxes

Deism

-empirical, nature was rational, God is rational →lead to tolerant society→ maintain moral behavior →encourages virtuous living, don't need to read Bible- natural laws -Europeans believed morality derived from Christianity →remove God- no order →Deists say this not true

Bacon

-empiricism- based on observation, data collection -scientific method/inductive reasoning- theory, hypothesis, observation, confirmation -Baconian method- info from natural world -religious idols were clear impediments to scientific thinking- how to reconcile science w/ church →forget religion & focus on science for ultimate truth -attaches science to material progress -practical application- useful in day to day life →preserve meat in refrigerator

effectiveness of Enlightened Despotism in Europe firing period of Enlightenment (1720-1790)

-encourage & spread cultural values of Enlightenment -skeptical in religion & intensely secular in basic orientation -here & now- sought happiness in enjoyment of it -proud of intellectual accomplishments & good taste -support knowledge, education, arts -believe in change from above & tried to enact needed reforms -REFORMS TO STRENGTHEN STATE & ALLOW TO COMPETE MILITARILY W/ NEIGHBORS →HUMANITARIAN OBJECTIVES SECOND -more humane laws & practices help populations become more productive & satisfied→ contribute more to welfare of state -MONARCH POWER DECLINES MOST IN FR. B?C NEVER REALLY ABSOLUTE

Adam Smith

-enlightened philosopher for economy -1776- Wealth of Nations →direct attack on mercantilism- unfair system -3 laws of economy →law of self interest- seek out what's best for you →competition- everyone benefits →supply & demand- if demand, then supply -invisible hand- guides market mechanism→ determines what's produced -Laissez-Faire economy →remove govt from economic sector -foundations of capitalism

Madame Geoffrin

-famous salon -unofficial godmother of Encyclopedia →generous financial aid -correspond w/ king of Sweden & Catherine the Great

Frederick the Great successes in War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)

-forced Maria Theresa to cede almost all of Silesia to Prussia →Prussia doubled population to 6 million →Prussia towered above all other German states & stood as European Great Power →1748- Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle

Effect of Catherine's reign on Russian serfs

-freeing serfs leads to rebellion -Pugachev's (Cossack serf claiming to be deposed Peter III) rebellion (1773)- uprising of serfs →crushed w/ noble-led regular army -peasants dangerous→ empire support of nobles -extend serfdom into new areas- Ukraine

Newton (1643-1727)

-gavity -invented calculus -"If I have seen further than others it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants." -Principia (1687) -build off of other works

Effect of Catherine's reign on the position of Russia in European balance of power

-good press in West for herself & Russia -disturb BoP btwn Russia & Austria- victories against Turks (1768-1772) -partition of Poland btwn Russia, Prussia, Austria (1772,93,95)

Earlier themes that led to SR

-humanism, individualism, secularism -rebirth of classics, math science -alchemy- turn base metals into gold→ interest in magic

Voltaire (1694-1778)

-influential religious views→ distant, deistic God- great clockmaker -enlightened despotism- well read, generous, tolerant, enlightened -little faith in people- too stupid to govern themselves -Candide- satirical look on European society →addresses nature of humans -corresponds w/ Frederick the Great, Catherine the Great -focus of attack on organized religion- nothing more than superstitious childish myths →witnessed Revocation of Edict of Nantes -disagrees w/ "habit of the mind"- conditioned through religion, buy into beliefs -deist -most famous philosophe at the time

What is SR

-intellectual revolution

Newton's "synthesis"

-law of universal gravitation- every body in universe attracts every other body in universe in a precise mathematical relationship→ force of attraction is proportional to quantity of matter of the objecst & inversely proportional to square of distance btwn them

Short/long term impacts of SR

-scientific advancements -modern society more critical -experimentation -weakens church -scientific method -affects small group of people

Hume (1711-1776)

-member of prominent salon -nothing more than experiences & biological makeup -skepticism has powerful long term influence -human mind nothing but bundle of impressions, sense experiences

Galileo

-moon not flat -experimental method -uniform force produced uniform acceleration -law of intertia -telescope to look at moon -4 moons of Jupiter

Frederick the Great NOT a true Enlightened Monarch

-never changed existing social structure →accepted serfdom & didn't free own serfs on estates →accepted & extended privileges of nobility -primary ally in defense & extension of realm -didn't listen to thinkers like Moses Mendelssohn (1729-1786) →Jews be given freedom & civil rights →Jews remained oppressed group -confined to tiny, overcrowded ghettos -excluded by law from most business & professional activities -war not enlightened -religious toleration only for state power

Brahe (1546-1601)

-no one likes him -last of naked eye astronomers- witnessed shooting star -crystal sphere not wrong -can't prove w/out math -most sophisticated observatory -all planets revolved around sun, sun & planets revolved around earth-moon system

Salons

-open forum to discuss b/c France is censored society -same as cafés in England -shape way people are thinking -informal schools where established hostesses bonded w/ younger women & passed on skills

Origins & momentum of SR in terms of its own "internal logic"

-people want answers, curious

Kant

-perpetual peace through universal democracy -reason source of all morality -Critique of Pure Reason

Frederick the Great personality

-romantic relationship w/ Voltaire (rumor) -gonorrhea- accidentally gets castrated -accomplished musician (flute)

Reading Revolution

-reading more -create public opinion

HRE during SR

-reformation & religious wars -westphalia -to Frederick William

Some historians argue that the SR was core of modern world view

-scientific advancements -birth of modern Europe Why Europeans the first? -China- only control 2 rivers & society is fine -Euro- control environment/dominate →things work in balance and harmony

Medieval world view

-religious & theological -political theory relied on divine right of kings -dependence on God -God is everywhere/always present

Consequences of rise of modern science

-rise of new & expanding social group- international science community -social- everyone can find truth, new way of obtaining knowledge about nature -politcal- science=power→ govt embrace science

Enlightenment

-scientific basis for everything -scientists apply scientific method→ scientific truth →apply method to society→ doesn't work, good concept→ end result questionable →not truth- just what good for society -comes w/ SR -REORIENTATION OF THOUGHT →court of Louis XIV -ancient thinkers: smartest people- Greek & Roman -modern thinkers- smartest are ones in present -CRITICISM OF RELIGION →1 true religion →change interpretation of God →deism- deity created universe, God steps away, world operates on natural laws→ world in our hands -monarchs used to have power from God →challenges to political authority →distant God -deism challenges... →divine right →authority of organized religion -REJECTION OF EUROCENTRISM →Europeans look at other civilizations -morals w/out Christianity -REJECTION IN BELIEF OF CENTRAL AUTHORITY →reason is foundation of truth →religion put aside →rationalism takes precedent →Bible, God, authority take precedent

Modern world view

-secular & scientific terms -change in approach to God -material world -here & now -mountain of knowledge→ Enlightenment -science to find truth→ God less important

Louis XVI (1774-1792) ill equipped psychologically to control French nobility

-shy, 20 years old -EAGER-TO-PLEASE- WANTS TO BE LOVED -dismissed Maupeou- repudiated strong-willed minister's work -old parlements reinstated -weakened but unreformed monarchy faced judicial opposition that claimed to speak for entire French nation -renewed financial crisis & political upheaval

Origins & momentum of SR in terms of external & nonscientific causes

-technology -navigational problems of long sea voyages in age of overseas expansion -Renaissance stimulated scientific progress →recovery of Greek math →patronage- govt. sponser- England- Royal Society of London (661) -major discipline at universities

Frederick the Great a true Enlightened Monarch

-tolerantly allowed subjects to believe as they wished in religious & philosophical matters →undercut power of church -promoted advancement of knowledge →improve schools →permit scholars to publish findings -tried to improve lives of subjects more directly →laws simplified →torture or prisoners abolished →judges decided cases quickly & impartially -promoted reconstruction of agriculture & industry -said nothing of divine right of kings -ESTABLISH NATIONAL SET OF LAWS -bureaucratic & judicial reform -territorial expansion →Prussia dominate states

Maria Theresa (1740-1780)

-very good monarch for Austria- control most difficult area to control -limit papacy's political influence in realm -administrative reforms strengthened central bureaucracy, smoothed out some provincial differences, revamped tax system- tax noble lands w/out special exemptions -improve lot of agricultural revolution- cautiously reducing power of lords over hereditary serfs & partially free peasant tenants -revise judiciary & bureaucratic system -tax nobles -religious & educational reform

Effect of Catherine's reign on Russian nobility

-westernized thinking -1775- nobles absolute control over serfs -1785- formalized privileged position- free nobles forever from taxes & state service -nobles live in new territories w/ absolute control over serfs

Catherine the Great

1) brought sophisticated culture of W. Europe to backward Russia -imported Western architects, sculptors, musicians, intellectuals, art, Voltaire, Diderot 2) domestic reform -1767- appointed special legislative commission to prepare new law code →Nakaz- new legal code →modernize Russian law →RESTRICT PRACTICE OF TORTURE, limited religious tolerance -improve education -strengthen local govt 3) territorial expansion -subjugated last descendants of Mongols- Crimean Tartars -partition of Poland -Ottoman territory -wants Constantinople MAKES RUSSIA LEGIT EUROPEAN POWER

Bacon's 4 idols in Novum Organum that block science

1. tribe- deceptive beliefs→ error in thought 2. cave- lens we're looking through 3. marketplace- false significance/error in words 4. theatre- science, philosophy, religion

Copernicus (1473-1543)

1543- On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres -heliocentric theory- stars at rest, universe of staggering size, characterize earth as planet, earth revolved around sun -devoutly religious -shares w/ Catholic Church →church knows that he's right →can't prove his theory -Luther- "The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside down" →Coperican Revolution- validated by Galileo & Kepler

Vesalius (1514-1564)

1543- early science -dissect dead people -disprove Galen's theorem

Enlightenment time period

1690- Locke 1789- French Revolution

Catholic & Protestant churches retard/foster scientific investigation

Catholic- initially less hostile →Italian scientists played crucial role in scientific progress →Counter-Reformation- more hostile to science→ decline of science in Italy Protestants became "proscience" if country lacked strong religious authority →more threat b/c science disprove Bible -embrace science- separate the two

Spain during SR

Charles V→Charles II -Habsburg inbreeding -decline of Spain