AP Euro Exam

William the Silent/William of Orange (d. 1584)

Mid to late 16th century Became the leader of the Netherlands revolution From principality in the middle of France Fam in the Netherlands Fairly tolerant Calvinist Wanted Catholics to join the revolt Said it wasn't Calvinists vs. Catholics, but Low Countries v. Spanish Tyranny Calvinists tend to be leaders b/c they have the most to lose if Spain wins Not a brilliant tactical general Good at holding ppl together and compromising and trying to maintain revolt Good politician rather than general

80 Years' War (1568-1648)

Mid-16th to mid-17th century Philip II tries to hold on to the Habsburg possession of the Netherlands Dutch/Netherlandish revolt Eventually broke away Netherlands= Habsburg possession, ruled as if they were a colony of Spain Not united linguistically, but united Philip wanted to keep Low Countries Catholic, as he had done in Spain He wasn't ever seen→ after he becomes ruler, he stayed in Spain and never traveled Took peace of Augsburg beyond the letter of te law Coexistence of all different religions→ Anabaptists, Calvinists, Catholics, Lutherans Calvinism really took off there Philip made half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent of the Low Countries More practical Wanted to keep peace, live and let live Low Countries felt like they were treated like a cash cow (taxed heavily) and didn't like Spanish rule Calvinism began to become very popular in southern parts of the Low Countries, militant form of Protestantism, Philip II said we have to crack down on these ppl Iconoclasm (1566) Destruction of icons, b/c it's a form of idolatry Destroying pictures of saints, statues, tapestries, stained glass, crucifixes Calvinism said it was idolatry, partly to cleanse own cathedrals Blasphemy to Catholics and Philip II, also rebellion response= called in a bunch of Jesuits to build schools, trying to convincce ppl of Catholicism by persuasion Council of Blood→ started sentencing a lot of ppl to death Duke of Alba Touch, skilled, ruthless general Sometimes would level an entire town that had rebelled just to make an example of it Rounded up nobles, put on trial Becomes a nasty struggle This conflict lasts until Spanish agrees to independence of teh Netherlands Religious, but also economic and political political→ ruled as a colony, wanted independence economic→ taxes, trade disrupted by conflict Religion colors everything More of a national revolt Leaders tend to be Calvinist, but a lot of Catholics join in William the Silent (d. 1584) Aka William of Orange Became the leader of this revolution From principality in the middle of France Calvinist, but fairly tolerant, wanted Catholics to join the revolt Said it wasn't Calvinists vs. Catholics, but Low Countries vs. Spanish Tyranny Calvinists tend to be leaders b/c they have the most to lose if Spain wins Not a brilliant tactical general Good at holding ppl together and compromising and trying to maintain revolt Better politician than general Conflict goes on for years and years Reason why North gets independence was b/c of geography England under Elizabeth I could not ignore the struggle Stard sending weapons and money, volunteers, then finally English soldiers Under her, england turned almost completely Protestant Did it less for religious reasons than some of her counselors Worried about political threat Low Countries= right across from them, never want a strong country there, worried about Spain getting control of it Know Spain and Habsburgs oppose her reign as well Economic side→ trade, particularly wool trade England produced raw wool that the Low Countries turned into fabric, this trade was disrupted She finally had to start helping the rebels when William the Silent was assassinated Made it harder to continue Elizabeth told Privy council that if they don't openly intervene then Spanish will win Philip= very angry, she= bastard and heretic pirates/seadogs Raided Spanish treasure ships Philip responded by helping Mary, Queen of Scots Spain recognized freedom of the Netherlands at the end, especially after the defeat of the Armada

petrarch

1304-1374 14th century Mid-14th century The father of Renaissance humanism Latinized his name From Florence Writings have an impact on the development of the Italian language itself (along with Dante) First guy to go around to monastic libraries and helps recover some of Livy and other texts Revered cicero Lived in 1st c. BCE, in the time of Caesar, perhaps the greatest writer in Latin prose Wrote on philosophy, law, great rhetorician, great orator Petrarch loved his letters more than anything Afraid he might love Cicero more than Christ Wrote a book called the Secretum Meum An autobiography (very rare in that time in Europe) Talks about himself in a way that sounds very modern (Medieval writers rarely did that) To talk about your own individuality was considered spiritually arrogant Examines himself, talks about own inner conflicts Shows rise of individualism Internal guilt over talking about himself and being concerned with his own fame Hates medieval Latin Wanted Latin to go back the the pure golden age of Ciceronian Latin prose Yet sometimes wrote in Italian (poetry, sonnets, Petrarchan Sonnets) Imaginative literature Most important thing he did was revive Ciceronian Latin One of the great pioneers of using the vernacular (spoken/native language of ordinary life) Did not have Greek (came after him)

huldrych zwingli

1484-1531/late 15th to early 16th century From Zurich, Switzerland (spoke weird German) 1 year younger than Luther In the east, he brought reformed religion to the town of Zurich Educated @ University of Basel and deeply influenced by humanist thought early in his career Preacher among Swiss mercenary troops that fought for the empire 1516--> met Erasmus in Basel and udner his influence began a study of the Greek writings of the Church fathers and of the New Testament Also influenced by reports of Luther's defiance of the pope, for his own antipapal views were already developing 1519--> stricken by plague In life-and-death struggle came to a profoundly personal realization of the power of God's mercy Believed the Church had to recover its earlier purity and reject innovations in practices brought in by successive popes and general councils Stressed equality of believers, justification by faith along, and sufficiency of the gospel as authority for church practice Attacked indulgences, penance, clerical celibacy, prayers to the Virgin, statues and images in churches, and a long list of other abuses Stressed that the mass was to be viewed as a commemorative event rather than one that involved the real presence of Christ Preferred to call the service the Lord's supper Luther thought that the prince should be a Christian, but didn't believe that the state was there to enforce every rule that the Church wanted What Zwingli and Calvin wanted was that if sin was wrong, anything that was a sin should be illegal How much should you enforce sexual morality-- being unfaithful is wrong, but should someone be imprisoned for that? Blasphemy-- taking the Lord's name in vain, you could be fined in Zurich for doing this You could be fined for wearing too lavish clothing You had to remember the Sabbath and keep it holy Honor thy mother and thy father-- you could be beheaded for talking back harshly to your parents Zwingli wanted theocracy, commonwealth Rule by God Luther didn't believe in separation of church and state completely like we do today, but thought that intense law was almost returning back to a type of Old Testament legislation Stressed the divine origins of civil gov and the importance of the magistrate as an agent of Christian reform The theocratic idea that the leaders of the state and the leaders of the church were linked together became the basis for further social and political reform Went even farther than Luther on outward forms Luther got rid of all visual art Zwingli got rid of everything-- music too, thought it was all a distraction, more puritanical than Luther Said he read the Bible himself, learned Greek (trained by Erasmus)-- ended up coming up w/ a lot of the same thing as Luther Differ on role of gov w/ church, outward forms Zwingli did not agree w/ Luther about Eucharist Term for communion, bread and wine, breaking of bread The key sacrament for most Christians Swiss cities almost all went Protestant Countryside in some cases stayed Catholic Divided to this day, majority Protestant Civil war broke out b/t divisions in Switzerland Zwingli went out to a battle as a representative pastor and got killed

Battle of Bosworth

1485 (late 15th century) Richard III loses crown and life to Henry VII/Henry Tudor (of the Lancaster party, not direct line) Tudors had very twisted claim to throne Become monarchs

Treaty of Tordesillas (1494

1494/late 15th century Portugal and Spain went to the Pope and asked him to establish a border in the New World Pope drew a line, said Spain would have open seas on things west of that line, Portugal would have things east of that line Portugal got Brazil and Africa and Asia Spain got North and South America Natives disputed it Other Euros disputed it Eventually all fell apart b/c other countries in Europe don't care Spanish had land-based empire very early on Being more of a land power Did not have marine tradition as Portugal Vast Also important that Philippines becomes a Spanish colony Overwhelmingly Catholic, very populous Portugal never really even attempted to have a land-based empire Only interested in trade and in taking ports that allowed them to facilitate that trade

Hilf du, Sankt Anna! Ich will ein Monch werden!

1505→ lightning bolt struck near Luther as he was walking, threw him, yelled this out Help, Saint Anne, I will become a monk! Some historians claim he was already considering becoming a monk, worried about the state of his soul Had to have a story for hid dad, who was not happy about him changing course

John Calvin

1509-1564/early to mid 16th century From france (northern France, Picardie) Expected to be a priest Humanist education Intellectual odyssey-- more than one university-- University of Orleans Began to get an excellent legal traning-- much more systematic thinker than Luther Religious experience-- almost complete change of heart very quickly about the whole Reformation question While in Paris Began thinking what Luther had said was correct Part of a group in Paris of Protestant-leaning people Francis I is heavily enforcing Catholicism in France People were getting burned at the stake for it 1535--> left France for Basel Where he wrote and published the first edition of his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) Defense of French Protestants against persecution, directed to Francis I Expanded in several subsequent editions Became the most influential work of Protestant theology Began as an effort to extend Protestantism to France, and Calvin never abandoned hope that his homeland would be converted Fled Paris, friend was burned for Protestantism, goes a couple of other places first, but ends up in Geneva Fled persecution b/c he had become Protestant A guy from Geneva was trying to structure their church, tried to convince Calvin to stay in Geneva Said town council had voted to go Protestant, kicked out bishop (who was also political leader) of Geneva, but needed Calvin Said if Calvin didn't stay he would be cursed by God, he took it seriously Greatest contributions to religious reform came in church structure and discipline Had studied writings of the first generation of reformers and accepted w/o question justification by faith alone and the biblical foundation of religious authority Believed salvation came from God's grace More strongly than his predecessors he believed that the gift of faith was granted only to some and that each individual's salvation or damnation was predestined before birth Brought the doctrine of predestination to the center of the problem of faith Those who were predestined to salvation, "the elect," were obliged to govern Those who were predestined to damnation were obliged to be governed Thus, for the church that Calvin erected, discipline was the central concern Geneva becomes a model for reformed Protestantism Eventually had two main types of Protestants: Lutherans Reformed w/ Zwingli and Calvin Aka Presbyterian In British Isles, esp in Scotland, they get this name Pretty close to Zwingli about outward forms as opposed to Luther Whitewashed walls, simple unadorned churches b/t Luther and Zwingli Kept music, but did not accept instrumental music in churches-- only a cappella Only singing scripture-- the Psalms Luther kept a crucifix (cross w/ Christ's body on it), Calvin did not have crucifixes-- unadorned crosses, Zwingli did not want a cross at all Idolatry Not worshipping false idols Trying to be even more careful about avoiding idolatry Thinking you should focus on resurrected Christ instead of Christ on the cross-- Easter over Good Friday Holy commonwealth idea-- closer to Zwingli than Luther Reformed Zwingli churches in Switzerland often hop on the Calvinist train Church government-- Calvin addressed that question more than Luther did Luther said the pope was out But the secular prince would become the bishop, would appoint pastors Monarch was head of both church and state Calvin thought there was one ordained structure of government-- Presbyterian (government by elders) Ecclesiastical gov Deacons, doctors, elders, pastors pastors= closed to Catholic priest, gave sermons, administered sacraments, but you would elect him-- power flows from the ppl upwards elders= elected, Church is governed w/ pastor and elders together in a session/consistory, deal w/ the faith side of the church Deacons= deal w/ the worldly/earthly side of the Church, financial, etc., also elected doctors= theologians who can teach ppl to become pastors, elders, etc Provided a kind of structure to the church that Lutheranism didn't Calvinists could exist in a country where they were minority Lutherans couldn't really exist in a country where the ruler was not Lutheran Calvinism becomes the majority faith in Scotland, Holland, and Switzerland But there are very important minorities in polit life and so on France→ Huguenots Some key German states become Calvinist Fair number of Hungarians become Calvinist (eventually RCC holds on to most of them) Puritans in England-- ven though England becomes Anglican, they wanted to make the Church of England a Calvinist church Lutheranism was more a Germanic thing and stayed that way, Northern European Calvinism is more widespread Predestination Not a uniquely Calvinist thing Luther believed in it After Luther and Calvin's death, Calvinists stuck w/ it and Lutherans kind of drifted away God chooses souls that will be saved from creation Made Calvinists confident-- thought that God controls everything, but they are his agents, he works through them "If God is for us, who can be against us" You are supposed to assume that you are "the elect" Activist group-- believed you were supposed to be out there making a holy commonwealth, a society that glorifies God Lutheran priests had conservative view about authority is there by God Calvinist had activist view on this-- if an authority is unjust by God, you can fight back Huguenots Dutch Calvinists Scottish Presbyterians English Puritans They do fight back Ecclesiastical government-- God controls everything, don't separate God from politics, holy commonwealth, predestination flows from that Reformation would not have survived w/o Calvinist wave Gave second wave that made Reformation stronger and more lasting More militant, likelier to fight back More clearly not Catholic Lutherans weren't Catholic, but Calvinists were "more reformed" Much less likely to be reabsorbed into Catholicism-- irreconcilable First real international wave of Protestantism-- Lutheranism was really a Germanic thing Geneva became known as the Protestant Rome Great publishing center-- printing out catechisms, Bibles, prayer books Like the Vatican for Calvinism University of Geneva-- ppl came from all over Europe to study theology here Refugee center-- if you were fleeing from Catholic persecution

excommunication

1520→ Pope Leo X issued a papal bull An open letter, said that Luther needs to shut up, stop making criticism, Leo X is the holy father Says he will do this if Luther doesn't stay quiet Happens in 1521 Can no longer take communion Not supposed to be given any sacrament Extremely serious to ppl You would probably not be saved if you died like this Luther responded by burning the bull Already very sure that the pope is not the holy authority, does not have the power to determine whether or not he is saved Political authority overhead-- Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V)

complutensian polyglot

1522 Done Alcala, Spain Latin name for this town Bible printed at this university Has Old Testament in Hebrew, Greek translation, and Latin translation

peasants' revolts

1524-1525 Largest in German history All across different German states Very specific demands-- not extremely radical Land Nobles often got rid of common lands, against tradition Meant they didn't have the advantage to use the commons Stable rents Nobles were jacking up rents (b/c prices were going up) Price Revolution of the 16th century, nobles felt they had to keep up w/ inflation Remnants of feudalism Often still could not marry whoever they wanted (had to get permission of Lord) Remnants of serfdom Lack of freedom for peasants Freedom of religion Wanted to be able to choose own pastors-- be instructed in faith, don't understand Christianity, want to know faith Thought Luther would be on their side Priesthood of all Believers Equality in the eyes of God Thought that would transfer to his view of social classes More in the eyes of God instead of in economic senses Liberty of Christian Man-- not political or social or economic, but from the fear of whether or not you will be justified Seemed to have an egalitarian view on religion Ppl took it as a social rev too Father also came from humble background, proud of being a commoner Talked about money things Stood up to authority himself (defied Pope, HRE) Luther denounced the revolt once it turned violent Intensely conservative in terms of society-- so much violence, law and order didn't really exist, fear of society collapsing Turned on peasants, encouraged princes to suppress revolt Said peasants were twisting his message-- turned it into a gospel of rev Very conservative about authority Believed established authorities were there b/c God wanted them there and had the right to fight against rebels, but did not support rebels Crushed in 1525, thousands of peasants slaughtered Effects: Fair # of peasants started looking to more radical ppl who preached a more radical split from tradit Christianity When Luther sided w/ authority, the princes liked that, why some of the princes stayed w/ luther during the reformation Authoritarian mindset-- there isn't really another huge humanitarian revolt like this in German history

battle of pavia

1525 Spanish vs. French Northern Italy, near Milan Showed impact of new warfare Great victory for Charles V Charles V gained foothold in Milan, seemingly made him master of all europe BUT ottomans threatened Hungarian territory Protestants threatened German lands Could not afford conquest in France Francis was there and was captured Held prisoner for a while Agreed to Treaty of Madrid→ France had to concede that Milan, Naples, Burgundian inheritance, and Navarre would all go to the Habsburgs (all contested b/t Spanish and French) Agreement would be sealed by marriage of Francis to Charles's sister, Eleanor of Portugal Francis immediately renounced it Said terms were extracted against his will Set France seeking new allies-- Henry VIII switched sides and allied w/ France

battle of mohacs

1526 Spanish lost to Ottomans Many died Hungary What's left of Hungary comes under control of Habsburgs Most of Hungary under Ottoman rule for a long time

marburg colloquy

1529 Disagreement over communion finally got so bad that one of the main Protestant princes was getting concerned about how the Protestants were dividing-- a German prince made Luther and Zwingli meet in 1529, they tried to work out some kind of agreement about the Eucharist in this Failed, they could not reach an agreement over something that was so important

act of supremacy

1534 Parliament said whoever was king/queen of England was head of both church and state So that the pope had no jurisdiction The start of the Anglican church So Henry could get divorced from Catherine of Aragon

munster rebellion

1534-1535 Group of Anabaptists who took over the city of Munster Drove out Catholics and mainstream Protestants Tried to set up a commune, heaven on earth Used violence to enforce things, polygamy Discredited Anabaptists largely, gave them a bad reputation Lutherans and Catholics united to take back the city Leaders were tortured to death

pilgrimage of grace

1536-1537 Early 16th century When Henry VIII dissolved the monasteries, there was a big popular rebellion Biggest popular rebellion Henry VIII faced Northern England→ Yorkshire, Lancaster Ppl rose up to defend the church, didn't like monasteries being dissolved (art, schools, doctors) Crushed it by lying to ppl by saying that he would make some changes and help the church, makes promises Didn't do it all Had leaders seized and had them drawn and quartered Said he would hold a Parliament up North in York and talk about it and they would reconsider Ppl were desperately trying to think that the king was not evil

methodists

1700s Another very important dissenter group in England

Livy

Ancient Roman writer Wrote a history of the Roman republic up to his time One of the most important sources we have about classical Rome Seemingly lost in europe Rediscovered in Renaissance time b/c it turned out there was one manuscript copy in a monastery

Louise de Kerouaille

Another of Charles II's mistresses (mid to late 17th century) French foreign Catholic mistress of Charles great feud b/t her and Nell Gwyn had a son called Charles Lenox

mendicant

Beggar, type of order that friars were

justification

Being reassured that you are in God's good graces, on God's good side, viewed by God as being ultimately righteous (even though you aren't) RCC→ by faith and works Luther→ by faith alone

conciliarism

Belief that the general council is superior to the Pope's authority Got very strong, especially when the Great Schism happened Pope was hesitant when ppl wanted to call a general council in the 1520s in reaction to Luther This belief is condemned at the Council of Trent in favor of papal primacy

The Spiritual Exercises

Big book written by St Ignatius Loyola Published mid-16th century You go through a series of meditations Try to mold your own will in the direction of serving God

escorial

Big palace right outside of Madrid Means slag heap Built by Philip II, seemed to embody his personality Orderly, stern, not hugely decorated, very imposing, aloof, tough, built outside Madrid (away from ordinary realm of life) Right in the middle is a functioning church and monastery (there were monks living there) Combination palace, monastery, mausoleum Tombs above ground Wanted all Habsburg ancestors dug up and brought to this one place Ruling worldwide empire in this austere palace, surrounded by bones of ancestors and monks Simply, undecorated royal bedchamber, opened to the Church (embodied intense Catholicism of this man) Hard-working Would go to mass every morning, meet w/ advisors Nicknamed King of Paper→ would read every gov document

Defenestration of Prague (1618)

Bohemia, early 17th century Protestant nobles were furious, they marched to the castle in Prague where the Catholic officials were (not Ferdinand himself) said Ferdinand was a tyrant, broke promises took two of the Catholics and threw them out of the window intended for the guys to die but ended up falling into a pile of manure

Czech

Bohemia= western half of this Republic today, Bohemian ppl were largely this Both ethnicity and nationality today

Papal States

Bordering Naples Capital= Rome Territories stretched far north and lay on both sides of mountains, largely independent thru 14th and 15th century Weakened papacy had to contend w/ noble fams for control of city Return of popes to Rome after Great Schism

Henry of Navarre/Henry IV (1589-1610)

Bourbon, Huguenot, ruled late 16th to early 17th century Summer of 1572, married Margaret of Valois Male head of Bourbons at that point Had to beg for his life @ end of St Bartholomew's Day massacre Said he would become a Catholic, went back on it once he got out First king of the Bourbon dynasty Doesn't rule all of France in 1589 Henry III sometimes leaned towards him in the war of the 3 Henry's Declares himself king of France after Henry III is assassinated in 1589 Tells everyone he is Catholic in 1593, ppl accept him Says he is going back into the Catholic Church "Paris is well worth a mass" Is accepted by the majority of Catholics A lot of his Huguenot supporters were furious Toleration of peace born of exhaustion Catholics don't suddenly like Protestants, or vice versa Almost resignation, we just can't do this anymore, can't eradicate other side Most ppl said as long as he acts Catholic, they will accept it Some of the fighting continued even after this, but most supporters of the Catholic League give it up Crowned in 1594 Pretty good king After it looks like he has control Edict of Nantes (1598) edict= royal proclamation w/ force of law 3 main components Huguenots will now be toleration (to a certain extent) Could have freedom of worship, but only in certain towns Huguenots given control of towns where they had churches First attempt in Europe to have anything like what we consider to be religious toleratoin Marie de Medici= 2nd wife, mother of Louis XIII Popular king b/c he finally brought peace Brought about prosperity of France People's king→ promising prosperity of the common man Said he hoped even the lowest peasant would have a chicken in his pot He was able to subdue the Catholic League Becomes popular in early 1600s, but a number of Catholics thought he was deep-down going to make them all Protestants Assassinated by a hardcore Catholic in 1610 Son, Louis XIII became king at the age of 9

Dominant Dutch social class

Bourgeoisie merchants, bankers, etc while they did have landowners and a type of aristocracy (House of Orange) gov/politics was dominated by bourgeois not an aristocratic society set the tone for society

index of prohibited books

Catholic Reformation Long list of any book the Catholic Church decided should not be read or published Eventually some books are put on it like science books, now embarrassing to the Church Catholic Church does believe in censorship They hold the ultimate truth, don't want these other books leading ppl astray

general/ecumenical council

Catholic church has had these throughout history Council in which in theory all bishops and archbishops in the world are supposed to come Papal conclave is just the cardinals, when ppl vote for the Pope Don't get called very often→ kind of rare Pope usually calls them to deal with a type of crisis or big question Pope often very hesitant to call them→ in part b/c direction of criticism might be towards the Vatican Usually called over doctrinal questions Conciliarism Belief that general council is superior to Pope's authority Got very strong, especially when the Great Schism happened Pope hesitated when ppl wanted to call one in the 1520s in reaction to Luther Council of Trent (1545-1563) Paul III (1534-1549) called this Northern part of Italy, but in HRE back then Francis I didn't want it to meet, wouldn't let French bishops go once council started meeting Catholic France and most German bishops didn't go Mainly Spanish and Italians, reflects very rigid anti-Protestant stance Did not heal the split, actually drives a deeper wedge b/t Protestant and Catholic worlds Abuses Conceded that the Church is corrupt Passed a lot of legislation Said you have to keep vow of chastity and celibacy If you were a bishop you had to be resident in your diocese pluralism→ you could have more than one church office, but you could not hold more than one position that involved the care of souls Nepotism simony→ says ppl have to be of age Tightened up on use of indulgences Clerical education, said every diocese should have a seminary Church emerges much stronger in a lot of ways Comes down to ppl→ law cannot enforce it Doctrine Defined things more clearly Widens differences b/t Catholics and Protestants, no room for interpretation, no gray areas left After Trent, you could not believe in predestination and be Catholic Said free will was part of salvation Couldn't choose not to venerate saints Virgin Mary as mother of God Purgatory Latin in the Church Higher form of Christian life is celibacy Conciliarism is condemned in favor of papal primacy Sets the nature of the church to this day Roman Inquisition set up in 1542, inquiring into ppl's faith Makes church stronger, revitalized, but more narrow and rigid

cultural dividing line b/t E and W Europe

Catholic vs. Orthodox Christianity 1000 years old Orthodox don't consider any one person as the ultimate head of the Church There are multiple top leaders/patriarchs, but not one You can be married as a priest Cyrillic alphabet Catholic Latin alphabet Splits Slavic people If you were part of the Western Christian world, you experienced the REnaissance somehow And later the Reformation, which split the Western Christian world And Scientific Revolution Didn't experience much of these in the East in terms of tech, science, etc

recusants

Catholics who still wanted to stay Roman Catholics Outlawed You could not legally have a Catholic mass said in England under Elizabeth I Comes from the Latin word meaning refuse/reject Become a minority

centralization/consolidation of political power

Central monarch trying to gather more and more power, ultimately have a monopoly on political power About the question of sovereignty Who is the ultimate boss 3 main obstacles to monarch's power: Nobility Unruly barons, often hard to control, saw king as equal No way to make them obey, decentralization of authority The Church Ecclesiastical courts-- jurisdiction, famous for being very lenient, any clergyperson who was accused of any crime Supposed to support, crown, and anoint monarch, but often a rival Required tithes Held a lot of land More control over intellectual life-- schools, artistic life Pope could say a person is no longer a legitimate king of depose monarch Power of excommunication Interdict-- when a city or even an entire kingdom is 'excommunicated' Viweed as increasingly corrupt Representative bodies Structure of government Creatures of the king Invention of gunpowder changes fortification and battles, warfare became more accessible to nobles Rise of a money economy Feudalism happened b/c monarch paid nobles w/ land Now monarchs could and preferred to pay officials w/ money Bureaucrats-- administrative position in gov, salaried civil servant Paid money Drawn not from noble class but from bourgeoisie Wealthy commoners Much more loyal to king Knew power could be cut off immediately Rise of literacy

invention of gunpowder

Changed nature of battle and fortifications Soldiers wore less armor-- not so much knights anymore Warfare became more accessible to nobles-- democratization of war A noble was supposed to be a warrior Crucial warfare for about 1000 years were heavily armored warriors-- made nobles vital to king w/ gunpowder, a common person with a musket can blow away knights who have trained their whole lives Armies become larger Infantry becomes more important Castles become obsolete (cannons can knock down fortified walls) Fortifications change-- now low walls are the safest and strongest Monarchs had a monopoly on artillery Nobles become officers and serve on horseback but are not as important as they were before

English East India Company (1600)

Chartered company starts in 1600 monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth grows into one of the most important businesses in the world eventually running whole Asian subcontinent until 1857

episcopacy

Church gov 3 ways of church gov→ Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and this Form of the Catholic church, Anglican church, etc Gov by bishops Pope not at the top in the Anglican Church, but the monarch Hierarchy Turned what had been Catholic diocese into Protestant ones

elizabethan settlement

Church of England finally becomes moderately Protestant Settling the religious question Early in her reign

Philip of Anjou/Philip V

Claimant to Spanish throne Louis XIV's grandson Borubon Most ppl did not want him to be king Louis would have control over New World, Philippines, Spain and the Spanish Netherlands Spanish Netherlands was especially worrisome Charles II thwarts them, wrote in his will that all of the empire would go to Philip of Anjou most important thing to him was that the realm stay in tact if Philip of Anjou wouldn't take all of it then it would all go w/ Austrians perhaps b/c he thought Philip of Anjou would be able to keep the Spanish realm intact crisis when treaty is revealed in 1700 question of whether France will follow the compromise/treaty or if they will follow Charles's will and take it al Louis announced that France will take all of it what sparked the war Spanish ppl grudgingly accept Philip Philip= first Bourbon king of Spain stays pretty good king not kicked off so Spain recovers a little bit there is a Bourbon monarch rn ruling in Spain

ceremonial processions

Community-building ritual perambulations happen in rural areas occurred at different times, either on the feast day of the patron saint of your city, or the day that your city was granted the liberties of your town liberties= tax exemptions, not being under prerogative of your noble in court these were big events and they would celebrate that every year also showed social hierarchy hierarchy of guilds and within the guilds but also about solidarity

12 Days of Christmas

Community-building ritual, festival after Christmas (Christmas is the first day) Christmas now ends on December 25 for them, it was the start of the 12 days last day for them= Epiphany January 6 a revelation the feast that honors when the magi find Jesus and worship him those 12 days were riotous times sometimes Calvinists tried to abolish Christmas nothing wrong w/ celebrating birth of Christ, but it became like Halloween is here adults would go around and expect rich ppl to give things out to them Church took December 25 as the day of the nativity b/c Europe already had a big festival in December when winter is coming on ppl want to have something to have some joy partly to enliven that dark time also celebration of when the sun starts coming back killing animals when winter comes on you slaughtered animals b/c you couldn't get enough hay to last them thru the winter one of the only times that poor people ate meat already a partying time, just added the celebration of Jesus

All Hallows' Eve

Community-building ritual, festival all Hallows' Day= all Saints' Day= November 1 honor all saints collectively this is October 31 November 2=all Souls' Day when you pray for souls in Purgatory pre-Christian, pagan connotations idea that this was when the veil b/t living and dead was its thinnest dead walk the streets at night supposed to be not scary or morbid but a happy embrace of the other life

Rites of May

Community-building ritual, festival on May 1st, celebration of life coming back fertility celebration young adults sexual festival young single men would choose the eligible bachelorettes and put flowers on their doorsteps would choose a Queen of the May decorate everything w/ flowers--> flowers are sex organs of plants that reproduce sexually sap is running high marrying ppl off maypole would be erected in the town center, women would hold onto ribbons and dance around it it's a phallic symbol

Northern Renaissance

Renaissance began in Italy By late 1400s, ideas are spreading-- People coming from other areas who studied in Italy got excited about these intellectual ideas and brought them back to their own lands; Rulers in the North invited (bribed) Italian artists, humanists, philosophers to come North and do their thing Fundamental difference about this compared to italian: religious emphasis, specifically Christian (Christian humanism) Both have humanism in common-- Italians are not pagans, but it's about a matter of emphasis Italians often so caught up with ancient Greek and Roman culture, which was not Christian Northerners did not have this problem-- wanted to be able to have Greek to read the original New Testament; Old Testament in Hebrew Different emphasis even though it shares: Ad Fontes! Back to the sources, both the Northern and Italians believed there was something in the distant past that was pure and golden-- from the source Sources are different-- Italian fontes was classical antiquity, Greco-Roman culture; Northern fontes was the Bible-- New and Old Testament, Early Church fathers, idea that the earliest forms of Christianity are the purer forms, over time things get sullied, passed down, corrupted, warped In both cases, there is a sense of a distant past you are trying to get to-- recent past (middle ages) was something you had to denigrate Northerners-- most horrible thing about the middle ages was that the Church had gone wrong, paternity of the Reformation, neither one of the two most important Northern humanists turned Protestant, but laid foundation by stressing the need to get back to the sources-- Greek and Hebrew texts Kind of radical ideas-- educating women (Thomas more, Erasmus)-- trying to be fair-- value of education, even for women Humanists were ultimately optimistic-- not foolish, believed you could revive Christianity and society in general through scholarship Importance of using vernacular, as more people were getting educated, more people would not have Latin-- they could read, but only in their vernacular Emphasis on individual-- vernacular Bible eliminated 'middleman' of the priest/church, more individual, empowered individual, who read and interpreted it for themselves

poland-lithuania

Comprised enormous territory Crowns of two nations joined at the end of the 14th century, dynastic history tied up with nations of Bohemia and Hungary to West and south Bohemia increasingly drawn into affairs of Central Europe Hungary remained more Eastern in orientation, partly because Bohemians gave nominal allegiance to Holy Roman Emperor and partly because Ottoman conquests had engulfed large part of Hungarian territories End of 15th century-- Poland, Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary all ruled by the same family-- the Jagiellons Growth of enlarged and centralized Muscovy stands in contrast End of 15th c→ Casimir IV ruled kingdom of Poland and grand duchy of Lithuania, son Vlasidslav ruled Bohemia and Hungary Had the four states been permanently consolidated they could have become an effective barrier to Ottoman expansion in S and Russian expansion in E Formal union of Polish and Lithuanian crowns in 1569 Russians took much of Lithuania Ottomans took much of Hungary Bohemia absorbed into Habsburg territories after 1526

John Fisher

Considered one of the great humanists of the time Mid 15th to early 16th century Study of Hebrew Bishop of Rochester The only bishop who said no to breaking with Rome, knowing he would die Sentenced to die by drawing and quartering (dragging thru streets, then hung, then emasculated, then disemboweled, then head struck from body, then body cut up into 5 parts and stuck above gateways) Patron saint= John the Baptist, also put to death by an evil king, people noticed this connection So only executed Stuck w/ Church and died for it

versailles

Constructed by Louis XIV of France (mid-17th century) Nobles required to stay there for ½ the year Outside Paris Used partly to intimidate ppl w/ its grandeur and size Particularly cut off nobles from real source of power (provinces) b/c nobles almost never out in province that they were supposed to be noble of Thus ppl of the provinces were not necessarily as loyal to nobles as they had been before King had them constantly running w/ social activities (very deliberate), constantly changing up fashion there was already a large hunting lodge there, but he enlarged became the largest palace in Europe outside of Paris he didn't like being in Paris b/c it reminded him of the Fronde Louvre was a palace trying to get away from that built estate also used it to intimidate ppl diplomatic function also lots of ordinary ppl came too almost like a tourist attraction nobles required to live there half the year also a lot were there year round happening place social center of Europe caught up in pecking order, endless cycle of parties and stuff like that a lot of competition for who got to be closest to the king also encouraged couturiers (fashion designers) to change the fashions frequently they were devoting time, energy, and money to frivolous stuff that wasn't very serious more about not being in the provinces their power was rooted out in provinces they were the head of justice, source of patronage also manipulating lower nobles local connections that were very important esp w/ lower nobles losing that connection which was the root of their power he has cut them off from their power

parliament

Contested w/ King James I in early 17th century England Butting heads over who should have pwr Saw himself as above Parliament Had to get consent from Parliament for money he= absolutist, increasingly so Parliament said they should have the pwr of consent to any kind of taxation Scottish ppl resisted king thru Presbyterian Church Common ppl of England thought king should be able to run gov just based on estates that he had→ "king should live of his own" Absurd to think of by 1600s

puritans

Contested w/ King James I in early 17th century England Under Elizabeth, there were Calvinists under C of E who wanted to be much more Protestant Got stronger in 1600s Hesitant to resist under Elizabeth out of fear that a Catholic would take the throne Now they were less likely to subdue themselves He also tried to have reconciliatory attitude towards Spain But Spain said English ahd to start treating their Catholics better, and he conceded Thought that when he came south he would be on their side Didn't like Presbyterianism/Calvinism b/c they uphold resistance to unjust authority, believe in fighting back Undermines ideas of divine right Loved that in England he was able to appoint all his own Church leaders Doesn't want to make any of the changes the Puritans want But asked for translation of the Bible→ King James Bible

abuses

Council of Trent addressed these issues Said Protestants have a point, Church is corrupt Need to clean up our act Passed lots of legislation Some things really did change Tightened up on a lot of things Said you had to keep vow of chastity and celibacy If you were a bishop you had to be resident in your diocese pluralism→ you could have more than one church office, but you could not hold more than one position that involved the care of souls Couldn't be bishop of more than one place Nepotism simony→ says ppl have to be of age Don't abolish indulgences, but said they had to tighten up on the usage of them Ppl needed to understand that they were truly contrite, weren't buying your way out of Purgatory Clerical education improved, every diocese should have a seminary Church emerges much stronger, reinvigorated in a lot of ways Comes down to ppl→ law cannot enforce itself St Pius V (1566-1571) Pope for a short time Lived pious life Later canonized Cracked down on a lot of issues in the church Very intolerant

Doctrine

Council of Trent defined things more clearly Laity don't know what they're supposed to believe, Protestants play upon that, can confuse them in ways they can't refute Widens differences b/t Catholics and Protestants No room for interpretation, no gray areas left After Trent, you could not believe in predestination and be a Catholic→ had to say that free will was a part of salvation Couldn't choose not to venerate saints Reaffirmed list of things Luther objected to Virgin Mary as mother of God Purgatory Latin in the Church Higher form of Christian life is celibacy On every point, they reaffirm it and state it more bluntly Conciliarism is condemned→ said ultimate authority is the pope (papal primacy) Hoe it has been ever since Women could not be ordained

printing press

Created in 1455 Not necessarily an invention More accurate to say 'movable type' East Asia was ahead on this-- but Asian languages have much more complicated characters, held them up on printing You had to have breakthroughs in metal alloys/metallurgy with which you created the stencils, types of inks that wouldn't smear, writing materials you're printing on Once you get those things locked in, if you don't have any mistakes in the letters, you can print all of these off and there won't be variations or textual errors So revolutionary Had been using animal skins before-- particularly sheep, calf, expensive and not efficient-- why books were so rare until the printing press Paper had been invented in China a long time ago-- parchment is usually very wrinkled, doesn't work very well w/ printing, you need paper to go along w/ it Johannes Gutenberg, other people should get credit too though Once you get this, you have more printed material, but appetite for books also drove the invention-- drive for texts, but probably 90% of the European population was illiterate at the time In the first half of the 16th century, about 1 million Bibles in German were printed-- 15 million German popular, 90% of whom were illiterate We think of the Middle Ages as very religious, but you could argue that maybe the most religious century in European history was the 16th-- but also the start of a more secular world-- split b/t Catholicism and Protestantism secularized Europe, as well as the Renaissance 200 Bibles printed in 1455- Gutenberg Bibles, 48 still around-- in Latin, not the original (Catholic church defended keeping it in Latin over vernacular); the language of the common people in the 300s in the western half of the Roman Empire-- Vulgate bibles Mainz= on the Rhine River, where printing started and Gutenberg printed Bibles

dutch east indies

Crown jewel of Dutch empire Portuguese got there first by early 1600s, Dutch are moving in Nutmeg Wars Dutch push out Portuguese and then Dutch and English fight Dutch win at the expense of environmental destruction

tax on trade

Customs duties You can tax imports and exports Somewhat easier for earlier forms of gov to impose and collect

Medici

Despots for all purposes in Florence Florence= "City of the Medici" Cosimo de Medici Late 14th to mid 15th century Starts becoming the boss of the city, although never holding office Was a banker, started using some of that wealth to play the game of politics Bailed Florence city government out of bankruptcy Bribed people Patrons of many people, quid pro quo, influence peddling Patrons of the arts Piero the Gouty Early to mid 15th century Cosimo's son Ruled for a little while GOUT-- conspicuous consumption Lorenzo de Medici Mid to late 15th century Cosimo's grandson, continued Medici legacy diplomacy = his greatest achievement Facilitated production of art as it reached its height in Florence Regarded as leading citizen of Florence, in terms of wealth and influence Power based on personality and reputation Became most important political family in Florence Some of the popes are from the Medici family-- Leo X Made it big not just in Florence or in Italy, but in Europe Catherine de Medici Queen of Henry II Very long widowhood, regent for son Queen of France 3 sons that were kings that she dominated

Why italy?

Different from most European countries because it was mostly urban as opposed to rural Northern Italy was one of the two great regions to produce fabric in this period Clothing was the single most important production thing at the time Produced wool-- really the main fabric people in Europe wore at the time Florence was famous for high-quality fabric Created an affluent society that allowed people to transition from living as a subsistence society vs a surplus society Conspicuous consumption Overproduction led to lower prices Larger decline in population due to bubonic plague Higher wages b/c less workers and lower prices b/c overproduction Led the way in luxury items Banking center Geographic location-- trading and mercantile activity Northern Italy in particular made money from clothing, banking, and trading Were able to go into the Ottoman Empire and buy things, and then sell them to the rest in Europe Most cosmopolitan people in Europe-- in contact with people with very differing cultures to their own (particularly in port cities) Cities in mercantile areas became literate because they have to be-- lay literacy Meant people were thinking in more different and individual ways Introduced skepticism Middlemen in trading until people moved on from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Italy is where Rome is-- all Europeans admired ancient Rome Italian city-state republic governments were similar to ancient Rome and Greece, whereas rest of Europe living under military feudal monarchies (very different political environment) Had a resonance and familiarity that other people didn't

hutterites

Direct descendents of Anabaptists today, still sect type Tend to live out West, w/ a lot of land Said early Christian community tended to share Communalism Believe in living in Christian communes Share the work, everyone had same standard of living, like Utopia Believed that you share the wealth

mennonites

Direct descendents of Anabaptists today, still sect type Will use internal combustion engines, electricity Named after Menno Simons Pacifists Try to live simply and gently Don't live nearly as strictly as Amish and Hutterites

absolutism

Doesn't necessarily mean having a monarch Means ruler doesn't have to answer to any set of rules Whatever monarch says is law Arbitrary absolutist gov

bourgeoisie

Dominant wealthier ppl in a town either extremely wealthy or not crazily middle in terms of social ranking in society, not necessarily in wealth but definitely not as prestigious as gentry or nobles a lot of them were moderate wealth (craftsmen, artisans) shopkeepers not wage earners--> have own means of business or they are professionals (lawyers, doctors, etc) town elites drawn from haute bourgeoisie high bourgeoisie

Johann Tetzel

Dominican friar Mid 15th to early 16th c. Sold indulgences for the pope Not allowed to come to Saxony but nearby Told people all kinds of things the church never even taught Said you could buy indulgences in advance for sins you haven't committed yet So many people gave money so that dead relatives could get out of Purgatory-- sense of duty Even had a jingle-- so soon as coin in coffer rings, a soul from the flames of Purgatory springs Selling really fast Luther decides he needs to do something about this→ 95 Theses is a response to him and indulgences

Valois dynasty

Early 14th century to late 16th century Charles VII Early to mid 15th century Drove English out-- Hundred Years' War Absolutist Taxes Why English people lost Hundred Years' War Louis XI Mid to late 15th century nickname= the spider Eccentric, tricky Able to grab some parts of W Burgundy Similar to Henry VII- not beloved but respected and feared Kept nobles in line Made smart marriages Charles the Bold Duke of Burgundy, mid to late 15th century, branch of Valois family, killed on battlefield daughter= Mary of Burgundy Charles VIII Louis XI's son, gets involved in Wars of Italy, dies w/o son, cousin Louis XII takes over and dies very soon Francis I Early to mid 16th century Louis XII's nephew Epitome of Renaissance prince Dynastic rivals w/ Henry VIII Got church under control

Francisco Jiminez de Cisneros (1436-1517)

Early 15th to early 16th c Spanish Founded University of Alcala Patron of Complutensian Polyglot Had already started reorganizing Catholic Church in Spain, getting rid of some corrupt practices When Protestant Reformation started, didn't catch on as much in Spain b/c there weren't as many abuses Originally a Franciscan friar, then bishop, then Archbishop of Toledo, then Cardinal Also head of the Inquisition Tried to reform religious orders Church already cleaning up the worst of the abuses Chancellor of Spain→ advisor for Ferdinand and Isabella Believed very much in what the Inquisition was doing Religious reform was significant Spain becomes the great bulwark of the Counter Reformation King Francis II helps to crush Protestantism everywhere

Charles V

Early 16th to mid 16th century Son of Philip the Fair and Joanna the Crazy (grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella, Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy) Born and raised in Low Countries, where he ruled over Burgundy and Netherlands Thru a series of dynastic accidents, became heir to Spanish crown w/ possession in New World and to vast Habsburg estates that included Austria Reign ushered in Golden Age of Spain Charles I of Spain, Charles V as Holy roman Emperor 1519→ Maximilian I died, bribed people into making him HRE Spoke many languages-- Flemish, French, Spanish, Latin Had hard time learning German (needed it b/c of Habsburg descent) Never cared about learning English Habsburg jaw= main trait of family 3 main enemies during his reign: Francis I Valois king of France (starts ruling in 1515, around same time as Charles) Long Habsburg-Valois Wars Ottoman Empire and Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566) Probably strongest empire in the world under Suleiman Religious factors Dispute over who is ruling where Charles found rol as HRE to be an important responsibility Supposed to be ruler of all Christendom Secular counterpart to Pope Viewed himself as protector of Christian Europe in general Ottomans were the biggest threat in that respect Battle of Mohacs (1526) Lost to Ottomans Many died Hungary What's left of Hungary comes under control of Habsburgs Most of Hungary under Ottoman rule for a long time Siege of Vienna By ottomans Lasted for a while Held tough and Ottomans retreated Francis I formed informal alliance w/ Suleiman Some of his own German princes inside his own empire Late 1520's, 30's, 40's Protestants Particularly in North and East Some turned Lutheran Tried to force them to stay Catholic First Catholic-Protestant wars start in late 1520s b/c he has 3 enemies, he can't crush any of them Habsburgs ultimately win war Holds off Ottomans Own German princes turned heretics, unable to exterminate heresy, felt he had let down God and Church by not eliminating Protestantism in his lifetime Battle of Pavia (1525) Northern Italy, near Milan Showed impact of new warfare Great victory for Charles V Francis was there and was captured Held prisoner for a while Agreed to a treaty→ France had to concede that Milan, Burgundian inheritance, and Navarre would all go to the Habsburgs (all contested b/t Spanish and French) Francis immediately renounced it

Huguenots

Early 17th century France under Richelieu he= Catholic, doesn't like them Didn't like one provision of Edict of Nantes Huguenots controlled fortified towns w/ Protestant churches Almost like a state w/in a state Had to get rid of this To do this, he provoked a revolt French Huguenot nobles were stupid enough to fall into that Said he was going to get rid of rights for Huguenots Thought letting ppl have state w/in state was particularism (letting nobles have power) Revolt is crushed La Rochelle= portcity, sort of the city capital of Huguenot France Didn't get rid of hwole Edict of Nantes, but just getting rid of fortigied towns Not many about religious intolerance, about execution Getting rid of separate indpendent pwr insidee Later Louis XIV will revoke the entire edict Knew nobles were conspiring against him When he dies, France in on ascent, pretty good position, can't wonctrol wthat when Louis XIII dies the crown goes to Louis XIV at the age of 6 Drops dead somewhat eunexpactedly

James I (1603-1625)

Early 17th century king of England Stewart Comes in as middle-aged man when Elizabeth I died (his relative) Not considered one of the more successful or admirable kings of England First to be ruling Scotland and England and Wales and Ireland Two different estabished churches Anglican and Presbyterian So we can't talk about GB yet Theory of absolutism Becomes king of Scotland as a toddler when mother is driven off to England Before he became king of England, he wrote a book (5 years before he took the English throne) that came out in 1598 Called the True Law of Free Monarchies Argues that a king has to be free to do whatever he needs to do View based on paternalism Ruling England and Scotland (England including Wales) Also claimed to be Lord of Ireland Very close relationship w/ Duke of Buckingham Had many children Strong leader Had act to follow→ Elizabeth I was very much romanticized She had left a pretty significant debt that he had to deal w/ (but ultimately added to it) Ppl had unreasonable expectations Also a Scot, Scots not well liked by English Above all, faced w/ Parliament and Puritans Puritans Under Elizabeth, there were Calvinists under C of E who wanted to be much more Protestant Got stronger in 1600s Hesitant to resist under Elizabeth out of fear that a Catholic would take the throne Now they were less likely to subdue themselves He also tried to have reconciliatory attitude towards Spain But Spain said English ahd to start treating their Catholics better, and he conceded Thought that when he came south he would be on their side Didn't like Presbyterianism/Calvinism b/c they uphold resistance to unjust authority, believe in fighting back Undermines ideas of divine right Loved that in England he was able to appoint all his own Church leaders Doesn't want to make any of the changes the Puritans want But asked for translation of the Bible→ King James Bible Parliament Butting heads over who should have pwr Saw himself as above Parliament Had to get consent from Parliament for money he= absolutist, increasingly so Parliament said they should have the pwr of consent to any kind of taxation Scottish ppl resisted king thru Presbyterian Church Common ppl of England thought king should be able to run gov just based on estates that he had→ "king should live of his own" Absurd to think of by 1600s King James Bible Called Authorised Version in England Met many different places to write it, he did not go Shaped English language Gunpowder Plot (1605) Conspiracy, plot on the part of extremist Catholics who= furious that they were continually persecuted in england Thought if they could wipe out whole ruling class in one fell swoop Only time when all ruling class= in 1 place= opening of Parliament (late October early November) Happens in House of Lords building Monarch reads address Was going to happen November 5, 1605 Robert Catesby= real leader Guy Fawkes setting fuse when he got caught Rented room across road from Westminster and tunneled into base of cellar and rolled in a bunch of barrels of gunpowder Guy Fawkes (military background) was going to set long fuse and ride off, blow up rulers of England and Scotland in one fell swoop Guy in House of Commons got letter from friend who knew about conspiracy and told guy not to go to ceremony Guy receiving letter went to gov and said something was up Ppl walked in right as he was lighting fuse Guy Fawkes= arrested, tortured horribly, drawn and quartered Guy Fawkes Day- November 5th Now called bonfire day Before very anti-Catholic For a while it was a way of reviving anti-Catholic sentiments Made him even more paranoid than he already was Didn't want to go after Catholics too badly b/c he was trying to make an alliance w/ Spain (unpopular) Sir Walter Raleigh= outspoken about keeping war going on against Spain To the point where James had him executed Favorite of Elizabeth Rise of Buckingham (George Villiers)--> went from being son of gentryman to duke (highest title) in 7 years Meteoric rise When he dies in 1625, climate isn't very good Sense that even ordinary person thought he= drop-off from elizabeth Leaving Charles I as next Stuart king of England and Scotland Daughter Elizabeth Stuart married Frederick V (German) J= criticized for not doing enough to help them Number of children Sophia (married princec of Hanover)--> led to current line of monarchs

Polish Diet

Representative body in Poland Elected Sigismund III in late 16th century kingdom of Poland was called the republic of Poland republic means that you don't have a monarch but this country had a monarch but was called a republic so the monarchy was not very strong elected a monarch Polish nobles ultimately made a very selfish and ultimately disastrous decision about this question particularly in the 1700s, the Polish nobles would deliberately elect someone who they knew would not be a good ruler generally a foreigner next person they would elect would be from another family preventing any hereditary build-up of power to them, weak king= strong nobles Polish nobles were like kings on their own land kept kings weak, didn't grant them much power or taxes nobles wanted right to have peasants as serfs Poland had no standing army, hardly any central taxes had had some non-nobles in it, but the Polish nobles eventually drove out everyone who wasn't a noble purely noble/aristocratic body each noble in the diet had the right to the liberum veto free 'I forbid' it only took one noble to veto something if one noble said no, you couldn't pass anything never had any real national government Poland pays a price eventually other countries around them that were much more centralized devour Poland (Austria, Prussia, Russia) split Poland between them in the 1700s Poland disappears completely in 1795, doesn't come back until 1918 just one noble could dissolve it most would end that way everyone had to go home recipe for a weak central government

taxes

Revenue of a district fell heavily on peasants b/c nobles and even bourgeoisie managed to win tax concessions from the monarchs often tax exempt church lands were tax exempt

raison d'etat

Richelieu Very Machiavellian Wrote a work where he said that if you have to do something for the good of the state that if you were a private person it would be a sin/crime, then it's justified Raison d'etat, end justifies the means

Frederick V (1619-1620)

Early 17th century, Bohemia Elected as king of Bohemia after Ferdinand II is deposed ruler of the Palatinate German prince Calvinist electing a clear Protestant chose him b/c: he had relations w/ the House of Orange in the Netherlands head of the Protestant Union wife= Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of James I apparently the real driving force important b/c they have a daughter named Sophia who eventually marries a German prince who is the elector of Hanover why the royal family today is who they are-- where the line comes in called the 'Winter King' lasted only thru one season Habsburgs not about to let this happen 1619--> Frederick takes the throne, Mathias dies, Ferdinand becomes Emperor Ferdinand has support of all of the Habsburgs, including Habsburg Spanish king also Catholic League, led by the Duke of Bavaria war at first goes against the Protestant side Protestants are sort of divided Protestant union did not all come to his aid, said they don't have to help b/c alliance says if anyone is attacked they will help, but they thought he kinda started this fight Frederick loses the battle of White Mountain, b/t Frederick V and Ferdinand II Ruler of the Palatinate Calvinist German Chairman of the Protestant Unnion did not all join his side--> they said he started the war but the Calvinist members did help him 2 branches of the Habsburgs: Ferdinand II Spanish Habsburgs Married to a Stewart, daughter of James I related to Orange on mother's side Particularly important for Czechs, fell under complete control after defeat Ferdinand II takes back throne of Bohemia Frederick V and Elizabeth Stewart become royal refugees, never able to regain the Palatinate

Magdeburg (1631)

Early 17th century, Germany right in the middle of Germany Catholics conquered it and pillaged and many were killed became a propaganda point--> Protestants need to avenge and join in used as a propaganda tool to get lukewarm Protestants to join the cause held out against Habsburg army for a while, when it fell the Habsburgs were horrible helped Gustavus Adolphus

petition of right (1628)

Early 17th century, under King Charles I of England Series of documents Said Charles had been doing 4 things that were wrong Arbitrary arrest/imprisonment w/o cause shown Particularly critics, Puritans Throwing them in prison but not bringin them to trial Martial law He would proclaim military law in an area Means gov could do all sorts of things it couldn't normally Detaining ppl indefinitely Confiscating property Search and seizure Ppl felt he was using it for his own arbitrary reasons Extraparliamentary revenues Ways for king to raise $ w/o Parliament's consent Ppl thought more and more that these methods were dubious Ship money Forced loans Told you had to loan king money at low interest over long time Shaking down own population, virtual blackmail quartering/billeting In private homes Way to save money on part of the gov A burden Unpopular Said he had to stop doing these 4 things He had to grudgingly make promise in order to continue getting $ from Parliament Up there w/ Magna Carta, Bill of Rights

Catherine de Medici

Early to late 16th century Outlived sons Formidable woman Often queen regent Sons are young and weak-willed Controversial figure Definitely a Machiavellian kind of person Has her defenders Was Catholic, but wanted stability above all Summer of 1572: marriage b/t Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois Daughter of Catherine de Medici, sister of Charles IX (king of France) Henry of Navarre was the male head of the Bourbons at this point Protestant and Catholics would have a truce, lay down their arms Doesn't solve the problem St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre at the wedding Protestant leaders come from all over France to celebrate wedding, letting guard down Guise went to her and said they thought the Protestants were going to try to knock Valois off the throne Said she needed to kill the Protestants, all here, at her mercy, can get rid of them in one fell swoop Said they needed Charles IX to give the go-ahead b/c he was king Catherine goes to Charles, he doesn't want to Finally he tells her to give the order, asks her to kill all of them so there is no one to tell about it afterward Went on for several days, Seine clogged w/ corpses She= blamed for the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre Lives almost as long as her third son and final Valois king= Henry III (1574-1589) She was a politique Ppl who said that peace was the goal, couldn't keep living in anarchy, willing to accept a Protestant King in order for peace Died naturally of old age in January 1589, had been trying to hold France together for so long

Peter Breugel the Elder (1525-1569)

Early to mid 16th century, Netherlands from Low Countries dies in Brussels painter perfect example of Northern Renaissance does particularly landscapes in what are called genre paintings what Dutch are particularly famous for scenes of ordinary life paintings of peasants--> not a specific peasant or ruler, but just peasants doing something normal historical source did the massacre of the innocents painting

Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642)

Early to mid 17th century France Louis XIII's advisor Catholic cardinal advising him pisses off the pope famous for believing in raison d'etat French equivalent of Machiavellianism defending something underhanded, unprincipled, immoral

Philip IV (1621-1665)

Early to mid 17th century Olivares served him Ruled a long time During his reign you have a remarkable decline of Spanish power

Louis XIII (1610-1643)

Early to mid 17th century Bourbon French king Son of Henry IV, becomes king at the age of 9 after his father is assassinated in 1610 There was a regency→ mother of the boy king Marie de Medici eventually brings in Cardinal Richelieu= rivalry Then Louis eventually has to make a choice b/t the two and chooses the Cardinal Gets rid of towns controlled by Huguenots later on Thirty Years' War: France made sure that Habsburgs don't win outright Early to mid 17th century, France 2nd Bourbon king Raised Catholic Catholic country Had established Edict of nantes Entered war on Protestant side Politics took precedence over religion Surrounded on all sides by Habsburgs Bourbons continued tradition of fighting Habsburgs for almost 100 years Politics trumps religion Officially join in 1635 when they declare war on habsburg Spain Particularly worried about Habsburgs ruling Low Countries

nobles in france under Louis XIII

Richelieu had a problem w/ them, esp b/c he was Catholic and they were not Did not like him and he did not like/trust them Knew they were selfish and jealous Let nobles have a lot of gov positions that don't mean much but sound prestigious Main advisors/councillors were mainly bourgeois ppl Excluded nobles from real policy-making pwr Pwr based a lot on the fact that they all have these castles Richelieu tore a lot of them down Could still be a real obstacle to kings asserting pwr Banned nobles' right to duel Said it disrupts public order Cared about making nobles realize they were beneath the law too Every noble had a spy/informer placed n it who was reporting back to him

Roman Catholicism vs Lutheranism

Roman Catholicism: Justification by faith and works-- you have to put your money where your mouth is, doing good works in order to earn justification as well Salvation by grace and free will Bible and tradition-- the idea that the Bible has truth, but God can reveal truths later after the end of the Bible era, the Church is kind of a living Bible, new truths can be revealed that aren't authoritative, there are certain things that the Church accepts as truth that are not in the Bible (Purgatory) Purgatory Monasticism-- you earn your salvation by doing the extra mile clergy/laity-- very sharp distinction, Latin instead or vernacular, celibacy, clergy as intermediaries b/t laity and God Latin Cult of Saints, relics-- defined as someone who had earned their salvation w/ enough merit left over to become a saint, quantitative approach Celibacy-- the highest form of Christian life is to take the vow of chastity The pope 7 sacraments-- transubstantiation (in philosophy in Aristotle, there is the outward form of something, and the essence of it (what makes it what it is))-- every time mass is said, a miracle occurs-- when the priest consecrates the elements, you are reenacting Christ's sacrifice, wine becomes blood of Christ, bread become body in a real sense Not just a symbol, not just a remembrance-- there is a real presence there, a real miracle Lutheranism: Justification by faith alone-- how you feel that you are in God's graces, on his good side, current emotional/psychological condition Thought that you can't bring works into it at all Thought that's what Paul was saying the book of Romans 'Accepting the fact that you are accepted even though you are unacceptable' Incredible release for him justification= being reassured that you are on God's good side, viewed by God as being ultimately righteous (even though you aren't) Salvation by grace alone (predestination)-- salvation is God deciding to save you even though you don't deserve it Predestination-- the idea that God chooses "the elect"-- certain souls that he gives the gift of faith to, who then accept the gift of salvation and are saved it's all in God's hands The idea of free will is an illusion, we cannot take credit for our own salvation You don't earn or deserve salvation-- it is given to you Said you will do good works b/c you already have God's love-- good works are not what earns you salvation, they are a result of salvation, you therefore attempt to live a Christ-like life But not a type of fatalism Convinced that grace saves us alone, that it says that in the Bible Scripture-- the Bible contains the word of God, the ultimate truth, only source of authority Church can make mistakes the Bible cannot NOT Purgatory-- not included in Bible, based on quantitative measurement of salvation NO MONKS-- Christians should be out in the world, Christian vocation w/in the ordinary world Priesthood of all believers-- he himself married a former nun, therefore they aren't really clergy, they are simply doing the religious job, but they are no more Christian than anybody else Vernacular-- both Bible and services NO SAINTS OR RELICS-- said to pray to someone other than Christ denigrates the sanctity of Crist Marriage and family-- a Christian family was the highest form of Christian life, more so than celibacy NO POPE-- rejects whole Catholic hierarchy, there is no single head of the church, the papacy is antiscriptural, started calling the pope the antichrist 2 sacraments-- baptism, communion Luther→ consubstantiation-- rejected the idea that it becomes the bread and wine when the priest says something, says that the bread does become in a real sense the body of Christ, but only for a person who receives it in faith-- puts the burden on the receiver of the bread/wine, disagreed w/ Catholics but kept whole presence Zwingli→ purely symbolic-- says there is no physical presence of Christ, it is a reminder/a commemoration, not a physical thing-- thought Luther was not willing to go far enoguh away fro a Catholic position Division finally got so bad that one of the main Protestant princes was getting concerned about how the Protestants were dividing-- a German prince made Luther and Zwingli meet in 1529, they tried to work out some kind of agreement about the Eucharist in the Marbury Colloquy-- it failed. They could not reach an agreement over something that was so important

Hanover

Royal family that ruled England starting in early 18th century w/ George I up until Victoria

theocracy

Rule by God What Zwingli and Calvin wanted Holy commonwealth If sin was wrong, sin should be illegal But how much do you enforce sexual morality-- being unfaithful is wrong, but should someone be imprisoned for that Blasphemy-- taking the Lord's name in vain-- you could be fined in Zurich for doing this Remember the Sabbath and keep it holy Honor thy mother and thy father-- you could be beheaded for talking back harshly to your parents

Liberum veto

Rule in the Polish diet Each noble had the right to this free 'I forbid' it only took one noble to veto something if one noble said no, you couldn't pass anything never had any real national government

Sigismund III (1587-1632)

Elected by the Poland-Lithuanian Diet in late 16th century, ruled as King of Poland until mid 17th century Conflict over his election (elected monarchy like HRE and Bohemian crown) Polish representative body= the Diet elected b/c his mother was a Jagiellon his family was Swedish he was the heir to Sweden as well from the Vasa Swedish family 30 Years' War going on he was a Vasa but he was Catholic as was majority of Poland-Lithuania Vasa family were largely Lutherans really wanted to be king of Sweden asserted his claim to Sweden when his father died but they didn't like the fact that he was Catholic and they didn't like that he was Catholic Swedish nobles turned on him and pushed him out uncle becomes king, then later his son this is a conflict about religion only tsar of Russia for about 3 years, only king of Sweden for about 3 years King of Poland, but not very exciting, then wanted to be king of Sweden but it wasn't very successful (and the Diet didn't support him) then turned attention to east of Poland made a serious attempt and even briefly seemed to succeed at becoming the ruler of Russia Russia was in the Time of Troubles 1601-1613 (strictly speaking) there was really no one who was accepted as the tsar foreigners--> Swedes coming in, Poles under him defensive giant Sigismund drives eastward took Moscow itself in 1610 proclaimed himself tsar of all the russias (tsar by conquest) Russian boyars finally did the patriotic thing, said they had to stop fighting amongst themselves, said they had to unite under one man head of Russian Orthodox Church was instrumental in bring Russia together they all unite under a native Russian, Michael Romanov

renaissance politics

Endless struggles b/t Italian states in 14th, 15th, and early 16th c. 3 main areas: Kingdom of Naples Papal States North Different city-states 3 main ones: Florence, Milan, Venice 1200s-1300s→ city states almost all republics Not monarchy, but not democracy Generally adult males w/ powerful families who possess wealth and power Oligarchy- ruled by the few Usually the wealthy Ruled by a small number of people who are well-to-do Usually takes the form of various councils Normally wealthy commoners Generally city-states, people did not have noble titles but were just wealthy commoners (merchants, bankers, etc) Aristocracy-- ruled by the best Ruled by nobles, people w/ noble titles, usually wealthy, landed wealth Plutocracy-- ruled by the rich Despotism despot= strong man ruler Not traditional constitutional monarch or hereditary monarchy Comes into power through military force What we would call a military dictator Now has negative connotation Not necessarily bad rulers, sometimes actually very good Best example= Visconti in Milan Sforza= depots in Milan Milan- most military Venice= really important on the sea, trading, mercantile, distinctive political system, oligarchy, republic, central body= Great Council, Doge= elected for life, decentralized, diffused Florence= Medicis took over the city condottieri= mercenary bands, fighting for pay Most important thing about political situation in 1400s is that in their constant struggles b/t states for hegemony (domination), modern techniques of diplomacy developed that today the whole world uses Diplomacy-- permanent resident ambassadors Venice was the first to have ambassadors b/c of commercial ties Methods of espionage Elaborate cryptography Use of formal alliances Balance of power One state doesn't have complete hegemony over others, doesn't have power to politically control others Constant warfare in 1400s Two basic alliances: Naples and Venice; Milan and Florence Peace of Lodi-- two alliances make treaty, no war for 40 yrs b/t those 4 major states Wars of Italy= how balance of power gets upset Habsburg-Valois Wars-- dynastic wars Italy falls under foreign domination and will stay that way until at least the 1800s Some kind of foreign hegemony Venice was the only one that stayed independent until Napoleon Don't have own country until 1870

Peace of Utrecht (1713-1715)

Ends War of Spanish Succession (early 18th century) fighting stops in 1714 so many issues involved that they had to work through a lot and there were many separate treaties in the Netherlands French lose area around Hudson Bay in Canada, two maritime provinces (Nova-Scotia (used to be called Acadia) and Newfoundland) eventually expel French settlers there start of Britain grabbing a lot of Canada also rule that France and Spain can never have the same monarch Philip V stays pretty good king not kicked off so Spain recovers a little bit there is a Bourbon monarch rn ruling in Spain stripped away all Spanish European possessions Italian possessions Milan, Sardinia, Naples taken away from Spain ultimately the Southern part of Italy becomes ruled by the Austrian Habsburgs means Austria has a whole lot of interference w/ Italian affairs Sardinia was given to a state called Savoy had fought against Louis eventually known as the kingdom of Sardinia aka Piedmont most of Savoy today is in France Piedmont is at the foot of the Alps in Italy today Gibraltar at the foot of the Iberian peninsula right across from Morocco British took it still have it today one of the few crown colonies left today made a difference that Britain controlled that spot in later conflicts Austrians also get what had been the Spanish Netherlands now called Belgium after 1714, it is the Austrian Netherlands France has essentially been halted but still a strong power Spain has lost a lot of its power in Europe Britain comes out luckiest, w/ most Savoy on its way Brandenburg state in Germany asiento Britain wanted to be able to bring over slaves to Spanish colonies, Spanish New World Spain had to concede to allow British slave ships to bring over slaves to Spanish New World war not about idelogy, but about dynastic claims and also global/commercial war French settlers in what had been called Acadia eventually went to Louisiana and became the Cajuns

wars of the roses

England Mid to late 15th century Struggle over 2 different branches of a family-- Yorks vs. Lancasters, fought for several decades Weakened monarchy Fell into hands of nobles sometimes Royal family= Plantagenet Two branches: York and Lancaster House of York and house of Lancaster Yorkists and Lancastrians Divided English nobility Richard III= last Yorkist King Battle of Bosworth, 1485 Richard III loses crown and life to Henry VII/Henry Tudor (of the Lancaster party, not direct line) Tudors had very twisted claim to throne Become monarchs

diggers

England, mid-17th century branch of the Levellers wanted not just political equality, but social and economic equality believed in a type of communism believed that property should be held in common should not have private ownership, land was for everyone to share quickly suppressed pacifist tried to set up commune outside of London but quickly shot down

levellers

England, mid-17th century in 1640s, got nicknamed this b/c they wanted universal male suffrage Cromwell did not believe in this ideas eventually got over to the New World colonies pretty radical

gentry

England--> ppl who identified w/ the lifestyle of the nobility land-owning identified as warriors would often have coats of arms not nobles in England couldn't be in Parliament only in House of Commons, not House of Lords sir in England--> not hereditary, and just knighted, not a lord becoming more important as time went on

Seadogs

English Most famous= Sir Francis Drake First English captain to circumnavigate the globe Eventually knighted They raidedSpanish treasure ships To English, they were patriots fighting for the cause To the Spanish, they were heretics and thieves Very good at what they did Elizabeth denied she was doing any of these things for a while But finally commits that she was taking a cut

Burgundy

Estates on France's eastern border Shared common ancestry w/ kings of France (both were house of Valois) Original inheritance in SE, centered at Dijon First duke also got rich northern province of Flanders Aim of dukes was to unite their divided estates While England and France locked in war, it systematically grew Absorbed territory from both HRE and France Gained by marriage and force Second half of 15th century-- court of duke was the glittering jewel of Europe, heir of Italian Renaissance Wealthy and powerful, poised to achieve unification Conquest of Lorraine connected ducal estates into one long, unbroken string Power threatened neighbors in all directions Both France and HRE too weak to resist expansion Confederation of Swiss towns to SW was not Pooled resources to raise large armies Repelled them from lands and demolished their armies Charles the Bold, the last Valois duke, fell at the Battle of Nancy in 1477 France recovered ancestral territories, including this, through no effort of its own and was now secure on E border

vernacular

Every day language Arameic was this, while Hebrew was solely liturgical in the time of Jesus One verse in New Testament, always given in Arameic: Father, father, why hast thou forsaken me?-- most unsettling thing Jesus says

outward forms

Everything outside the Bible that you might use for worship Sculpture, music, art, relics, idols, etc Luther gets rid of a lot, but keeps music Any external physical thing you sue to worship Pictures, stained glass, making the sign of the cross, crucifix, cross, paintings, music

ship money

Extraparliamentary revenue, under Charles I of England 17th century Many house of commons members refused to pay this and it went to courts Every port city had to supply king w/ ships that were outfitted for war→ medieval tradition Only supposed to happen when there was a real threat to England Only coastal cities do it traditionally Now king says he will take money in lieu of ship Uses it to practically run gov Couldn't give real explanation over the crisis that was going on Required even non-coastal cities to pay it Not tradition but not forbidden

militant society

Feudalism A society geared for war The people who rule are the warrior nobles You owed knight service To the lord Warrior aristocracy Society that values the martial virtue

rise of money economy

Feudalism happened b/c monarch paid nobles w/ land Now monarchs could and preferred to pay officials w/ money Bureaucrats-- administrative position in gov, salaried civil servant Not given castles, land, private armies, power Paid money Drawn not from noble class but from bourgeoisie Wealthy commoners Much more loyal to king Knew power could be cut off immediately

portugal as an explorer

First country to explore Had its Golden Age in the time period we are now studying Creating the first overseas empire in history→ late 1400s Geographic location is ideal Seagoing society Hemmed in by Spain If they are going to do anything in the world they have to turn outwards Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460) Never sailed on these voyages Started a school→ more like a research center Academic center Called prince b/c he never got to be king Younger son Older brother became king, then his children Younger sons weren't always quite sure what to do with their lives Uses his money to send expeditions Funds them Starting in early 1400s Perfect example of 3 G's combined Particularly wants to find source of gold in West Africa Hoping to expand power of royal dynasty/family Member of a warrior religious order Took vow of celibacy Crusading mentality Looking for Kingdom of Prester John Lived long life by their standards Starts process, by the time he died the royal family took it and ran with it, had made it to about Senegal and were working their way down the coast of Africa Found some sources of gold, but really started trading slaves Some brought back to Portugal, but particularly to Madeira Islands and Americas Bartolomeu Dias (1487-1488) Got as far south as the tip of Africa Rounded the tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) Wanted to keep sailing and try to get to the Indies but his crew mutinied and they had to go back Gets back to Portugal and says that he thinks they can round the tip of Africa That's what they try to do Seagoing empire Took certain strategic ports in coastal areas where they could get provisions and all that (West and East coast of Africa) Vasco da Gama (1497-1499) Got to India and back Many of his men died→ diet was horrible, ppl got diseases/scurvy Got to West coast of India Said he was looking for Christians and spices They had brought stuff to trade→ wool and pewter and fabric But they really just gave him stuff out of the goodness of his heart Came back with a lot of cinnamon and ginger Worth 60x the cost of the voyage Many Indians didn't want to trade w/ them→ Portuguese mutilated them and sent them back as a warning to others Goa (1510-1961) Portuguese possession in India Where they were based Macau (1514-1999) Portuguese possession in China Smaller than Hong Kong, but like that for them First European country to build an overseas empire, and last ones to let go Stayed overwhelmingly agrarian in the Industrial Revolution Impoverished second-rate nation except for colonies Most of Africa got its independence in late 50s and 60s But Mozambique and Angola not until 1975 Pedro Cabral (1500) Trying to sail to India, but hit Brazil instead and claimed it

coins

Form of currency until late 1700s mainly metal copper for lower levels big influx of silver from the New World, particularly from Peru, Bolivia, and Mexico gold also but much more gold adds to inflation some you can now make a lot more coins, but not increase in goods produced made a lot more money, prices go up to reflect it when you produce more money, that isn't producing more products, just means you have more money not making ppl rich by increasing money supply screwing things up means you can't plan for the future gold and silver should've made Spain wealthy but has negative effect used not to build a healthy economy but for endless wars they were fighting really a curse all countries' governments could debase currency mixing base metals (lead, zinc, copper, tin) you can produce more money but inflates things way for a government to get its way out of debt paying ppl back w/ money that is worth less than it was when it came to the government

Navigation Acts

Form of economic warfare in both France and England trying to hurt the Dutch Dutch made money from all kinds of things, but above all from the carrying trade great middlemen of the world in the 17th century you could hire them to ship your products to some other country they are the third party flyboats= breakthrough in trade smaller, less maneuverable but could carry a lot more for cheaper not the fastest or the prettiest developed first for the grain trade in the Baltic could be made fairly cheaply, almost mass produced ship itself didn't cost that much fairly cheap to run didn't require a large crew labor-saving devices very efficient not very fast, but didn't need to be didn't have artillery on the ships (not at all armed) unlike most ships Baltic was pretty safe, but Atlantic and Pacific Dutch military ships would escort them in convoys not a huge innovation, but just smarter technique as opposed to technology b/c of that, everyone used them for decades carry things at cheaper shipping rate also very dependable had twice as many ships as France and England combined tiny country, but probably most economically powerful country in the world in the 17th century said that you can't have a third party trade person do it only the country importing or exporting ultimately kinda works in the 1700s, Dutch ceases to be such a huge power were increasingly replaced by France and Britain

Bank of Amsterdam (1609)

Founded in 1609 not state-owned but had connection w/ government said they stood behind deposits, guaranteed deposits up to a certain amount safer b/c gov ensured deposits if bank collapses, you won't lose everything waaaaaay ahead of everybody else even the Spanish would put their money in this b/c you got a good interest rate and it was considered safe

parlement

France Courts, several of them (regional) There was a central one→ Parlement du Paris Ppl who sit on them are nobles, seats are hereditary Try to act like legislatures Nobles would try at times to use them to obstruct any kind of centralizing legislation At a point they were claiming that they had the right to register (ok) the law, so the monarchy could not tax them Trying to argue that they had the authority to review and strike down the changes

Louis XI

France King most associated w/ consolidation of France Inherited estate exhausted by warfare and civic strife Vastly extended territory and subdued nobility Main objective= preserve estate Failure to obtain Burgundian Low Countries for France after death of Charles the Bold in 1477 (marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maximilian I was one of the great turning points in Euro history) Ruled mid to late 15th century Charles VII's son Nicknamed 'the spider' Ruled during time of English Wars of Roses, sometimes tangentially involved Eccentric-- wore old clothes and a beaten up felt hat Web of informers in noble households-- didn't trust them very much Accused of only hiring advisors from non-noble or humble backgrounds Tricky Got lucky Able to grab some parts of W Burgundy Very similar to Henry VII- not beloved but respected and feared Kept nobles in line Made smart marriages His son, Charles VIII takes over

Low Countries

France under Louis XIV a small but critical area very wealthy strategically just south of the Dutch Republic next to England felt he had legitimate claims to it trying to grab it generally won wars for territory that had been part of the Roman Empire eventually took a coalition of almost everyone in Europe against them to win

commerce

France under Louis XIV starting to have a global economy cotton fabric, tea, coffee two horrible things come with it slavery revives, becomes stronger sugar tobacco and rice in America wars fought increasingly not about religious or dynasty now really about commerce

Jean Bodin (1576)

French, Late 16th century Theory of absolutism Wrote a book called the Six Books of the Commonwealth Defends absolute monarchy Argument is similar to what James VI said They can't pick and choose when to be loyal to the king, even if it was a bad king St Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) Tension w/ Huguenots Fear of the mob During his time, both Catholics and Protestants were often saying that they didn't have to obey a king if he was a heretic Ultimate loyalty was to God, so didn't have to obey ppl who had opposite religions He was Catholic Said you cannot appeal to a higher loyalty and say God is more important than the king But the practical result was anarchy, chaos, decades of horrible civil war tearing France apart Argument based on the politique perspective You have to put your religious views aside to avoid endless civil war You can disobey and take your punishment, but cannot overthrow

thomas more

From England Late 15th to early 16th century Aka Sir Painting of him by Hans Holbein Got canonized in 1935-- Saint Was eventually chancellor of England for a while 'A man for all seasons'-- name of a play about him Family man, thought about becoming a monk, wordly jobs Second most important Northern Renaissance figure Wrote Utopia (1516), year before Luther, one of the greatest books in European history Describes a world in which Christian values reigned true-- also attainable, similar to the world in which they lived, just ideal Coined the word-- in Greek it means "no place" Not a perfect place-- much better than Europe Satire, fantasy-- some people thought it was literal and real, that there was an island in the Atlantic that existed Doesn't mean he thought everyone in Europe should live like this Conditions: Worked 6 hours per day-- leaves time for intellectualism Social equality Everyone has roughly same amount of wealth Everyone wears same kind of clothes Everyone pulling own weight Some crime, conflicts, but settled quickly-- criminals were rehabilitated (punished by having to wear heavy gold jewelry) Gold used to make chamber pots Iron was the most precious metal in Utopia-- it was practical There is no Christianity in Utopia, even though More was a devout Christian and ended up dying for the Catholic faith More would not say that it is a perfect world They figured out a natural religion where they worshipped one supreme being Utopia has much more just, compassionate society than in europe-- Europe should be doing much better-- Utopia has reason, Europe has revelation (Christianity, so should be better off) Applying what you have-- scholarship, etc. Criticized the church of his day a great deal-- corruption of monks Executed by Henry VIII for his religion Didn't believe in the split of the church-- says Henry cannot divorce Catherine of Aragon, Henry demanded that More support him, More would not speak out against it or in favor of it More tried for treason to the king and executed in 1535 Last words: I die the king's good servant, but God's first Patron saint of scholars-- strictly speaking patron saint of lawyers, 'only honest man in the English government', deemed patron saint of politicians Most famous person who resisted Henry VIII's split w/ the church Most important political office in England other than the king: chancellor Late middle ages through 1600s Made chancellor in 1529-- resigns in 1532 b/c can't support split w/ church and divorce First layman to be chancellor Chain w/ Tudor Rose hanging from it was the sign of office When beheaded, they stuck his head on Tower Bridge Margaret, his favorite child, took it down and buried it, even though it put her at great risk

sandro botticelli

From Florence Mid 15th to early 16th century Late early Renaissance Focus increasingly on man and woman Secularism Classical themes Sensitive portraits Bright colors Set him apart from line of Florentine painters with whom he studied Paintings have a dreamlike quality Birth of Venus Purely pagan theme Platonic associations Birth of idea of beauty in the mind of the ancient Greeks Christian nude Demure, modest Allegory of Spring Dark background, light people Read from right to left Venus depicted like Virgin Mary Goddess of love, carnal, sensual, erotic Vs. Mary, epitome of female virtue, chastity, virginity Renaissance combining Christianity and classical antiquity Or reconciling them Showing they aren't incompatible Venus depicted as kind of vain A bit radical about subject matter Venus and Mars Love conquering war in this painting Earth is between Venus and Mars

leon battista alberti

From Genoa Early to mid 15th century Florentine Wrote a work called On the Family Outstanding architect of the period Treatise On Architecture remained the most influential work on the subject until the 18th century Architect-- incorporated geometric shapes into his works Consecrated geometric principles laid down by Brunelleschi and infused them with humanist spirit Truly a Renaissance man Stressed that public service was ultimately what knowledge should be applied to Made most significant contributions in civic architecture "Man is born in order to be useful to man" Extolled civic virtues Valued individuality but said you should apply it to the group

friars

From Latin word frater (brother) Any person who is part of a mendicant order Move around, don't take vow of stability Usually worked out in the world→ teachers, working w/ poor, working as missionaries Bartolome de las Casas= great Dominican friar

hidalgos

Gentry in Spain All conquistadors were from this class

Hans Holbein

German painter Lived in first half of 1500s Most famous paintings done in England, of Henry VIII, some of his wives, nobles in court

Sweden

Gets replaced mainly by Russia as an Eastern European powerhouse in 1700s monarchy also had to deal w/ powerful nobles representative body= the Rad

the elect

God chooses these people, predestination, certain souls that he gives the gift of faith to, who then accept the gift of salvation and are saved Luther Salvation by grace alone

ecclesiastical gov

God controls everything, don't separate God from politics, holy commonwealth, predestination flows from that Presbyterian-- government by elders Ordained type of government Deacons, doctors, elders, pastors pastors= closest to Catholic priest, gave sermons, administered sacraments, but you would elect him-- power flows from the people upward elders= elected, Church is governed w/ the pastor and elders together in a session/consistory, deal w/ faith side of the church deacons= deal w/ wordly/earthly side of the Church, financial, etc, also elected doctors= theologians who can teach ppl to become pastors, elders, etc Provided a kind of structure to the church that Lutheranism didn't Calvinists could exist in a country where they were the minority, whereas Lutherans could not

Great Chain of Being

God= at the top natural order created by God above all hierarchy God= superior to everything else God first angelic hierarchy= second creatures superior in being untologically superior even hierarchy within angels orders of angels lowest order= angel then archangel Gabriel Michael Mont Saint Michel Raphael el in Hebrew means God two highest cherubim--> represent God's wisdom seraphim--> represent God's love then humans males superior to females Thomas Aquinas referred to the woman as the 'incomplete man' b/c women= short, don't grow beards, voices don't change social classes then animals even hierarchy of jewels, minerals, rocks

fiscal crisis

Gov economic policy Monetary policy Making of money, money supply, how much do you print Fiscal policy About revenue and spending Money coming in and money going out Revenues (taxation= most important) Gov spending Means you are spending more than you are taking in (in the red) Expansion of gov activities Includes overseas expansion 1600s→ virtually every gov in Europe was trying to do more than other govs had done in the past Poor distribution of wealth All centralized in top percentages of society, but these ppl were tax exempt Fiscal immunities Tax exemption Wealth is largely in the hands of an upper class that is largely landed wealth (nobles, aristocracy, gentry) They were frequently exempt→ unfair and stupid Gov can't tap into the wealth of their own country if they are exempting the ppl who hold the wealth Paying taxes= considered demeaning to nobles, common Part of the point of being a noble was having this Gov often sold tax exemptions that were hereditary Often wealthy bourgeois ppl or town merchants who had enough money would do that Permanent Short-term thinking to a long-term disaster Needed money now Also sold titles of offices Happened a lot, particularly in France Gov position gave them a type of stipend, they were tax exempt too Quick fix, fairly substantial amount of cash that rich person would give gov the cash Revenues never seemed to be enough, particularly b/c they were at war so much Europe almost continually at war War expenses Nature of taxation Property tax Did that some in Europe, but not most important taxation Consumption One of the two main things they taxed French taille tax on salt, olive oil, wine, meat Aka sales tax Regressive Takes up a lesser percentage of a higher income than a lower income Tax that falls heavier on poor than it does on rich Poll tax You pay a tax on your head→ everyone kicking in same amount Often very unpopular→ biggest revolt in English history= in part sparked by an attempt to impose a poll tax VAT (value added tax), consumption tax, but added at each stage of production Tax on trade Customs duties You can tax imports and exports Somewhat easier for earlier forms of gov to impose and collect Income tax Not done in this time period b/c this could be progressive (worse for richer ppl) Taxing wealthy @ higher percentage Vs flat rate (everyone pays 10%) Fact that they relied on consumption taxes and mercantile taxes meant that they didn't have the money coming in that they should have

presbyterian

Government by elders Calvin thought this was the one ordained structure of government Ecclesiastical government pastors= closest to Catholic priest, gave sermons, administered sacraments, but you would elect him-- power flows from the people upward elders= elected, Church is governed w/ the pastor and the elders together in a session/consistory, deal w/ the faith side of the church deacons= deal w/ the worldly/earthly side of the Church, financial, etc, also elected doctors= theologians who can teach ppl to become pastors, elders, etc Provided a kind of structure to the church that Lutheranism didn't Allowed Calvinists to exist in a country where they were the minority, while Lutherans could not

Guilds

Government-sponsored entity that would create a monopoly on a product and then regulate that product Protected craftsmen and prices Association of various businessmen Quality-control Two basic types: Merchant Craft Both involved in city life (not agricultural) Levels in a trade: apprentice, journeyman, master Vast majority of people in a town were not in a guild-- peasants, day laborers, apprentices, journeymen Provided a sense of quality and deliberately damped down competition They had a set price that you could charge for different goods Regulated prices and wages Provided 'social security' Would help families if the worker died early Mediating body b/t king at the top and individual people Feature of a civic society

Reconquista

Great formative event in Spanish history in terms of shaping Spanish soul 700s-1492 Christian counter-attack to Berbers Small Christian kingdoms up in North gradually pushed southward One of the kingdoms developed into what became Portugal Moorish kingdom in far South of Spain-- Granada Christian kingdoms defined as fighting Muslims, infidels, or non-believers→ Holy War/Crusade (officially designated a Crusade by the Pope) Spain and Portugal became famous for being extremely Catholic Hardly any 'defected' to Protestantism when Reformation came around Long history of fighting non-Europeans Was famous for diversity of religion for a long time-- Jews, Muslims, Moors, Christians Muslim rulers in Spain= very tolerant (they were Muslim but many subjects were not) Largest Jewish pop in Europe Many muslim influences today Combined religion w/ war Spanish and Portuguese carried on crusading mentality after it disappeared in rest of Europe Overseas-- still waging Reconquista, fighting a crusade, against other non-believers Santiago Saint James (apostle James, one of 12 original disciples) Patron saint of Spain Turned him into militant warrior saint (even though he wasn't), leading Spanish into battle War cry Nicknamed 'muslim-killer' Spanish soldiers claimed they could see him in the sky Paintings depicted him fighting Muslims mentality= very important in them going overseas and resisting Reformation Center of Counter-Reformation Finishes under Ferdinand and Isabella

Domenikos Theotokopolous/El Greco (d. 1614)

Greek, from Crete Part of Spanish golden age in late 16th early 17th century Famous artist Mixed name of Spanish and Italian Good example of late Renaissance/Mannerism (c. 1530-1600) Very long period when Renaissance style becomes mannered More artificial, more extreme Not like High renaissance Greek, Byzantine influence Mysterious inner bluish white light Very distinctive style Backgrounds not like in High Renaissance

Henry VIII

Henry VII's son Ruled early to mid 16th century Had more power than any king before or after him As a result of dispute with papacy over divorce from Catherine of Aragon and marriage to Anne Boleyn, confiscated the enormous wealth of the Catholic Church, and with one stroke solved the crown's monetary problems Chief minister= Thomas Cromwell Accelerated process of centralizing gov that had begun under Edward IV Saw importance of Parliament as a legislative body Screwed up a lot of what his father did Blew surplus Got into a lot of wars Nobles under thumb of king by then Inherited a situation where English parliament had become pretty important in English system But didn't call Parliament if he could get away with it Tendency for new monarchs to employ bourgeois/non-nobles Morton's Fork Two opposite decisions but come out same way If you didn't live extravagantly he would assume you had money saved If you lived extravagantly he would assume you had money to spend

Electors

Holy Roman Emperor was elected by 7 ppl 1 elector was King of Bohemia Count Palatine (Prince of the Palatinate) 3 of the ecclesiastical principalities Mainz printing press Trier Marx from here (secular Jew) Cologne Brandenburg--> Margrave of Brandenburg got some territory out of the war b/c the prince fought on the Protestant side part of the kingdom of Prussia that will later unite Germany capital= Berlin didn't look like it no big cities no frontiers no good soil devastated by war gets bigger and bigger, gets many other states to unite under their domination Duke of Saxony Catholics get 3 archbishops and Bohemia (as long as the Habsburgs have it) Brandenburg, Saxony, and Palatinate are Protestant if Bohemia got into Protestant control, then Protestants would have a majority... this doesn't happen though Peace of Westphalia adds an elector--> Prince of Bavaria

"L'etat c'est moi"

I am the state Quote from Louis XIV

Edward VI

Ruled 1547-1553/mid 16th century Raised as a Protestant Precocious Loved theology, loved going to sermons In his reign that the central doctrine and devotional changes were made Chantries and masses for dead abolished Church service conducted in English, first two English prayer books created Mass reinterpreted along Zwinglian lines and became the Lord's Supper, the altar became the communion table, and the priest became the minister Preaching became the center of the church service Concern over education of learned ministers resulted in commissions to examine and reform the clergy If he had lived longer, church of england would've become almost Calvinist Dies of tuberculosis at age 16 Prince and the Pauper by Mark Twain Beggar kid gets inside palace (escaping the police), runs into Prince Edward, they look almost exactly alike Switched roles, one became poor, other became prince Completely fiction Advisers had a reforming bent to them Intellectual Would have been a good king Designated by Henry as his heir (over his older daughters)

lord of misrule

In Carnival someone elected the king for the day electing an outsider who gets to make the rules for the day able to grant noble titles for the day/week had immunity, could kick anyone's ass, even nobles would sometimes wear lots of sausages hanging from his suit

penance

In order to get over your sins, you need to go to confession and do this contrition= regret, showing you feel bad about it Acts you do to show you are contrite, the priest tells you what to do

confession

In order to get over your sins, you need to go to this and do penance Contrition-- regret, showing you feel bad about it Penance-- acts you do to show you are contrite, the priest tells you what to do

militia

In petition of right (late 17th century) Right of protestants to bear arms Wanted to have this b/c no standing army

massacre of the innocents

In the Bible when Herod tries to find Jesus but kills all first-born sons, treating babies as martyrs

Alsace and Lorraine

In the HRE, given to France in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 both pretty wealthy, on the border of French and German speaking worlds Joan of Arc= from Lorraine, symbol= cross of Lorraine Lorraine was more French Alsace= more east, more German, capital= Strasbourg treaty was so complicated that it wasn't quite clear what the French had gotten at least in the eyes of the emperor so had to fight some wars to ensure they gained these things

Livonia

It is Latvia port= Riga a port on the Baltic, capital of Latvia now great victory for Sweden and Gustavus Adolphus that he took this port Sweden turns the Baltic into a Swedish lake for a while

cardinal mazarin

Italian Helped Louis XIV during his rule (advised), also important during regency Also a cardinal, picked by Richelieu, to carry on his work Brilliant man, same absolutist views as Richelieu

Ireland in late 17th century

James II landed in Ireland in 1690 knowing that the Irish would be more likely to support him b/c native Irish were overwhelmingly Catholic Battle of the Boyne (July 12, 1960) William III brings army over to Ireland fights them in Ireland means James will not make a comeback-- has to flee back to France Protestants celebrate this to this day

paternalism

James Vi's view on absolutism is based on this Anologues of father w/ Great Chain of Being Hint of nepotism Trying to justify bad deeds→ you care for ppl, but that doesn't mean they have a right to control themselves You have a fatherly/motherly/paternal attitude towards someone You are supposed to love and take care of someone, you would die for them Also meaning you don't know your own best interest father/mother knows best

dutch trade w/ Japan

Japan eventually kicked out all Euros except the Dutch b/c other Euros were a lot of time trying to convert Japanese ppl b/c Japanese ppl needed to believe that the emperor was a god kept Dutch b/c they weren't interested in conversion, but only money even so only allowed to trade at Nagasaki

papal conclave

Just the cardinals, when ppl vote for the Pope

Richard III

Last Yorkist king Loses crown and life in 1485 at Battle of Bosworth to Henry VIII/Henry Tudor (of the Lancaster party, not direct line)

Vladimir of Kiev

Late 10th century Prince Patriarch of the Russian orthodox church In trade w/ Byzantium Leading Russian leader at the time No Russia-- just a combination of principalities Ruled over Kiev-- dominant principality at that point (now capital of Ukraine) 900s- Byzantine empire= glorious Thought they needed to join rest of Europe and have advanced religion, some of the only pagans left Sent emissaries who brought back all different religions Looked at Islam, Catholicism, Judaism, Orthodoxy Emissaries who went to Constantinople and went into Hagia Sophia said it transported them, didn't know if they were on earth or in heaven So chose Orthodoxy He was baptized You get the written alphabet from it-- Byzantines were using Greek alphabet 2 Byzantine scholars came up w/ the Cyrillic alphabet Modified Greek alphabet Became alphabet for Slavic Orthodox people Byzantine empire, like late Roman Empire, had an absolutist emperor Russia adopted this too Eventually, you have a Russian ruler by early 1500s claiming to be heir of Byzantines Orthodoxy doesn't have one churchman who is head of the rest

Donatello

Late 14th century to mid-15th century From Florence Translated classical styles of sculpture into more naturalistic forms technique= evident in long flowing robes that distinguished most of his works Led revival of equestrian statue Use of linear perspective, a technique applying principles of geometry to create illusion of depth and dimension on a flat surface Probably most famous work = David Bronze Looks like Mercury/Hermes Standing over head of Goliath Biblical figure made to look like mythological figure Free-standing sculpture You can walk all the way around it Artistic impact is different Elevating sculpture to another level of not just being part of a building Sculpture as being the sole and primary object of your focus Early Renaissance Probably the sculpture equivalent of Masaccio Elements of naturalism Brings back nude

leonardo bruni

Late 14th early 15th century From Arezzo, Italy Knew Greek Reputed to be the greatest Greek scholar of his day Translated Plato and Aristotle Did much to advance mastery of classical Greek and foster ideas of Plato in late 1400s Coming from the West Foremost example of this Promoted spreading of learning among intellectuals Translated several works, particularly Plato b/c most of his works had been lost for the Middle Ages Also historian, wrote history of the Florentine people (though he wasn't a native) Believe the word humanist starts w/ him Invents tripartite divisions of history- ancient, medieval, and modern

Prince Henry the Navigator (1394-1460)

Late 14th to mid 15th century Portuguese Never sailed on voyages Started a school→ more like a research/academic center Called prince b/c he never got to be king Younger son, older brother became king then his children If you are a younger son, you aren't quite sure what to do w/ your life Many become playboys, but not him Uses his money to send expeditions Funds them, starting in early 1400s Perfect example of 3 G's combined Particularly wants to find source of gold in West Africa Hoping to expand power of his royal dynasty/family Member of a warrior religious order Took a vow of celibacy Crusading mentality Looking for Kingdom of Prester John Lived a long life by their standards Saint Vincent= patron saint of Lisbon (capital) Starts process Portuguese royal fam takes it and runs with it By the time he died the Portuguese had made it to about Senegal and were working their way down the coast of Africa Found some sources of gold, but really started trading slaves Some brought back to Portugal, but particularly to Madeira Islands and Americas

Cosimo de Medici

Late 14th to mid 15th century Starts becoming the boss of Florence, although never holding office Was a banker, started using some of that wealth to play the game of politics Bailed Florence city government out of bankruptcy Bribed people Patrons of many people, quid pro quo, influence peddling

Filippo Brunelleschi

Late 14th to mid-15th century From Florence Architect, sculptor, engineer, painter Foreshortening-- making things smaller that are supposed to be further away Very important in painting, perspective Credited with having been the first Renaissance artist to have understood and made use of perspective Architecture was important Decisively challenged principles of Gothic architecture by recombining its basic elements with those of classical structure Less an innovation than a radical synthesis of old and new Based designs on geometric principles-- reintroduced planes and spheres as dominant motifs Looking more like ancient Roman buildings Doric vs. Ionic vs. Corinthian columns Starts reviving those orders Florence cathedral geometry Books Duomo in Florence Cathedral-- where bishop has his HQ/presides Gothic elements, but largely a Renaissance church Use of geometry and proportions Most famous part= dome Holds a lot of weight seemingly miraculously Roman dome but stretched out to make it look almost like a Gothic arch Combination of Gothic and classical antiquity, creates a new thing

Baldassare Castiglione

Late 15th and early 16th century, from Casatico Italy Wrote The Courtier Book about how to be a nobleman-- noble class, aristocratic Guidebook-- handbook of etiquette Expressing Renaissance view of education, embodiment of what we call the Renaissance Man Says nobility isn't about your bloodlines If you are the son of a wealthy merchant, you don't have a noble title, but if you can do the things in the book you can turn yourself into an elegant person-- what nobility truly consists of Moving towards the modern ideal that nobility is about character rather than bloodline Meritocracy-- ideally, the ruling class shouldn't be hereditary noble privilege, aristocracy, or wealthy people, but that people of merit should be able to rise to the top and govern Makes literacy be a prerequisite to nobility Up until 1500s, nobles needed to possess wealth, marshall virtues, political diplomacy/administrative skill/leadership Renaissance men were above all warriors but they also had to have civic virtues Says loyalty, sense of honor, and warrior virtues still very important Added literacy and the 'finer things in life' Best-selller-- now had publishing and movable type, translated into different languages Not a profound brilliant work- just popularizing ideas that were already out there (wrote in a popular vain) He wasn't noble (irony) audience= people who are well-to-do but socially insecure (not nobles) Wealth was mercantile or banking Trying to reassure them that if they polish themselves, they can make it

niccolo machiavelli

Late 15th to early 16th century From Florence Wrote The Prince (1513) A book about how to gain power and keep it Believed Italian people needed to be free from foreign control and needed a strong ruler to unite and save Italy Italian patriotism Being both the fox and the lion (overly fierce and brave, and sly, subtle, intelligent) Doing what you have to do-- the ends justify the means Laid foundation for realistic 16th century ruler Most important and controversial Renaissance work Purely secular in content and philosophy Separated all ethical consideration from analysis Fame and virtu Part of Florentine government Devoutly believed in republics Diplomat, secreatary Saw inner workings of Florentine local governments and how relations were b/t Florence and the outside world Also wrote long commentary on Livy's history of Rome Raison d'etat, realpolitik Ideas directly applied to warfare

Raphael

Late 15th to early 16th century High Renaissance From Urbino Die greatest work in city that was starting to become real cultural center-- Rome Shift from Florence to Rome happening by 1500 Partly b/c money was in Rome (Pope) Not quite the Renaissance man Da Vinci was Famous for portraits, but also group scenes where there are a lot of figures but it all seems balanced and uncrowded Woman holding baby unicorn Supposedly impossible for people to capture Only possible by female virgin Portrait of Castiglione Very famous Not long life Portrait of Pope Leo X Trying to depict him accurately Arrogant Doesn't look compassionate, spiritual, otherworldly Kind of fleshy Into money Taste in art, not great spiritual leader Corruption Pope in 1517 (Martin Luther and Renaissance) Depicts humans at their best-- serene, in control, dignified School of Athens/Philosophy In the Vatican (one of 4 murals) Plato and Aristotle in the middle (Plato on left, Aristotle on the right), Plato= Aristotle's teacher Plato pointing up, more focused on supernatural Aristotle reaching out, more focused on natural world

Wars of Italy

Late 15th to early 16th century How balance of power gets upset Naples, Florence, and Papal States gang up on Milan (thought it was getting too strong-- strongest military state) Milan asked France for help King of France= Charles VIII Member of Valois dynasty/family He had ambitions in Italy-- thought he had a blood claim to Kingdom of Naples Army of French cavalry and Swiss mercenaries invaded Italian peninsula in 1494, swept all before them w/ MIlanese support Very quickly starts controlling Florence, then Naples, then papal states Florence forced to surrender Pisa, Medici overthrown, French sovereignty Papal states occupied Conquered Naples w/o engaging w/ Italians in a single significant battle Then claimed he had a blood claim to Milan Turned out to be a disaster for everyone in Italy Quickly becomes an international conflict Italians start losing control of the situation Italy was now a battleground in what became total European war for dynastic supremacy Machiavelli kept saying Italy needed a type of unity Citizen army over mercenary army b/c mercenaries can turn on you Venice and the Pope turned to Holy Roman Emperor (Habsburgs) and Ferdinand of Aragon Final blow to Italian hegemony= sack of Rome in 1527 Certain amount of peace comes for Italy in 1529, comes with domination by foreigners

Habsburg-Valois Wars

Late 15th to mid 16th century Go on after Wars of Italy Dynastic wars between royal families Valois family ruling most of what we call France, trying to assert claims well beyond Habsburgs become very international family, single most important royal family in Europe Fighting over who will dominate Italy Charles VIII of France starts claiming control States like Venice and Pope ask Habsburgs to come in Fight over control of low countries, Burgundy, area on Pyrenees as well Not just about Italy, not b/t two kingdoms-- families at war Italy falls under foreign domination and will stay that way until at least the 1800s

thomas cranmer

Late 15th to mid 16th century Henry had made him Archbishop of Canterbury Granted annulment so he could marry Anne Boleyn Tried to push for a little more reform English translation of Bible Got rid of some of the ritual things Church doesn't become clearly Protestant until Henry dies Writes Book of Common Prayer under Edward VI Liturgy The Catholic mass liturgical book translated into beautiful English Also changed in certain ways to get rid of the distinctly Roman Catholic parts of it Most famous victim of Bloody Mary Burned at the stake for opposing the return to Rome Not naturally heroic, scholar, didn't want to die Signed a recantation at one point, but then went back on it One of the Oxford martyrs Protestant martyr Other bishops killed in this way

Michelangelo

Late 15th to mid 16th century Long life From Florence, from family of standing in society, gained apprenticeship despite father's opposition Known as Divine Artistic achievements of Renaissance culminated in creative outpourings of him Independent, hard to get along w/ Clearly a genius Greatest works are almost all religious But very much a humanist-- glory of man Sistine Chapel Painted ceiling in early 16th century Nudes-- people resisted Commissioned by Pope Julius II Few years before Reformation Eventually fled, got disgusted w/ work, said he would do it if he could paint Genesis Most famous panel= Animation of Adam Not quite touching Shows gap b/t human and divine Getting a soul Barrel vault Had to compensate for curvature-- make it look like it's on a flat surface even though it's curved East End Shows last judgement Represents his despair Momento mori Reminder of death Like he is warning the Pope Pieta End of 15th century Breaks through First attempt at sculpting religious art Depiction of Mary holding dead body of Jesus in her lap When people saw it they started calling him the Divine Michelangelo Infinite sadness-- Mary's look of resignation Very skillfully carved 2 things realistically wrong: Mary's age But Michelangelo says virtue keeps you young Relative size Mary is too big Gives more of a sense of mother and child Shows symbolism of everything moving to Rome-- he moved there and this is where a lot of his greatest works were produced Medici are very important art patrons and got from him Considered himself first and foremost a sculptor Especially as a young man Architect Pretty major figure in Italian literature (wrote some fairly important poetry) w/ Da Vinci in being a Renaissance Man David 17 feet tall Huge block of marble, defeated many other artists Completes union between classical and Renaissance styles Nude Looks like Apollo David represents underdog Strength and intelligence Both head and hands are a little too large-- compensating for trick of the eye Moses Horns on head-- mistranslated Beard, jacked, holding 2 tablets, angry Just got back from face-to-face encounter w/ God on Mount Sinai Angry b/c people were worshipping idol Gods Turbulent, unhappy life Designed much of St. Peter's Took so long that it is partly Renaissance and partly Baroque Crowning achievement Designed dome Harmony of his design creates sense of building thrusting upward like Gothic cathedral of old Similar to Capital building in Washington St. Paul's Cathedral Modelled off of Florentine Dumo/cathedral by Brunelleschi Tu es petrus On the inside

joanna the crazy

Late 15th to mid 16th century Married Philip the Fair (Habsburg) Nervous breakdowns from time to time Eventually declared by father and son to be mentally incompetent, so she couldn't rule Maybe she was framed-- Ferdinand wanted to rule Castile but it was going to her She loved Philip, but he was eventually unfaithful to her Had hysterical reaction when he died-- would not let them bury his coffin, traveled around with it Put away in mental rest home as young adult Lives a long time Should've been queen of Castile Instead, Philip did take over in a way, even though Ferdinand was kind of also there child= Charles V

Theory of absolutism

Late 16th century James VI (1598) Becomes king of Scotland as a toddler when mother is driven off to England Before he became king of England, wrote a book (5 years before he took the English throne) that came out in 1598 Called the True Law of Free Monarchies Argues that a king has to be free to do whatever he needs to do To have any sort of shackles that would keep it from being a free monarchy would impede what a king is supposed to be doing View based on paternalism (Great Chain of Being) Trying to justify bad deeds→ you care for ppl, but that doesn't mean they have a right to control themselves You have a fatherly/motherly/parental attitude towards someone You are supposed to love and take care of someone, you would die for them Also meaning you don't know your own best interest Jean Bodin (1576) Late 16th century Wrote a book called the Six Books of the Commonwealth Defends absolute monarchy Argument is similar to what James VI said They can't pick and choose when to be loyal to the king, even if it was a bad king St Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572) Tension w/ Huguenots Fear of the mob During his time, both Catholics and Protestants were often saying that they didn't have to obey a king if he was a heretic Ultimate loyalty was to God, so didn't have to obey ppl who had opposite religions He was Catholic Said you cannot appeal to a higher loyalty and say God is more important than the king But the practical result was anarchy, chaos, decades of horrible civil war tearing France apart Argument based on the politique perspective You have to put your religious views aside to avoid endless civil war You can disobey and take your punishment, but cannot overthrow

tyrannicide

Late 16th century Juan de Mariana (1598) Theory of resistance Said anyone has a right to kill a tyrant regicide/assassination If a king is a tyrant, anyone had right to kill him A lot of ppl didn't agree w/ him

Henry III (1574-1589)

Late 16th century Third son of Henry II and Catherine de Medici, final Valois king Cross-dresser Line ends w/ him Catherine de Medici lives almost as long as he does Sometimes leaned against Catholic side (Duke of Guise) toward Henry of Navarre United against Henry Duke of Guise Assassinated in mid-1589 Hardcore Catholics want revenge, are infuriated Young Dominican (laybrother→ not ordained) managed to get inside the entourage of the king Said he had information that he needed to know Stabbed him to death in the tent

Edict of Nantes (1598)

Late 16th century France Under Henry IV Royal proclamation w/ the force of law 3 main components: Huguenots will now be tolerated (to a certain extent) They are now allowed to serve in gov jobs He appointed Huguenots to some of his top positions Not taxed any differently Not treated differently in court Could have freedom of worship, but only in certain towns Any city that had a bishop could not have a Protestant Church (too disrespectful to Catholics) Huguenots given control of towns where they had churches Control of towns were in the hands of local Protestant councils State w/in a state Louis XIII gets rid of them (w/ advisor Cardinal Richelieu) b/c Protestants don't feel secure, want to have towns they can flee to be safe Lack of trust Very important The first attempt in Europe to have anything like what we consider to be religious toleration Peace of Augsburg was a type of freedom of religion but not really This was different French used to say un roi, une foi, une loi Now moving away from that Pretty new radical thing Only lasted about 70 years→ revoked in 1685, Louis XIV declared he didn't want to have two religions

Catholic League (1576)

Late 16th century France War of the 3 Henry's Started by Henry Duke of Guise Sometimes also called Holy League Diff ppl including clergy Anyone who was sworn to prevent a Protestant from ever becoming King of France Instrument for Duke of Guise to extend own dynastic claims A whole lot of ppl joined Very strong, particularly in Paris Not all Catholics were in this group Marches to show their strength

War of the 3 Henry's (1574-1598)

Late 16th century France b/t Henry III, Henry Duke of Guise (d. 1588) and Henry of Navarre Henry III sometimes leaned against Catholic side (Duke of Guise) toward Henry of Navarre Henry of Navarre becomes Henry IV (1589-1610) First king of Bourbon dynasty, Huguenot Catholic League (1576) Started by Henry Duke of Guise Anyone who was sworn to prevent a Protestant from ever becoming King of France Instrument for Duke of Guise to extend own dynastic claims Very strong, particularly in France King himself wasn't even able to live in Paris Late 1570s, 1580s→ no one was controlling France Politiques A lot of Catholics, including Catherine de Medici Willing to accept a Protestant King in order for peace, couldn't keep living in anarchy Henry III and Henry of Navarre unite against Henry Duke of Guise→ purely for political reasons Guise= much more powerful than Navarre, although Henry III remained a good Catholic until he died Henry III invited Henry of Guise to a chateau to talk and negotiate Henry of Guise and brother Louis came, are ambushed in chateau Henry of Guise put up a big fight He and his brother were stabbed to death→ treacherous assassination Late 1588 January 1589→ Catherine de Medici dies naturally, of old age Has been trying to hold France together for so long mid-1589→ Henry III is assassinated Hardcore Catholics want revenge, are infuriated Young Dominican (laybrother→ not ordained) managed to get inside entourage of the king Said he had info that Henry III needed to know Got into tent, pulls out a knife and stabs Henry III to death Then guards come in and kill him too 1589→ Henry of Navarre declares he is king Fight keeps going on b/c Catholics wouldn't accept him Put God above bloodlines 1593→ Henry of Navarre tells everyone he is Catholic and ppl accept him Says he is going back into the Catholic Church "Paris is well worth a mass" Is then accepted by the majority of Catholics A lot of his Huguenot supporters were furious Toleration of peace born of exhaustion Catholics don't suddenly like Protestants, nor vice versa Almost resignation, we just can't do this anymore, can't eradicate other side Most ppl said as long as he acts Catholic, they will accept it Some of the fighting continued even after this, but most supporters of the Catholic League give it up Crowned in 1594

Spanish Armada (1588)

Late 16th century, under King PHilip II of Spain Said they had had enough of Elizabeth (who had helped the rebels in the Netherlands), said she= heretic, had committed regicide (killing Mary, Queen of Scots) plan= the fleet would sail into English Channel but pick up an army on the east side of the Netherlands Make landing somewhere on the coast of England Felt if they got on land they would win England didn't have a standing army, Spain had best army in the world English ships= merchant ships, could move more, guns were reloadable and could be fired faster Spanish ships= cumbersome Fleet sometimes called the invinciple armada Spanish did not have great naval tradition→ land pwr, although they had overseas empire England= naval power, fighting in home water English guns had longer range and could be fired faster English ships disrupted and sank some Spanish ships Fire ships→ took old decrepit ships, filled them w/ flammables, floated them towards Spanish ships at night when they were very close together Some ships sank or caught on fire, formations messed up storm→ blew Spanish fleet up into North Sea, could only try to work around top of England and past ireland and try to get back to Spain Ships kept getting blown into land and sunk Called the storm the Protestant wind Failure If the Armada succeeded then England would've had a Catholic on the throne, Lowlands revolt would've been crushed, Scotland would've gone Catholic Would've been huge victory for counter-Reformation Idea that England faced the strongest country on earth and won→ influence in arts, literature, etc

Duke of Buckingham (1592-1628)

Late 16th to early 17th century Possibly the lover of the king Not the main policy-making advisor Assassinated by a disgruntled office-seeker, for a personal particular reason Favorite to James I (1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1648) (George Villiers)--> went from being son of gentryman to duke (highest title) in 7 years Meteoric rise

Mary of Modena

Late 17th century James II's second wife younger woman devout Catholic ppl were fearful that she would become pregnant and that it would be a boy she did get pregnant and had a boy James 'the Old Pretender' pretender= claimant to the throne, but you never get it his son= 'The Young Pretender' gave birth largely in private this is when everyone came together and decided they had to do something the possibility of having Catholics forever very quickly there is a revolt

Test Act (1673)

Late 17th century Under King Charles II of England passed by Parliament about ppl who were not Anglican Christians Charles didn't even want this to happen you had to prove with a certificate that you had received communion in an Anglican Church at some point during the last year in order to hold a government position no good Roman Catholic would do this Puritans/more extreme Protestants also wouldn't do this you couldn't vote, hold office, go to university if you were a Dissenter or a Catholic Nonconformists someone who is contrary to the majority in Britain, it means a non-Anglican Protestant Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists 1700s--> Methodists another very important dissenter group these ppl were a very important minority but they were second class citizens excludes these ppl from government trying to keep out radical political views

glorious revolution (1688)

Late 17th century England almost no fighting James II and wife and kids fled to France replaced by his own daughter at the same time, Mary and William of Orange come over and take over very strange, unique thing dual monarchy crowned equally, sit on thrones that are the same side she= both queen regnant and queen consort normally, she should've been ruling by herself b/c she has the main blood claim instead they wanted the most stability as possible William tended to be the stronger character also solidified Protestantism in England and he was already a ruler not really crowned until 1689 have to agree to the Bill/Declaration of Rights (1689) says Parliament is sovereign/the ultimate boss the monarchy is also not quite purely ceremonial yet it was decided that Parliament takes precedence about Parliament's rights John Locke was a Whig, believed in exclusion, defended Glorious Revolution in really broad terms that make it applicable to almost anything regularity of Parliament--> meets every year king has to have just cause to confiscate property habeas corpus--> you have the right to know why you are being detained, due process (can't detain someone indefinitely w/o bringing a specific charge against them), right of bail (no excessive bail), no cruel and unusual punishment (drawing and quartering... but kept capital punishment definitely) no standing army in peacetime it's expensive--> tax money fear that the king could use the army against Parliament right of Protestants to bear arms want to have a militia b/c no standing army king cannot suspend the law no army can be raised w/o Parliament's consent taxation can only be done w/ the consent of Parliament leaves some very real limits on monarchy freedom of speech in Parliament later expanded to all ppl ppl can criticize gov w/o thinking you will be put on trial for treason becomes one of the great glories of Britain later on Mary only lives a few more years, William becomes William III and rules for 8 more years until he dies in 1702 1688 is a fundamental dividing line in English history constitutionalism triumphed

Bill/Declaration of Rights (1689)

Late 17th century England document says Parliament is sovereign/the ultimate boss the monarchy is also not quite purely ceremonial yet it was decided that Parliament takes precedence about Parliament's rights John Locke was a Whig, believed in exclusion, defended Glorious Revolution in really broad terms that make it applicable to almost anything regularity of Parliament--> meets every year king has to have just cause to confiscate property habeas corpus--> you have the right to know why you are being detained, due process (can't detain someone indefinitely w/o bringing a specific charge against them), right of bail (no excessive bail), no cruel and unusual punishment (drawing and quartering... but kept capital punishment definitely) no standing army in peacetime it's expensive--> tax money fear that the king could use the army against Parliament right of Protestants to bear arms want to have a militia b/c no standing army king cannot suspend the law no army can be raised w/o Parliament's consent taxation can only be done w/ the consent of Parliament leaves some very real limits on monarchy freedom of speech in Parliament later expanded to all ppl ppl can criticize gov w/o thinking you will be put on trial for treason becomes one of the great glories of Britain later on

fallow

Left to rejuvenate In 3-field system, one field is always in this state letting soil rest crop rotation meant 1/3 of land was always not being cultivated knew you couldn't keep growing same crop year after year exhausts soil depletes soil of its nutrients mainly takes out nitrates

Kingdom of Prester John

Legend is that it exists, they want to find it it was wealthy Christian kingdom somewhere out in the world legend was that the kingdom would help them in their struggles against the Muslim world hope based on a myth but there were some Mongols who became Christians hope to find them not much came out of it--> either became Muslim or practiced Buddhism

intendants

Local administrators Richelieu divides France into 32 districts Had had provincial governors before (nobles) This person was appointed by the central gov (th king technically) over one of the 32 districts Answer onnly to the king Sometimes nobles, ofte nbourgeois Story of centralizatio

Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685)

Louis XIV, late 17th century said that there were no Huguenots left so they didn't need it anymore Louis also never said he thought this was wrong a popular decision most Frenchmen resented Huguenots b/c they were more successful, tended to be bourgeois lost their skills, went to a lot of countries that were enemies of France went to England, Netherlands, Brandenburg it was a mistake permanent blot on his record

Trade Wars

Louis felt that France had natural borders that they needed to expand to series of wars French win all of them to some extent except the very last one stadtholders desperately trying to hold them off Louis just taking what he thought he should own like Alsace-Lorraine, technically given to him under Peace of Westphalia, but he had to fight some wars to get it 9 Years' War (1688-1697) coalition trying to hold back the French here, we called these all the French and Indian Wars but then we called them by who was the monarch in England 9 Years'= King William's War

natural vs political French boundaries

Louis was convinced that France had natural boundaries that the political boundaries had not quite reached said God had clearly meant for France to have these frontiers the Atlantic the Pyrenees The Mediterranean The Rhine River controversial one France had not reached it historically very German (german-speaking on both sides) thought they should expand to there his wars were about that more than anything else Alps English Channel he was pushing into the Low Countries a small but critical area very wealthy strategically just south of the Dutch Republic next to England felt he had legitimate claims to it trying to grab it generally won wars for territory that had been part of the Roman Empire eventually took a coalition of almost everyone in Europe against them to win

consubstantiation

Luther Rejected the idea that it becomes the bread and wine when the priest says something Says that the bread does become in a real sense the body of Christ, but only for a person who receives it in faith Puts the burden on the receiver of the bread/wine Disagreed w/ Catholics but kept whole presence

by faith alone

Luther justification, how to feel that you are in God's good graces, current, emotional/psychological condition Thought you can't bring works into it at all Thought that's what Paul was saying in the book of Romans Accepting the fact that you are accepted even though you are unacceptable Incredible release for him Being reassured that you are on God's good side, viewed by God as being ultimately righteous (even though you aren't

egalitarian

Luther seemed to have this type of view on religion, ppl thought it transferred to a social revolution as well

rents

Manor revenue paid based on the manor that you lived in you had an overseer that the landlord appointed how you paid often didn't pay in money but in products or time

Satanism

Many cunningwomen were accused of practicing this Contrary to Christianity, worshipping the devil modern wiccas would say they aren't satanists, but pre-Christian... women-centered religion women were doing Wicca thing, but no distinction made b/t who was doing Satanism and who was doing Wicca

exploring

Maritime technology Astrolabe Compass (from east) Multiple sails on one mast, multiple masts Caravel Type of ship that Columbus took across the Atlantic Multiple masts More than one sail on some masts Steerage at the stern Tiny ships by our standards, but they could go around the world Portugal developed them Maritime artillery Cannons and artillery aboard ships Difficulty When you fire a cannon, it recoils (kick-back) Heavy, had to have reinforced decks Knew how advantageous it would be if you could put cannons on ships

permanent standing army

Marquis de Louvois in France (Louis XIV's minister of war) starting to happen in Europe as opposed to having mercenary or feudal arrays uniform, professional, paid, year-round expensive wanted it b/c almost continually fighting wars over half the time he was ruling

marie de medicis

Married to Henry IV of France (1589-1610) Sort of queen of France for a while Salic law said a woman could never be queen, but she was a regent Louis XIII was 9 in 1610 when this guy died Dominant personality Peter Paul Rubens Did a bunch of portraits of her Baroque painter Brought in Cardinal Richelieu to be a main advisor Clash eventually b/t them over who will have the ear of the king She is lost and is sort of banished by Louis XIII Brains of the operation

Earl of Moray

Mary's half-brother Illegitimate child of James V Stewart Becomes regent for her son, James Baby James= separated from Mary Mary kept in a castle on an island, friends help her escape

David rizzio

Mary, Queen of Scots' confidant Resented by her husband, Lord Darnley Catholic foreigner Nobles don't like that he has the ear of the queen, don't like that he's Catholic Murdered in 1566 in palace in presence of Mary Nobles ganged up and decided to do this, Darnley in on it Begged Mary to save, stabbed to death, murdered before her eyes

constitutionalism

Means even the king is beneath the law Rule of law= so important Not just about democracy Rule of law= more important than majority rule Basic distinction= whether you have rule of law or not Does not even mean having a written constitution mother= GB Does not have a written constitution to this day Constitution can mean the way we are constituted Made up of unwritten things No one single document It is now accepted that the monarch is not the real sovereign→ Parliament is

Leonardo da Vinci

Mid 15th to early 16th century From Florence High Renaissance Artist, advisor, engineer, architect, inventor Truly a Renaissance Man Early sketches of airplanes, helicopters, parachutes, tanks, submarines Designed better type of irrigation screw, bridges, etc A lot of his work was stillborn (a lot of things didn't happen) Anatomical drawings Fascinated by motion Idol of intellect and curiosity Concern with beauty and personality Vitruvian Man Illustrations of an ancient Roman text about architecture, written by Vitruvius Drawing was that there is a symmetry in the human body that should be reflected in architecture Almost annotating the text Wrote a lot of his scientific works w/ a mirror image Worried that some of his thoughts were heretical Renaissance change w/ how society viewed science as being a cult and sorcery and sin to how we view science now Completed some paintings, particularly portraits Woman Holding Ermine Symbol of nobility And symbol of purity Woman reflects qualities of ermine Head of the Young Woman Humanity in her face After the Renaissance, 3D natural art became the norm for a while From a somewhat humble background Two most famous works: The Last Supper In Milan, mural on a wall in a monastery Geometric proportions Perspective going back Combining science w/ art Definite symmetry and balance Different expressions on every face Dramatic moment Mona Lisa Tiny Knowing, mysterious smile (not one of the extreme emotions people were normally in-- serious, agony, ecstasy) Sfumato technique Smokiness Deliberately making the area around the face and hand a little vague and indistinct La Gioconda Represents femininity in the aspect of the female as a mystery to the man Male fascination with women

Iconoclasm (1566)

Mid 16th century, Netherlands Destruction of icons, b/c it's a form of idolatry Destroying pictures of saints, statues, tapestries, stained glass, crucifixes b/c Calvinism said it was idolatry Partially to cleanse own cathedrals But to Catholics is was blasphemy To Philip it was not only blasphemy but rebellion

Piero della Francesca

Mid to late 1500s Duke of Urbino Shows the land he ruled over Asked to be painted the way he is Illusion of depth From Sansepolcro Italy Trained in tradition of Masaccio Broke new ground in concern for visual unity of paintings Concentrated on most technical aspects of composition Influenced by Alberti's ideas about geometry of form

long parliament (1640-1660)

Mid-17th c under Charles I Proposed # of reforms Parliament had to be summoned every 3 years Due process Imprisoned Laud Tells king if he wants Parliament to raise taxes he will have to do things for them Puritans of Parliament sympathize w/ Scots Start making demands 1640-1642, caves in a little bit Impeach and eventually execute Strafford and Laud Charles had to allow that to happen Say from now on the king has to agree that he can't go longer than 3 years w/o calling another Parliament King can't dissolve Parliament Taking control of own destiny Abolish all extraparliamentary revenues (ship money, forced loans) Parliament now controls taxation and revenues Prerogative courts= abolished (not common law courts) Viewed as instrument of absolutism He doesn't want to do any of this Trying to limit him in all sorts of ways 1642→ demanded 2 things he wouldn't agree to, led to war Tried to abolish episcopacy Wanted to control military Appointing generals, top officers Had to say no b/c that's the very definition of the king Charles agreed to not going longer than 3 years w/o Parliament Strafford executed in 1641 Laud executed in 1645 two main proponents of policy prerogative courts abolished

Commonwealth/Interregnum (1649-1660)

Mid-17th century After English Civil War Cromwell sent a colonel w/ troops into the House of Commons and purged the majority of ppl in the House of Commons who opposed Cromwell's policy (moderates) leaving what's known as the rump body Rump Parliament votes to abolish monarchy end having a state church have a commonwealth of England abolished house of lords Cromwell increasingly felt that the Rump was not doing what he wanted it to do Cromwell had very strong personality, had interest of Englad, Scotland and Ireland at his heart also thought he was the only person who could do this right 1653--> sends Rump Parliament home kept trying to come up w/ new Parliament system then eventually was ruling as a military dictator had limited toleration on religion but not at all tolerant towards Catholics crushed revolt in Ireland, killed civilians, considered a devil figure there it seemed clear that more and more ppl were not happy w/ how it was going as long as armies stayed loyal, he was in pwr his son= Richard when Cromwell died, ppl thought it was natural that Richard would inherit the role of Lord Protector didn't have deep-rooted system of republican gov much weaker-willed than dad becomes Lord Protector in 1658 closed down theaters--> thought they were places of immorality tried to close down taverns put an end to Christmas when Puritans get image of being killjoys Puritans banned bear-baiting b/c of the pleasure it brought to the humans--> too much fun gambling and drinking Puritans outlawed wife-beating Protectorate (1653-1660) when in 1653 Cromwell makes himself Lord Protector Cromwell never took title of king, but of Lord Protector rump sent home in 1653 too Restoration (1660) of the monarchy and the Church of England and the Stuart line and the House of Lords went and found Charles II and wanted to bring him back and put him on the throne

contractual theory

Mid-17th century John Milton (1649) Theory of resistance View of government Paternalism ultimately says that ppl cannot break contract This is a two-way street If the king doesn't hold up his end, then you don't have to follow him 1649= year Charles I put on trial and executed, England= republic King and subject have mutual obligations, if one doesn't hold up their side they can be imprisoned or executed Says that rulers exist for ppl The ruler is there for the benefit of the ppl, but if he is destroying freedom then it's not right

John Milton (1649)

Mid-17th century Theory of resistance Contractual theory Not only wrote poetry, but many essays and theories Important political figure under Cromwell To him it's a contractual view of government Paternalism ultimately says that ppl cannot break the contract Contractual theory is a two-way street If the king doesn't hold up his end, then you don't have to follow him 1649= year Charles I put on trial and executed, England= republic King and subject have mutual obligations, if one doesn't hold up their side they can be imprisoned or executed Says that rulers exist for ppl The ruler is there for the benefit of the ppl, but if he is destroying freedom then it's not right

Fronde (1648-1653)

Mid-17th century France (during regency of Louis XIV) Series of upheavals Peasant riots Urban rioting/insurrection core= aristocratic/baronial revolt A lot of French nobles didn't like what had been happening, esp w/ Richelieu and centralization This was their chance to undo some of the centralization They taxed specifically the nobles who had bought gov offices Supposed to be tax-exempt A lot of thigns all coming together in 1640s Food shortages, crop failures, 30 Years' War, war w/ Spain War w/ Spain didn't end until 1650s Parlement Courts, several of them (regional) There was a central one→ Parlement du Paris Ppl who sit on them are nobles, seats are hereditary Try to act like legislatures Nobles would try at times to use them to obstruct any kind of centralizing legislation At a point they were claiming that they had the right to register (ok) the law, so the monarchy could not tax them Trying to argue that they had the authority to review and strike down the changes At one point they got control of Louis Clear that their motivations were more personal than for all of France Rebels turned to Spain for help→ made it look like they were really just out for own personal interests Ultimately failed Probably leading rebel= Duke of Conde Said he was leading the nobles against foreign authority of Anne and Mazarin At the height of it he was being kept at the Louvre, humiliated and scared hiim French ppl decided that if the choice was b/t a strong king and anarchy, they wanted a strong king

Charles II (1665-1700)

Mid-17th century to 1700 Spain pretty horribly deformed born w/ a condition where he was sort of lame almost certainly epileptic prematurely bald called Carlos the Sufferer "El Hechizado" the bewitched kept his appearance from the general public also impotent had a queen, but not able to impregnate her Habsburg line ends w/ him precipitates the War of the Spanish Succession ppl began to plan for the eventuality of the end of the Habsburg line thwarts them, wrote in his will that all of the empire would go to Philip of Anjou most important thing to him was that the realm stay in tact if Philip of Anjou wouldn't take all of it then it would all go w/ Austrians perhaps b/c he thought Philip of Anjou would be able to keep the Spanish realm intact crisis when treaty is revealed in 1700 question of whether France will follow the compromise/treaty or if they will follow Charles's will and take it all

Allegory

Middle Ages-- when they read Roman texts, Medieval scholars tried to pull out a Christian meaning Believed that if anything was of use/of value it must mean something Christian Used this to try to turn the works of these pagan/pre-Christian writers to be Christian works Everything is metaphorical-- not just reading something on a literal level

via media

Middle path/road They think they combined the best of both worlds Some Catholic elements Has priests, saints, liturgical churches (Book of Common Prayer @ core of worship) Crucifixes in churches Music, including human hymns (not just psalms) Stained glass So outward forms were ok Took aspects of both Catholic and Protestant practices and combined them into the 'best' combination Protestant features: Pope is not the head of the church Catholic church outlawed in England for a long time (not fully legalized until the 19th century) Brings back vernacular in Church services Even high church priests do not take the vow of chastity-- are not celibate No Purgatory Nothing like pilgrimages, shines, saints' cults Some use the word saint, but nothing like how it is in the Catholic church Veneration of Virgin Mary not as much Monasticism was out-- nuns come in much later 2 sacraments In many ways a Protestant church Deliberately fuzzy about certain things-- Elizabeth said not to define doctrine too specifically/narrowly Doesn't want things defined-- particularly the Eucharist Tended to split ppl So that there was a real presence, but vague Not so precisely so that if someone had a spiritual view of the Eucharist they could see it that way too High Church Anglicans vs Low Church Anglicans High church→ stresses ritual and ceremony Closer to Catholicism Lots of liturgy Use the word priest Low church→ more Protestant, simpler services Don't use the world priest Depends on minister of the church on what kind of church it will be Episcopacy Church government 3 ways of church gov→ Presbyterian, Congregationalist, Episcopacy Form of the Catholic church, Anglican church, etc Gov by bishops Pope not @ top in Anglican church, but the monarch Hierarchy Turned what had been Catholic diocese into Protestant ones

whigs

More progressive ppl who voted for exclusion in the crisis in late 17th century under Charles II of England became progressive party in favor of exclusion not just about being anti-Catholic idea that Catholicism is inherently and intimately intertwined with absolutism

role of rulers

Most European monarchs did not turn Protestant→ French, Spain, Portuguese, HRE, Italy Helped suppress Protestantism where they could Protestantism can hang on for a while, but if the ruler stays Catholic, the area normally does too

Palatinate

Most important Calvinist 'splotch' in Germany, ruler became Calvinist Basically in an illegal position

chancellor

Most important political office in England other than the king Late middle ages thru 1600s More made chancellor in 1529 Resigns in 1532 b/c he can't support split w/ church and divorce First layman to hold this position Chancel-- part of the church where the altar is, table, where communion takes place Original administrators for the kings were their own personal priest Simply cannot separate church and state in this time period in any European country

spice trade

Most important thing all europeans want pepper cloves, nutmeg, cinammon came from plants that really only grew far from Europe tended to grow either in India (great source of pepper) or Indies (Spice Islands, later East Indies, now Indonesia) want to get to the source of the spices you could make a fortune back then spiced up the food but also hierarchical conspicuous consumption a treat for nobility way of showing you had money limited diet very few choices, bland relatively little fresh fruit-- apples water (contaminated and unsafe) North--> beer, South--> wine no soft drinks no coffee no tea no chocolate no fruit juice almost no refined sugar (honey, but that was about it) lots of stuff based on grain and bread beets, onions NO: corn, tomatoes, potatoes China= main source of silk, porcelain, jade China doesn't want anything Europe has to offer--> only silver and gold

indo-european languages

Most languages in Europe from this family Slavic Eastern Slavic Russian Ukrainian Belarussian Western Slavic Polish Czech Slovak Southern Slavic Slovenian Serbo-Croatian croats= Catholics, use Latin alphabet Serbs= Orthodox, use cyrillic alphabet Bosnian/Bosniaks= Muslims Celtic Gaul Irish/Gaelic Welsh Breton Germanic Icelandic Swedish German Norwegian Dutch Flemish English Romance French Spanish Romanian Italian Portuguese Catalan Baltic Lithuanian Latvian Distantly related to Slavic Albanian Distantly related to Greek

ad majorem dei gloriam

Motto of the Jesuits To the greater glory of God Implies that man's own efforts can increase God's glory

Ivan III/Ivan the Great

Muscovy Mid 15th to early 16th century Started calling himself the Tsar of Russia Married Constantine's niece (last Byzantine emperor) Now had blood connection to Byzantine Empire Made Muscovy heir to E Christendom after the Fall of Constantinople Successor to Roman and Byzantine empires Idea of third Rome in Moscow Where truth is preserved and defended until the end of time Where patriarch/leading churchman of Russia is and still is today Constantinople founded as Second Rome 3rd and final Rome (trinity) Makes Russians special in their minds Preserving truth-- ruler is the emperor, tsar of all Russias Under him, expanded to the North and West Military successes were almost unbroken, as well as diplomatic triumphs Preferred pacification to conquest, but could conquer with great brutality when necessary

Francis I

Nephew of Louis XII, takes over after he dies Ruled France early to mid 16th century 3 years younger than Henry VIII, but very close in age, dynastic rivals Epitome of Renaissance prince Got church under control

columbian exchange

New World had practically no domesticated animals before this Before this, Europeans didn't have many of the food products that are so important today

cavaliers

Nickname of royalists in the war of the three kingdoms Originally meant Spanish or French Catholics who were persecuting Protestants A put-down

Milan

North of Florence Landlocked Economic life oriented northward to Swiss and German towns beyond Alps Main concern= preventing foreign invasions Became a great military power Most military city-state Stronger militarily than any of the rest of them by themselves Often alliances against Milan Best examples of despot were the Visconti here, also Sforza Famous for metal crafts-- artillery, early cannons Trade route that ran from rest of Italy into rest of Europe controlled by Milan Not nearly as important in the arts as Florence or Venice Despots of Milan in 1300s and 1400s were Visconti Sforza knocked off Visconti in 1400s One of the great military leaders of the day

income tax

Not done in this time period b/c this could be progressive (worse for richer ppl) Taxing wealthy @ higher percentage Vs flat rate (everyone pays 10%)

hungarian

Not indo-Euroepan Magyar-- what they call themselves Related distantly to Turkish Includes Finnish language Came from central Asia Huns leader = Atila Originally pagan

basque

Not indo-European Live in the Pyrenees, majority in Spain but some in France Famous for smuggling operations Has no known related language Strong sense of unity Separation movements

anti-asceticism

Not starving yourself over God Not going to huge lengths to control your human desires

Guy Fawkes Day- November 5th

Now called bonfire day Before very anti-Catholic For a while it was a way of reviving anti-Catholic sentiments

ecclesiastical courts

Obstacle to king's power ecclesia= church in Greek Had jurisdiction Any clergyperson who was accused of any crime got to go to a church court All college students were clergy Famous for being very lenient

Archbishop of Canterbury/William Laud

One of Charles I's two main officials in early to mid-17th century Not Catholic

Guise

One of the 2 main fams jostling for power to succeed Valois Strong Catholics

Holland

Only one of 7 provinces, most populous Where Amsterdam is

ora pro nobis, Socrates!

Part of philosophia Christi Erasmus believed this, said this Means pray for us, Socrates! Socrates= Plato's teacher Erasmus said you could consider Socrates a Christian saint even though he died in 399 BCE so was not Christian He lived a life of moderation, reason, compassion

diplomacy

Permanent resident ambassadors Had ambassadors living in courts, getting more accurate info Before, sent an emissary to tell a foreign king something Someone in your government was a full-time resident in a foreign capital-- new thing Italians pioneered this, eventually other countries copied Nuncio-- papal person sent to go tell someone something Venice was the first to have ambassadors b/c of commercial ties In every Italian city, Paris, London Some of the most important info about 16th century England was from Venetian ambassadors reporting back to Venice Impartial, not necessarily taking a side Much less likely than nobles to be working own agenda

genre paintings

Peter Bruegel the Elder Does particularly landscapes in this style what Dutch are particularly famous for scenes of ordinary life paintings of peasants--> not a specific peasant or ruler, but just peasants doing something normal Historical source

mary tudor

Ruled 1553-1558/mid 16th century Bitter, hates what happened to her mother (Catherine of Aragon) Held to Catholic beliefs in which Catherine of Aragon had raised her Vowed to bring the nation back to her mother's church Extremely Catholic First queen regnant in England When Edward VI died, English ruling elite opted for political legitimacy rather than religious ideology in supporting Mary against a Protestant pretender to the throne Reestablished papal sovereignty, abolished Protestant worship, and introduced a crash program of education in the universities to train a new generation of priests Could not achieve the restoration of monastic properties and Church lands Had been scattered irretrievably and any attempt at confiscation from the landed elite would surely have been met w/ insurrection Was married to Philip II (became King of Spain, Charles= his son) Unable to have any children Says she doesn't want to be head of the church b/c pope= head of the church Bloody Mary Had over 300 people burned at the stake for opposing the return to Rome Cranmer= most famous of the victimes Not naturally heroic, scholar, didn't want to die Signed recantation at one point, but then went back on it One of the Oxford martyrs Protestant martyr Other bishops killed in this way Led to common thought that Catholics were intolerant and terrible

Religious intolerance in spain

Philip II was a strong Catholic, didn't want to rule over heretics you could not be king of Spain if you weren't Christian (eventually Catholic Christians) Jews and Muslims either left or converted, many conversos were still persecuted lost a lot of skilled/wealthy ppl so often religious minorities were more likely to be literate/part of the bourgeoisie Huguenots stressed literacy about reading the Bible for themselves Jews and Muslims stress on literacy among Jews losing good ppl also suppressing Protestants no important Spanish names in Scientific Revolution if you had any sort of different idea on life, you got in trouble even Cervantes was called in front of the Inquisition

Mary of Burgundy

Philip the Fair's mother Married Maximilian I (lucrative marriage for him) Maximilian got low countries, Burgundy proper, Milan Great heiress to try to marry Ends up marrying a Habsburg Starts long century of Habsburg-Valois Wars Fought over Burgundian inheritance and Naples and Milan (claimed by both families), Kingdom of Navarre Dynastic Wars, not national wars-- ruling families fighting Not ideological or about belief systems

lesser magistrates

Philippe Duplessis-Mornay (1579) Theory of resistance Justifying having noble families leading resistance Kings can be resisted, but not by any private individual b/c there was this hierarchy of authority, if the king is clearly off the rails, it's up to the these ppl/the next level of authority They have a right to overthrow the king and restrain him There were many rich and powerful noble fams in France He was justifying what was happening-- ratifying reality Opens up door to saying that anyone can be a rebel

theories of resistance

Philippe Duplessis-Mornay (1579)- lesser magistrates French Huguenot Lesser magistrates Justifying having noble families leading resistance Kings can be resisted, but not by any private individual b/c there was this hierarchy of authority, if the king is clearly off the rails, it's up to the lesser magistrates/the next level of authority They have a right to overthrow the king and restrain him There were many rich and powerful noble fams in France He was justifying what was happening-- ratifying reality Opens up door to saying that anyone can be a rebel Juan de Mariana (1598)- tyrannicide Jesuit professor Said anyone has a right to kill a tyrant regicide/assassination If a king is a tyrant, anyone had right to kill him A lot of ppl didn't agree w/ him John Milton (1649)- contractual theory Not only wrote poetry, but many essays and theories Important political figure under Cromwell To him it's a contractual view of government Paternalism ultimately says that ppl cannot break the contract Contractual theory is a two-way street If the king doesn't hold up his end, then you don't have to follow him 1649= year Charles I put on trial and executed, England= republic King and subject have mutual obligations, if one doesn't hold up their side they can be imprisoned or executed Says that rulers exist for ppl The ruler is there for the benefit of the ppl, but if he is destroying freedom then it's not right There were rebellions and resistance all over europe 1640s→ bad decade, revolt almost everywhere in W Europe Combination of bad weather (cold, wet winters, crop failure) and lots of revolt Spain faces revolt in Portugal and Catalonia France still involved in 30 Years' War English Civil War Bread riots and rebellions in Italy Scotland and Ireland

philosophia christi

Philosophy of Christ Living a Christ-like life A life of simplicity, moderation, compassion Erasmus believed in this Said it was simple Trying to live the life Christ lived Emphasizing the moral side of Christianity-- not supernatural Did not reject miraculous aspect of Christianity, but downplayed it Downplayed authority, being tied to tradition, complex rituals and ceremonies If the key thing is morality and living a good life, then a pre-Christian person could be considered Christian Ora pro nobis, Socrates! Means pray for us, Socrates! Socrates= Plato's teacher Said you could consider Socrates a Christian saint even though he died in 399 BCE so was not Christian He lived a life of moderation, reason, compassion You pray to saints to intercede for you, also asking them for help

St Pius V (1566-1571)

Pope for a short time in the mid-17th century Lived pious life Later canonized Cracked down on a lot of issues in the church Very intolerant Important w/ the Roman Inquisition

Paul III (1534-1549)

Pope who called the council of Trent Wanted to have it in Rome, but Charles V wanted it further north, so they compromised on Trent

la rochelle

Port city, sort of the capital of Huguenot France

Goa (1510-1961)

Portuguese possession in India Where they were based

saint jerome

Produced the Vulgate Translated the Bible into Latin This WAS the language of the common people in the 300s in the western half of the Roman Empire Over time, as Latin dies off as a vernacular, Catholic Church stood by it-- about control So that common people couldn't start reading the Bible and feel empowered Catholics would say that if you had it so that anyone could read the Bible, you would have so many interpretations and diversity of opinions that it would split the Christian world Really about unity-- sense of universality, mass still in language Sense of keeping it as a separate, sacred, mysterious thing, mas in liturgical language keeps it special and separate

nature of taxation

Property tax Did that some in Europe, but not most important taxation Consumption One of the two main things they taxed French taille tax on salt, olive oil, wine, meat Aka sales tax Regressive Takes up a lesser percentage of a higher income than a lower income Tax that falls heavier on poor than it does on rich Poll tax You pay a tax on your head→ everyone kicking in same amount Often very unpopular→ biggest revolt in English history= in part sparked by an attempt to impose a poll tax VAT (value added tax), consumption tax, but added at each stage of production Tax on trade Customs duties You can tax imports and exports Somewhat easier for earlier forms of gov to impose and collect Income tax Not done in this time period b/c this could be progressive (worse for richer ppl) Taxing wealthy @ higher percentage Vs flat rate (everyone pays 10%) Fact that they relied on consumption taxes and mercantile taxes meant that they didn't have the money coming in that they should have

2 sacraments

Protestant→ Baptism, communion Luther→ consubstantiation Rejects the idea that it becomes the bread and wine when the priest says something Says that the bread does become in a real sense the body of Christ, but only for a person who receives it in faith-- puts the burden on the receiver of the bread/wine; disagreed w/ Catholics but kept whole presence Zwingli→ purely symbolic Says there is no physical presence of Christ, it is a reminder/a commemoration, not a physical thing Thought Luther was not willing to go far enough away from a Catholic position Finally got so bad that one of the main Protestant princes was getting concerned about how Protestants were dividing German prince made Luther and Zwingli meet in 1529, they tried to work out some kind of agreement about the Eucharist in the Marburg Colloquy (1529) It failed They could not reach an agreement over something so important

Don Quixota

Published early 17th century By Miguel de Cervantes Early form of a novel Fiction, fantasy story, satire Making fun of Spanish ppl and society Sancho Panza= his servant Aristocrat in spain, has lived off of all kinds of medieval romance Wants to go on quest for dragons to slay, women to fight for, etc Servant is everything Don Quixote is not Quixote is a very noble character, finally finds a woman to fight for who is the town prostitute→ treating her w /compassion and respect Most ppl thing Cervantes thinks you need to be both Panza and Quixote→ rooted in reality, but still have dreams and goals

habeas corpus

Put in the petition of right (late 17th century) you have the right to know why you are being detained, due process (can't detain someone indefinitely w/o bringing a specific charge against them), right of bail (no excessive bail), no cruel and unusual punishment (drawing and quartering... but kept capital punishment definitely)

Anne (1702-1714)

Quuen of England in early 18th century Mary's younger sister takes throne after William III dies (no surviving children) last Stuart to be on the throne no surviving children 1714--> dies no direct heir had to follow the line, find the closest Protestant to the throne it was George I of Hanover

transubstantiation

RCC In philosophy in Aristotle, there is the outward form of something, and the essence of it (what makes it what it is) Every time mass is said, a miracle occurs-- when the priest consecrates the elements, you are reenacting Christ's sacrifice Wine becomes blood of Christ, bread becomes body, in a real sense Not just a symbol, not just a remembrance-- there is a real presence there, a real miracle

7 sacraments

RCC Transubstantiation In philosophy in Aristotle, there is the outward form of something and the essence of it (what makes it what it is) Every time mass is said, a miracle occurs When the priest consecrates the elements, you are reenacting Christ's sacrifice; wine becomes blood of Christ, bread becomes body in a real sense Not just a symbol, not just a remembrance, there is a real presence there, a real miracle

saint

RCC, someone who had earned their salvation w/ enough merit left over to become one, quantitative approach

celibacy

RCC, the highest form of Christian life is to take the vow of chastity

bible and tradition

RCC, the idea that the Bible has truth, but God can reveal truths later after the end of the Bible era The Church is kind of a living ible New truths can be revealed that aren't authoritative There are certain things that the Church accepts as truth that are not in the Bible (purgatory)

clergy/laity

RCC, very sharp distinction, Latin instead of vernacular, celibacy, clergy as intermediaries b/t laity and God

1640s in Europe

Rebellions and resistance almost everywhere in Western Europe Bad decade Combination of bad weather (cold, wet winters, crops fail) and lots of revolt Spain faces revolt in Portugal and Catalonia France still involved in 30 YEars' War English Civil War Bread riots and rebellions in Italy Scotland and Ireland

Renaissance

Rebirth of classical antiquity An intellectual and aesthetic revolution sparked by the rebirth of the values and forms of classical antiquity An intellectual and artistic phenomenon Occurs in the Late Medieval Period and a little bit into the Early Modern Started spreading outside of Italy in the late 1400s Looked back to ancient Greece and Rome and thought this was a peak of achievement

capuchins

Reform in the Franciscans led to formation of this Started in 1525 Shows that it wasn't in reaction to Luther or any Protestant thing→ Luther was already well into doing his thing Monkeys are named after them

Elizabeth I

Ruled 1558-1603/mid 16th to early 17th century Moderate Protestant What the Church of England finally becomes→ Elizabethan settlement Anglican church calls itself a via media Middle path/road They think they combined the best of both worlds In many ways a Protestant church Deliberately fuzzy about certain things-- Elizabeth said not to define doctrine too specifically/narrowly Didn't want things defined-- particularly the Eucharist Tended to split ppl Said there was a real presence, but vague Episcopacy Church gov 3 ways of Church gov→ Presbyterian, Congregationalist, Episcopacy Form of the Catholic Church, Anglican Church, etc Gov by the bishops Pope not at the top in Anglican church, but the monarch Hierarchy Turned what had been Catholic diocese into Protestant ones Becomes known as not very puritanical abou things--> a little looser Wants a church that can be acepted by everyone Since it will be the only legal church, wants it to be a broad church-- inclusive Also wants to stay the head of it Elizabethan settlement-- settling the religious question, early in her reign Early Anglican church was much more Protestant than it was in years to come-- didn't want a secular head of the church Puritans-- wanted to purify the Church of England, got the nickname as early as the 1560's Wanted to get rid of the episcopacy Often Calvinists, who thought the Anglican Church remained way too Catholic Dissenters/Nonconformists Name for ppl who were not on board w/ the Anglican Church Someone who dissents from the Church of England Usually Protestants who are not Anglican Recusants Catholics who wanted to stay Roman Catholics Outlawed You could not legally have a Catholic mass said in England under Elizabeth I Comes from the Latin word meaning refuse/reject Become a minority Majority of ppl in England tended to accept the Anglican Church as it was Dissenters/Puritans were able to more safely express their dispute/discomfort w/ the Anglican Church In the 1600s life got harder for them under James I and Charles I Pilgrims left first-- 1620, Plymouth Rock

Charles VIII

Ruled France late 15th century Invited to Italy in 1494 When Milan got ganged up on in 1490s, they decided to ask this more powerful kingdom for help Took over Florence Knocked over Medici for a while Took over Naples Dies w/o son heir= cousin, Louis XII (dies very soon)

Philip III (1598-1621)

Ruled Spain late 16th to early 17th century Philip II's son 'His only virtue was his lack of vices' Non-entity Didn't have any real positive strengths but wasn't a horrible person either

Charles VII

Ruled early to mid 15th century Finally drove English out by 1453, end of Hundred Years' War Unlike English monarchy which falls into chaos in Wars of Roses after 100 Years' War, French monarchy prestige was enhanced, decided they needed to maintain fairly strong military in case English came back French people begrudgingly accept high level of taxation Monarchy was absolutist French representative body= Estates-General Never had importance or regularity of English Parliament Taxes Taille (land) Although nobles and clergy did not pay it French monarchy could not tap into the wealth of the country the way it should've been able to One of the main reasons for the French Revolution Consumption taxes One on salt Another on wine, meats he= really why English lost Hundred Years' War

Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1632)

Ruled in Sweden in early 17th century Big turning point= when he joined the war THE Swedish king Van Dyke beard= the style, Van Dyke was a great painter in the time period, painted many ppl w/ that look goes out of fashion in late 1600s then men go clean-shaven in 1700s facial hair comes back in by 1830s important not just for this war brilliant military leader the Napoleon of his day reorganized Swedish army one of the first to have soldiers wear uniforms had a whole lot of soldiers in his army that weren't Swedes enters war in 1630 smashes every Habsburg army he encounters tide is turning for the first time enters some Catholic states that had escaped all the destruction this was a violent, bloody, destructive war especially for civilians became synonymous w/ apocalyptic horror wins a series of battles fought in German states Germans= the ones that suffered the most fulfilled prophecy of being the 'lion of the north' Magdeburg (1631) right in the middle of Germany Catholics conquered it and pillaged and many were killed became a propaganda point--> Protestants need to avenge and join in used as a propaganda tool to get lukewarm Protestants to join the cause held out against Habsburg army for a while, when it fell the Habsburgs were horrible helped him killed in a battle-- last big victory lost great leader Habsburgs start to recover a bit in the war, but can't completely win the war even w/ him gone b/c almost every Protestant country was involved

Henry VII

Ruled late 15th century to early 16th century Example of new monarch Wars of Roses decimated English nobility, titles went extinct/ran out in a particular family Let some of those titles disappear Also passed on some titles to create a new group of people who were loyal to him Letting old nobles die off and raising new men (did not please older nobility) Two sons and two surviving daughters Arthur and Henry VIII Wanted to make sure nobles didn't misbehave (unruly barons) Tried to keep expenses down Knew debt weakens you Known to be penny-pinching Paid attention to money and where it went Avoided foreign wars for the most part (they= expensive) Good example of a Machiavellian Would make alliances w/ people, they would pay him money, he wouldn't always come through on his own promises Married a Yorkist princess- Elizabeth of York Niece of Richard III Daughter of Edward IV (Richard's older brother) Combines house of York w/ house of Lancaster Symbolized by Tudor Rose Red-- Lancaster White-- York Combined Yorkist and Lancaster blood Used diplomacy Tried to make good commercial deals for English merchants Conscious of mercantile economic side of things First English overseas expeditions Married off both his daughters in smart ways Mary (younger) married to King of France (Louis XII) Forming alliance w/ traditional enemy Didn't work out very long (he died very soon after marriage) Marries French nobleman again Margaret (older), sent off to marry King of Scotland (James IV) Long history of fighting Would often ally w/ France From their descendance, you eventually have a Scottish king who is the successor to the throne of England Common law Son of Owen Tudor and Margaret Beaufort Flag-- roses, red dragon (sign of whales), Dieu et mon droit-- shows internationalism of monarchy Normal courts used common law Prerogative courts-- used them, King's own court, especially when nobles were in trouble (later outlawed) Feared but not particularly beloved Rapacious about money Brought certain amount of order, stability and peace Leaves surplus in treasury Best businessman to ever sit on the throne Goal was to reestablish peace after war and leave monarchy in a good position Henry VIII had more power than any king before or after him

Ferdinand of Aragon

Ruler of Aragon Late 15th to early 16th century Elopes w/ Isabella of Castile b/t two heirs in line In 1469 Never accepted as ruler in Castile, even though Isabella died 12 years before Aragon and Castile not really unified Castilian Spanish is what we think of today Language difference in Aragon-- included Catalan Cortes Like Parliament Legislative Each region had own Cortes Still kind of divided He and Isabella did some things to try to bind Aragon and Castile together To foster a sort of Spanishness Made Castilian Spanish the language in both Aragon and Castile Imposed it as the language of government Established single coinage Tried to get aristocracy to think they were Spanish and intermarry Traveled all around Spain, no central residence, largely illiterate population, quite possible that every Spanish person saw them face-to-face Given nickname 'Catholic Monarchs' Closest to capital city= Toledo (center) Where primate of Spanish Catholic church is (where archbishop presides) War also brought people together Fight to finish Reconquista Common army against this last kingdom As Spain expands, wars in Europe and overseas brought people together Conquered Granada at start of 1492 Centralizing Classic new monarch thing-- didn't rely on nobles, rather bourgeois (educated commoners) to be their advisors/counselors Tried not to make cortes have too much power Made smart marriages Joanna the Crazy married Philip the Fair (Habsburg) Catherine (younger) married Henry VIII Also established strong military

Mathias (d. 1619)

Ruler of the HRE, late 16th to early 17th century had been a fairly tolerant, easy-going Habsburg Catholic childless one of his younger cousins, Ferdinand, was the next in line even though you had to be elected that worried people b/c apparently there was a story that Ferdinand had promised to the Virgin Mary that he would never rule over heretics let Ferdinand rule some of his land 'for practice' Mathias let Ferdinand rule over Bohemia the word Bohemian= not the main-stream, not conventional, alternative lifestyle, more accepting of everything it is the western half of the Czech Republic today capital= Prague (in Bohemia and Czech Republic) bohemian ppl were largely czechs many had become Protestant kinda like Low Countries in that they let a lot of ppl worship different religions and it wasn't overly enforced

Santiago

Saint James (apostle James, one of 12 original disciples) Patron saint of Spain Turned him into militant warrior saint (even though he wasn't), leading Spanish into battle War cry Nicknamed 'muslim-killer' Spanish soldiers claimed they could see him in the sky Paintings depicted him fighting Muslims mentality= very important in them going overseas and resisting Reformation Center of Counter-Reformation

humanism

Secular outlook but by no means antireligious Developed in reaction to an intellectual world that was centered on the Church and dominated by otherworldly concerns Celebrated worldly achievements Applied learning to both religious and secular studies Most humanists were devoutly religious (not antireligious or hostile to church) Interest in human achievement and human potential must be set beside their religious beliefs Anti-clericalism Two main meanings: Broader sense-- Stress on humans as being important Also an approach to education Teaching humanities About human expression Rhetoric, language, grammar Being able to express yourself well Broad-based Learning things that aren't necessarily practical skills Learning how to live more deeply, not just learning a job skill 3 basic liberal arts: Grammar (how words are used, often in a very sophisticated way) Rhetoric (using words to persuade, move, and inspire, shape actions and opinions) Dialectic (logic, specifically in terms of making arguments, arguments in a back and forth way-- thesis and antithesis) Optimism about human nature Question of is human nature basically good, is it capable of progress and change for the better, or is it just stagnant? Medieval scholars and clergy said pride was the most heinous of the 7 deadly sins Renaissance humanists tended to think that pride in the right form was actually a good thing Celebrated human achievement-- says it drives you to do great things Virtu-- human beings are capable of good The church itself was often a source of humanist patronage L'uomo universale Philology Petrarch= father of Renaissance humanism Lorenzo Valla-- pioneered philology, invented modern textual criticism Baldassare Castiglione-- Renaissance view of education Civic humanism--said active life was superior to contemplative life, republic is better than monarchy

arameic

Semitic language, not indo-European Not the same as Hebrew By the time of Jesus, people only used Hebrew as a liturgical language (in worship) This was the vernacular (every day language) One verse in the New Testament-- always given in this language: Father, father, why hast thou forsaken me? Most unsettling thing Jesus says

indulgences

Sense of having to work out of Purgatory to get over your sins In life you are going to commit many sins In order to get over them, you need to go to confession and do penance Contrition-- showing regret, you feel bad about it Penance-- acts you do to show you are contrite, the priest tells you what to do Felt like the average soul did not go straight to heaven-- nly saints The great majority of us have to work off sins we have still on our record in Purgatory Church had the power to grant these, you would give money to the church and receive a certificate stating you have a certain number of years knocked off your time in Purgatory In the 1400s, Pope said you could start buying these for your dead relatives Chantry priests- would conduct mass in an empty room, for dead souls in Purgatory Pope was Leo X, had been for a while Rebuilding St. Peter's Basilica, took a lot of money, sent out people to seek these out John Tetzel Dominican friar Sold these for the pope Not allowed to come to Saxony but nearby Told people all kinds of things the church had never even taught, said you could buy these in advance for sins you haven't committed yet Many people gave money so that dead relatives could get out of Purgatory-- sense of duty Selling really fast, Luther decides he needs to do something about this 95 Theses is a response to Tetzel and these

Spanish inquisition

Set up by Ferdinand and Isabella Starts operating in 1480 Why Isabella will not be canonized Finishing off Reconquista means you already have a lot of Jews and Muslims 1492→ issued a proclamation that you have to be Christian to live in the realm of Ferdinand and Isabella Immediately said that Jews had to convert or leave Took a little longer for them to make Muslims leave Many Jews did convert-- conversos Second class Not pure of blood Some were not sincere converts There to make sure people were truly practicing Christianity Conversos could be easily accused of being crypto-Jew or crypto-Muslim Spanish-- unification, operated the same everywhere Followed timely legal procedure Roman law→ able to torture to gain evidence and confessions, trials held secretly, didn't get to face accusers or know evidence used against you Creates climate of suspicion Killed people Large reason that Spanish didn't really get involved in Scientific Revolution People were proud of it And mad at Napoleon for getting rid of it

Roman Inquisition

Set up in 1542 as part of the Catholic REformation An Italian version of the holy office, inquiring into ppl's faith Never killed as many ppl as Spanish one Went after Galileo Looked into ppl's beliefs St Pius V= very intolerant, defending honor of God

skimmington

Shaming ritual reinforced male-dominated society occurred when something was turned upside down in household if wife was unfaithful or was verbally or physically abusive to the husband two village people would play the wife and husband husband would have to ride backwards on a horse/donkey women would be dunked in water or mud to scare men and women into doing what they're supposed to cuckold= female bird, man who has an adulterous wife (a man whose wife is cheating on you) also ppl often stole from ppl at times anything that remotely smacked of the woman being the boss shaming the man for letting the wife have dominance and shaming wife for being that way to enforce the social order of everything putting horns on the man making lots of noise w/ pots and pans, cacophony late 1500s--> occurred more frequently women were becoming more independent society in general seemed to be out of joint inflation religious wars when societies feel that way, they almost always go after women and blame them somehow

Spanish mindset

Spanish b/c of the Reconquista maintained crusade mentality combining military aggression and intense Catholicism stress on aristocratic virtues had chivalric, aristocratic, medieval mindset to them, the only 3 valid occupations were a churchman, soldier, and work (either farmer or craftsman) had suspicion/disdain/hatred of mercantile activity and financial activity (banking) thought ppl were taking advantage buying low, selling high also condemned interest on loans usury charging loans even w/ huge economic windfall, they didn't use it very well influx of precious metal caused severe inflation it was the ideal to a mercantilist also just went into endless wars

Francisco Pizarro

Spanish conquistador Takes Incan Empire by early 1530s Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile

Hernan Cortes

Spanish conquistador Took Aztec empire by 1520s Had about 1000 men when he got started

prerogative courts

Special courts in the time of Henry VII that did use Roman law The King's own court Used by Henry VII especially when nobles are in trouble-- 'overmighty subjects' Later outlawed Used b/c nobles were more likely to bribe, intimidate, threaten jury 'Fur-collared crime'-- crimes committed by nobles Extortion Nobles often got away w/ it Machiavellian idea that you need to be feared rather than loved Ordinary trials are not held there Most famous- Court of Star Chamber For intimidating nobles Star chamber tactics-- if judge seems to be siding w/ prosecution Where defendant is not given every benefit

proselytizing

Spreading faith to the New World Why Christianity is a unversal religion Columbus told Isabella of Castile that he would spread teh love of Christ

new methods of espionage

Spying Intelligence gathering Invented elaborate cryptography Science of making and breaking codes New types of invisible ink Effective, tasteless, odorless poisons Makes outside see Italians as underhanded, sneaky, tricky

Northern Renaissance vs. Italian Renaissance

Started in Italy By late 1400s, Renaissance ideas are spreading-- scholars coming from other areas study in Italy, get excited about intellectual ideas and bring them back to own lands, or rulers in North invited/bribed Italian artists, humanists, philosophers to come North and do their thing Fundamental difference: religious emphasis, specifically Christian (Christian humanism) Both have humanism in common-- Italians are not pagans, but it's about a matter of emphasis Italians often so caught up with ancient Greek and Roman culture, which was not Christian; Northerners did not have this problem-- wanted to be able to have Greek to read the original New Testament; Old Testament in Hebrew Different emphasis even though it shares: Ad Fontes! Back to the sources-- both the Northern and Italians believed there was something in the distant past that was pure and golden-- from the source Sources are different-- Italian fontes was classical antiquity, Greco-Roman culture; Northern fotnes was the Bible-- New Testament and Old Testament, Early Church fathers, idea that the earliest forms of Christianity are the purer forms, over time, things get sullied, passed down, corrupted, warped In both cases, there is a sense of a distant past you are trying to get to Recent past (middle ages) was something you had to denigrate Northerners thought most horrible thing about the middle ages was that the Church had gone wrong, paternity of the Reformation, neither one of the two most important Northern humanists turned Protestant, but laid foundation by stressing the need to get back to the sources Worst thing about middle ages for Italians was the loss of scholarship and classical texts

Vasa

Swedish royal fam that Sigismund III, King of Poland is from

doctrine

Teaching Led to indulgences One of the things Erasmus criticized about the RCC

'The Iberian Crusade"

The sense of it being a religious war Taking up the cross Gentry in Spain= hidalgos All conquistadords were from that hidalgo class Reminiscent of the Reconquista Over in Spain, but continued in the New World Still fighting for the glory of the king, for the acquisition of wealth, and for God

"rationalizing the state"

Thomas Cromwell as chancellor Said when we make changes we need to get Parliament to ratify those changes Good at manipulating and getting things past community/great men of the realm agreed to this

martin luther

Truly changed the course of history Critique he made about the church was not very new Not until Luther that it created a split of the Christian Church Problems the church had that he was upset about Two basic problems: Doctrine Thought teachings were wrong in many ways Abuses Clerical ignorance Clerical immorality (sex, too much wealth) Nepotism pluralism → each church office had a certain amount of money that came w/ it= benefice, the most offices you had, the more benefices you got, so often, Church officials worked as gov officials→ chancellors in England, now hardly doing much for Church-- doing gov job, Henry VIII's chancellor b4 Thomas More was Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (held so many church positions in addition), led to absenteeism, pope at top, bishops in middle, parish priests at bottom, bishops supposed to be watching over diocese, making sure priests do their job, confirming young ppl Simony Buying and selling relics Mainly meant buying and selling church offices A lot of money exchanging hands Popes in this time period were not very good spiritual leaders Said the very teachings of the church had often gone wrong Father born a peasant, went into mining, made a lot of money, but very much a self-made man Wanted a university education for Martin, something he had never had Common stock Studied law b/c his dad wanted him to 1505→ lightning bolt hit near him as he was walking, threw him, yelled out "Hilf du, Sankt Anna! Ich will ein Monch werden!" Religious orders-- regular clergy, take 3 basic vows-- poverty, chastity, and obedience; some live away from world and focus on meditation, some are active orders out in the world, you aren't supposed to own anything yourself Monk-- back then meant any kind of order Friar-- mendicant orders (not supposed to have property) Luther joins a religious order (of monks) and father is not happy-- b/c if he became a friar, he wouldn't make any money or a family-- no children, act of rebellion Continued to go to university, but studied theology, and got doctorate in theology, became a very popular professor Teaching at University of Wittenberg His hometown and Wittenberg were both in the German state of Saxony, modern day Eastern Germany Incredible inner conflict Afraid he was not on good terms w/ God, felt incredibly guilty for sin, overly sensitive conscience Felt that whatever he did that the church recommended you do didn't work for him To him God is absolute and utter righteousness He is so aware of his own imperfections, even when he is trying to be good, unsure if he was doing it for the wrong reason-- selfishness Fasted, whipped himself, wore a hair shirt, went to mass once or twice a day, confessed constantly Realized that righteousness of God was not a burden that humans carried, but a gift that God bestowed Could not be earned by good works but was freely given Religion shaped by 3 interconnected tenets Justification by faith alone: sola fide Individual's everlasting salvation came from faith in God's goodness rather than performance of good works Sin was ever present and inescapable-- could not be washed away by penance, could not be forgiven by indulgence Faith in God's mercy came only through the knowledge and contemplation of the Word of God-- sola scriptura All that was needed to understand the justice and mercy of God was contained in the Bible, the sole authority in all things spiritual All who believed in God's righteousness and had achieved their faith through the study of the Bible were equal in God's eyes No longer necessary for men and women to renounce worldly existence and take up life consumed by spiritual works Teaching the book of Romans-- the most important book in the Bible besides the Gospels to him Thought that if you were trying to earn your salvation you would fail, only thru God's freely given mercy/grace are we saved Liberty of the Christian Man One of the more important books he writes Being liberated from the sense that you are damned-- you are saved Not a sense of earning salvation Bondage of Free Will-- one of the three books he said he wished would survive him Said the idea of saints is wrong-- we are all flawed, naturally damned Hated indulgences, especially Johann Tetzel who sells them, decides he needs to do something about it 95 Theses October 31, 1517 Response to John Tetzel and indulgences Story is that he posted them on the door of the church Not an unusual thing at the time-- asking for a debate Didn't say we should split the church or bring down the pope, but pretty confrontational Played a nationalist card a little bit Theological question-- making people think they can buy their way into God's favor Wrong-- giving people false sense of assurance based on paying money Thought it was an incredibly corrupt practice Start of the Reformation focused the concern that indulgences without contribution were worthless and finally communicated it beyond the walls of the Church and university Theses immediately translated into German and spread throughout Holy Roman Empire by humanists who had long criticized practices such as the sale of indulgences as superstitious Prospective buyers became wary; past purchasers became angry Very quickly started becoming an even bigger critique of the church Question of is there even a Purgatory What is the difference b/t saints and ordinary Christians What should the authority of the church be Should we even have a pope Also, printing press-- reaches large proportions What turned Luther's theology into a movement-- which after 1529 came to be known as Protestantism-- was the support he received among German princes and within German cities Luther's spiritual rebirth and theology that developed from it posed a fundamental challenge to the RCC Doctrine of justification by faith alone called into question the Church's emphasis upon the primacy of works-- receiving sacraments administered by priests and performing acts of charity and devotion Doctrine that faith was achieved thru Scripture weakened the mediating power of the Church by making salvation an individual rather than a collective event Doctrine of equality of all believers struck at the vast establishment of religious houses as well as spiritual hierarchy of the Church from the lowest priest to the pope Luther's ideas and the RCC could not coexist-- too polar opposite 1520→ Pope Leo X issued papal bull-- open letter, said Luther needs to shut up, stop making criticism, Leo X is the holy father, he will excommunicate Luther if he doesn't stay quiet, Luther responded by burning the bull Excommunication-- in 1521, already very assured that the pope is not the holy authority, does not have the power to determine whether or not he is saved-- political authority overhead= Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V Diet of Worms Key event for Luther's career, 1521 invited/commanded to come to the city of Worms on the Rhine river diet= legislative body, Parliament of the HRE Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V) was there Pope sent nuncios Brought before all these ppl Asked if these are his books Says church authorities have determined this is heresy, they will give him one night to think about it, then he will have the chance to recant or not Gave him a day-- life at stake Said they had not shown him using scripture that he is wrong, "my conscience is captive to the word of God" To go against his own conscience was neither safe nor right Standing up to Pope and HRE, whole world Took a lot of bravery, hero Wasn't executed-- b/c of printing press, had gained fame around Europe Church knew if they executed him it could cause such an uproar among his followers-- it was too politically divisive, might cause some sort of revolt Even more about the nobles-- Charles V having trouble controlling nobles, HRE was an elected monarchical position-- had to please 7 electors to make sure your son was elected Frederick III= Prince of Saxony, one of the 7 electors Frederick the Wise Sympathetic to Luther, partially b/c Luther= his subject Other princes either felt that way or did not want the HRE to have the power to kill one of their own subjects Power struggle-- relationship of princes to emperor Frederick and Luther went back to Saxony, where Frederick feels he can protect Luther, but even then he goes into hiding for a year or two Spends his time writing and above all translating the Bible from Hebrew and Greek to German (beautiful German Bible, still the one German Protestants use) Had an impact on shaping the German language Eventually comes out in public and goes back to being a professor of theology at University of Wittenberg Not a priest-- to Protestants, everyone is his or her own priest Charles V declared Luther an outlaw-- anyone could kill him and would not be punished-- no one killed him, he dies in his bed Luther rejected the idea of the sharp contrast b/t clergy and laity→ priesthood of all believers Married a former nun, had a few kids Gets rid of the Catolish Unt (Catholic and) The Church eventually cleaned up its act a lot w/ Counter-Reformation, in terms of abuses and corruption Luther said it wasn't about the abuses but the doctrine itself Even good Christians in the Middle Ages were teaching things that were simply wrong Church wasn't getting worse, people were just expecting more People wanted to become more fully Christian, rise of lay literacy Dies in 1546 By that time, the majority of the German states had turned Protestant-- N and E generally went Lutheran, while S and W stayed Catholic Germany split-- North and south Outward forms Everything outside of the Bible that you might use for worship, Luther gets rid of a lot but keeps music Peasants' Revolt Largest peasant revolt in German history Across different German states Very specific demands, not extremely radical-- land, stable rents, remnants of feudalism, remnants of serfdom, freedom of religion-- thought Luther would be on their side Luther denounced it when it turned violent-- intensely conservative in terms of society, encouraged princes to suppress the revolt, said peasants were twisting his message, turning it into a gospel of revolution; believed established authorities were there b/c God wanted them there and had the right to fight against rebels, but did not support rebels Crushed in 1525, thousands of peasants slaughtered Fair number of peasants started looking to more radical ppl who preached a more radical split from tradit Christianity When Luther sided w/ authority, the princes liked that, why some of the princes stayed w/ him during the Reformation Authoritarian mindset in Germany-- why there isn't another really huge humanitarian revolution like this Lutheranism largely spreads to Scandinavian countries, Prussia, Estonia, Latvia, Denmark... Even before Luther died, there were people who began to question what he thought Luther was upset and horrified that people would read the Bible and not come up with what he came up with Truly believed that ppl would interpret the Bible the way he did if they went into it w/ an open heart Not a true proponent of freedo mof conscious Believed everyone should have the right to read the Bible in their own vernacular, and that ppl would read it the same way he did Leads to differences-- first seen w/ Huldrych Zwingli Not aiming to start a new denomination-- called Evangelical Church in Germany Start using the word Protestant in late 1520's

golden age of art

Under Louis XIV in France, mid 17th to early 18th century French remember his reign w/ a great deal of fondness b/c a lot was created partly thru his patronage opera develops in early 1600s in Italy and composers were lured north to France to compose there grand opera was pretty much invented during his reign ballet during particularly the middle of the 1600s, all these terminologies came around literature no one ultimate national writer number of great writers esp playwrights Moliere wrote comedy his plays are done here all the time timeless social satires did not make fun of the king partly patronized also director and actor Racine tragedy doesn't translate well usually based on myths elevated French social arts etiquette ppl began copying rules at Versailles all across Europe cuisine idea that the French are the great culinary geniuses social dance minuet fashion Paris as the ultimate fashion destination language becomes the common language of all upper class educated ppl in Europe

Exclusion crisis (1678-1681)

Under reign of Chalres II of England Late 17th century when it starts to be clear that James II will come to the throne ppl of Parliament began to pass things that said they wanted to exclude James II from the line to the throne some wanted to skip over to the next Protestant person in line others wanted him to legitimize his illegitimate child or skip to James II's children: who are Protestant Mary (William and Mary) Anne (will soon rule) Charles II vetoed this became an intense and violent crisis produced two nicknames exclusionists and non-exclusionists more conservative ppl voted against exclusion Tories-- loyalists in American Revolution became the conservative party term still used today more progressive ppl voted for exclusion Whigs-- revolutionaries in American Revolution became progressive party in favor of exclusion not just about being anti-Catholic idea that Catholicism is inherently and intimately intertwined with absolutism both originally put-down terms ultimately exclusion failed b/c Charles wouldn't allow it

dissenters/nonconformists

Under the Test Act (1673) in England, you couldn't vote, hold office, go to university if you were this or Catholic someone who is contrary to the majority in Britain, it means a non-Anglican Protestant Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists 1700s--> Methodists another very important dissenter group these ppl were a very important minority but they were second class citizens

l'uomo universale

Universal man Renaissance man Humanist Being able to appreciate the totality of life That you can do a lot of things well or at least appreciate them Appreciate the finer things

parliamentarians

War of Three Kingdoms Mid-17th century not everyone chose a side Roundheads--> particularly b/c of their haircuts eventually finds some excellent generals--> Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell

two main issues in English Civil War

War of Three Kingdoms, 17th century Split among parliamentary forces b/t more moderate and more radical Church do we want to change the church of England big question became do we even keep a state church more moderate wanted to keep state church said it just needed to be Presbyterian more radical wanted to not have a state church just have churches all do their own independent thing except Catholics to tolerate diversity at least among Protestants monarchy whether or not to abolish it moderates said they wanted to keep king but have a constitutional king more radical wanted to abolish majority of ppl in House of Commons were moderates but Cromwell and generals were more radical, and they had the guns

Oliver Cromwell

War of the Three Kingdoms, mid-17th century emerged as a leader of the Parliamentarians not a very important political figure at the start of all this gentryman well to do, but still commoner lawyer eventually a member of the House of Commons not one of te most high-pfogile, outspoken prominent members of opposition to the king Puritan had natural military ability finally defeat Royalist armies

infrastructure

Way to achieeve favorable balance of trade in mercantilism make roads better canals wider and more extensive bridges in repair anything that is part of transportation and communication, you promote

chartered companies

Way to achieeve favorable balance of trade in mercantilism private companies that have very close ties to gov they are given a monopoly in return for that privilege, you would pay a large sum of money each year safer investment you are more likely to invest as a private stockholder if you know the government is backing them up English East India Company starts in 1600 monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth grows into one of the most important businesses in the world eventually running whole Asian subcontinent until 1857 Dutch East India Company (VOC)- 1602 had 6 times the amount of investment capital in it for at least a century but then they also completely control prices not good for consumers also not fair disservice to the idea of equal opportunity and free market economy

colonies

Way to achieeve favorable balance of trade in mercantilism things that you control you can also demand that they buy everything from you, the motherland

bourgeoisie

Wealthy commoners Much more loyal to king Knew power could be cut off immediately Often bureaucrats-- paid money instead of castles, land, private armies, or power Instead of nobles

saints' cults

What Erasmus criticized more than anything else about the RCC Showing devotion to a saint Having churches dedicated to him or her, prayers said in their name, images of them, pilgrimages to where they lived Veneration-- worship is only for God, but you venerate saints A lot of people said common people were substituting saints for God-- became polytheism, God seemed so huge and distant that people didn't want to bother him Erasmus said saints had become way too important Huge part of this were the saints' relics Items or possessions of Saints that had sacred aura, special properties Something left behind-- bones, teeth, hair, clothing, splinters of the cross People made pilgrimages to see them Supposed to have healing power Prayed as close as you could to them-- sanctity around them Prayed above all for healing People wanted something tangible Question of whether you should venerate anyone other than Christ-- protestants end up saying no

union of arms

What Olivares wanted in Spain A common army belonging to all Spanish possessions Centralized military One common Spanish-Habsburg army that would draw from all over the empire

quid pro quo

What Parliament said to Charles I of England (early to mid-17th century) Constant Demanded they raise taxes They say only if you persecute Catholics more in England and abroad, or change the Church, or accept constitutional limits on pwr Religion gets intertwined w/ political opposition Didn't take long for things to come to a head 3 years into his reign

jane seymour

Wife #3 Married 1536-1537 Finally produces a son From upper-class English family son= Edward, will become Edward VI (1547-1553) Didn't rule a long time Died 9 days after she gave birth, from infection

anne of cleves

Wife #4 Married 1539-1540 Married two years after wife #3 died Common belief= she was ugly and he barely wanted to sleep w/ her After having 3 wives, wanted another one Cromwell tells him he has to have an alliance w/ some Protestants on the continent-- looked like Habsburg and Valois were coming to peace, could form alliance against England German princes were the only real Protestant powers Making alliance w/ German Prince of Cleves (protestant) Was going to marry his sister Sends Holbein to go, make a portrait of her, tell him if she should marry him He told Henry he should marry her Now some actually think she was disgusted w/ him when she saw him, this angered him and he started claiming she was ugly, says terrible things about her Wants to get out of this marriage, but had to go thru w/ wedding to go thru w/ alliance Then Cranmer offered an annulment Anne= unhappy but didn't want to fight back that much Stayed in London, raised some of Henry's children Got titled "the king's sister" Even Henry started liking her when he didn't have to be married to her Outlives him Cromwell takes the fall for this, dies for this, gets head cut off

Catherine Howard

Wife #5 Married 1540-1541 Gets beheaded Teenager-- only 18 when she married him He was looking older than he was Member of powerful conservative Catholic family Accused of committing adultery w/ at least one person in court Everyone agrees that she actually had done it Someone who had already been in her life before Henry Beheaded for treasonous adultery in 1542 In the days before her execution, asked for a block to be brought to her room, practiced walking up to it so she wouldn't freak out Beheaded in 1542

Catherine Parr

Wife #6 Married 1542-1547 Older woman Already married and widowed twice Very scholarly Very Protestant Cliche was that she was the nursemaid to this guy who was close to his death at that time As much as a woman could, she shaped policy Wrote a book about Protestant theology First book written by a woman published in English Would talk back and argue w/ Henry to a point Important in shaping the development of Edward VI Made sure that the next ruler would be very Protestant Importance would have been greater if Edward had lived longer Outlived Henry Married one more time to a member of the Seymour family

slavery

With rise in commerce in France under Louis XIV, this revives and becomes stronger Sugar Tobacco and rice in America Way to achieeve favorable balance of trade in mercantilism question of colonies if you are trying to decrease imports, you don't want to have to buy certain goods from foreigners that you can't produce in your own country so you then try to grab colonies in the West Indies/Caribbean, Brazil, Americas (for sugar especially) no white ppl would go work there unless they were indentured servants or political prisoners no one did it voluntarily so while it had disappeared inside Europe, grew exponentially in these new colonies

ursulines

Women Founded in 1400s At first took a vow to stay and live w/ parents Then would meet and pray Later ended up going off to convents and such Big thing= education→ run a lot of schools Answers Protestant argument that we aren't educating ppl

secular clery

World clergy Not member of any religious order Bishops, priests, etc→ most Basically means you aren't in a religious order Just an ordained priest or bishop

book of common prayer

Written by Thomas Cranmer under Edward VI Liturgy The Catholic mass liturgical book translated into beautiful English Also changed in certain ways to get rid of the distinctly Roman Catholic parts of it

regular clergy

You live according to a rule You join a religious order→ includes nuns even though they aren't clergy Better to call them "The Religious" You joined an organization that is dedicated to living a fully complete Christian life Every religious order takes 3 basic vows: chastity, poverty, obedience You don't own anything yourself→ the order owns it Regula in Latin means a rule First monks were the Benedictines→ followed the rule of St Benedict

purely symbolic

Zwingli Says there is no physical presence of Christ It is a reminder/commemoration, not a physical thing Thought Luther was not willing to go far enough away from a Catholic position

eucharist

Zwingli did not agree w/ Luther on this Term for communion, bread and wine, breaking of bread Key sacrament for most Christians Transubstantiation RCC In philosophy in Aristotle, there is the outward form of something, and the essence of it (what makes it what it is) Every time mass is said, a miracle occurs-- when the priest consecrates the elements, you are reenacting Christ's sacrifice Wine becomes blood of Christ, bread becomes body, in a real sense Not just a symbol, not just a remembrance-- there is a real presence there, a real miracle Consubstantiation Luther Rejected the idea that it becomes the bread and wine when the priest says something Says that the bread does become in a real sense the body of Christ, but only for a person who receives it in faith Puts the burden on the receiver of the bread/wine Disagreed w/ Catholics but kept whole presence Purely symbolic Zwingli Says there is no physical presence of Christ It is a reminder/commemoration, not a physical thing Thought Luther was not willing to go far enough away from a Catholic position

viscount

a little below an earl

Ulster Plantation (1609-)

a lot of Scottish Presbyterians were brought over and planted there wanted them to be a loyal population Irish pop had stayed Catholic, and were becoming intensely Catholic vs the monarch Irish fought back Parliament is saying that James needs to crush that revolt, James is saying that he needs an army

nuncio

a papal ambassador to a foreign court or government

queen regnant

a woman who hereditarily inherited a throne, Isabella of Castile was one of the first of these in history, France has a rule that a woman could never be this

god

about religion proselytizing, spreading faith why Christianity is a universal religion Columbus told Isabella of Castile that she would spread the love of Christ Christopher meaning Christophorus= Christ-bearer Christian Europe felt in battle and besieged by Muslim world to see if they could find Christians somewhere out in the world legend of Kingdom of Prester John it was wealthy Christian kingdom somewhere out in the world legend was that the kingdom would help them in their struggles against the Muslim world hope based on a myth but there were some Mongols who became Christians hope to find them not much came out of it--> either became Muslim or practiced Buddhism Abyssinia ancient Christian kingdom in Africa Ethiopia--> very specific type of Christianity looking both for people who could convert and also ppl who were already Christian and would help in fight against Muslims

bureaucrats

administrative position in gov, salaried civil servant Not given castles, land, private armies, power Paid money Drawn not from noble class but from bourgeoisie Wealthy commoners Much more loyal to king Knew power could be cut off immediately

Abyssinia

ancient Christian kingdom in Africa Ethiopia--> very specific type of Christianity

Gibraltar

at the foot of the Iberian peninsula right across from Morocco British took it in Treaty of Utrecht early 18th century still have it today one of the few crown colonies left today made a difference that Britain controlled that spot in later conflicts

lithuanian, latvian

baltic languages (distantly related to Slavic)

Carnival

before Lent penance leading up to Easter day before Lent= Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) Protestants got rid of it-- so still important in Catholicism can run all the way from Epiphany to Ash Wednesday oriented around Easter--> a movable feast, can vary a lot carne= meat valle= goodbye means giving up meat and the flesh carnal desires giving up sex giving up something you're going to miss at Carnival you indulge in those two things--> meat and sex there is a tradition in some cultures that all bets are off in Carnival rules don't really apply it is acceptable during this time to have wife-swapping Ash Wednesday is a sharp break breaking rules about sexuality, but also about social hierarchy theme= world turned upside down processions/floats= ppl doing things that are the reverse of what it is supposed to be masks= v important putting on diff persona "Lord of Misrule" someone elected the king for the day electing an outsider who gets to make the rules for the day able to grant noble titles for the day/week had immunity, could kick anyone's ass, even nobles would sometimes wear lots of sausages hanging from his suit cross-dressing upper classes went along w/ it starts to die off when in the 18th century the upper classes stop wanting to do it anymore two reasons for it: safety valve incredibly unequal society you let the poor, women, marginalized have their day so they don't explode by doing all that stuff, you are reinforcing the conventional view of how society is supposed to be saying 'look how crazy it would be if the world was like this' way of reinforcing conservative view of society importance of sausages--> lots of them

spanish morale

can change Spain became known for having a fatalistic attitude 'que sera sera' all fate, all predestined, nothing I do individually is gonna make any difference all fated to decline when Colbert was doing all canal building and helping French infrastructure and it was paying off and France was flourishing, some of the Spanish ppl said they should do it too study to connect two rivers committee said that God would've connected those rivers if he had wanted them to be so they didn't build the canal and economy kept going down toilet who cares, whatever attitiude

croats

catholics, use latin alphabet, speak serbo-croatian

piazza

center square

great council

central body of the Venetian government, people who had true citizenship in terms of voting, had right to vote for Senators, chose from themselves, about 2500 people, hereditary, wealthy, well-educated men

hearts

church in deck of ccards

court of high commission

church prerogative court

Barcelona

city in spain, not very important in medieval times

padua

city-state that became a center of medical innovation and universities

active, contemplative

civic humanists said ___ life was superior to ___ life

Religious orders

clergy→ ppl who have been ordained, only men Two types of clergy in Catholic church Secular clergy World clergy Not member of any religious order Bishops, priests, etc→ most Just ordained priest or bishop Regular clergy You live according to a rule You join a religious order Includes nuns Nuns aren't clergy Better to call them "The Religious" You joined an organization that is dedicated to living a fully complete Christian life Every religious order takes 3 basic vows: chastity, poverty, obedience You don't own anything yourself→ the order owns it Regula in Latin means a rule First monks were the Benedictines→ followed the rule of St Benedict Monks, friars, nuns, etc Ppl wanted to live a super-Christian life once Christianity was legalized by Constantine Monasticism was a way to martyr yourself Before, being Christian was dangerous enough Sacrifice in a way that martyrs had to Willing to die for your faith First ppl to do it were holy hermits Monks and nuns take 3 vows: poverty, chastity, obedience (to elected superior and to Church and to god) Monks Live away from the world, cloistered Deliberately turning your back on the world Take vow of stability→ you will be in that monastery your whole life Contemplative order→ inner life, meditation, thought Mendicant orders friars→ from Latin word frater (brother) Any person who is part of a mendicant order Move around, don't take vow of stability Usually worked out in the world→ teachers, working w/ poor, as missionaries Bartolome de las Casas= great Dominican friar mendicant= beggar in English Different from monks Monks own collective property, land Say we shouldn't even collectively own lands Go around doing day work Said they were living out in the world, living hand to mouth Wandered countryside, lived by handouts or did work Hard to maintain pretty quickly Franciscans First ones from St. Francis of Assisi Around since early 1200s Reform movement led to formation of the Capuchins Augustinians Order Luther joined orders→ where vitallity of the church was, ppl trying to go the extra mile 16th c→ sign of rejuvenation of the Catholic Church, a lot of new orders formed→ either reform movements w/in existing orders or entirely new orders Jesuits→ not monks or friars, formed in 1500s Most important ppl St Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)--> founded, Basque, soldier got hurt in battle, abstinence and self-denial, apostles, education and reading, wrote The Spiritual Exercises Devoted to education and missionary work, serve as right hand of Pope Organized into companies, head= inspector general Motto: Ad majorem Dei gloriam (to the greater glory of God) Loyalty to religion above all other loyalty, Soli Deo Gloria (to the Glogy of God alone) Francis Xavier goes to Portuguese Empire, Apostle of the Indies Stressed blind obedience to the Church Follow right behind explorers Important in trying to roll back the Reformation→ in some ways successful, Czech, Poles, Hungarians all generally brought back to the Catholic Church→ victories for counter-Reformation All males Take vow of direct loyalty to the pope Most important order Free will→ Jesuits said it was partly up to you, Protestants renounced this Capuchins Reform in the Franciscans led to formation of this Started in 1525 Not in reaction to Luther or any Protestant thing→ Luther was already well into doing his thing Monkeys named after them Ursulines Women Founded in 1400s At first took a vow to stay and live w/ parents Then they would meet and pray Later ended up going off to convents and such Big thing= education→ run a lot of schools Answers Protestant argument that we aren't educating ppl

toledo

closest city to a capital in Spain in the time of Ferdinand and Isabella

community solidarity

communities were in some ways tightly knit by our standards tendency to romanticize pre-revolutionary society--> organic society, strong community, sense of interrelatedness this is not true violent socially stratified some examples of social mobility, but generally if you were born a peasant you died a peasant born nobles died nobles segregated gender roles rigidity obedience to males starting to produce children ASAP often lawsuits, disputes over property so didn't work together and share in everything fierce disputes family feuds priest and lord= two authorities helped unite ppl out of having a common enemy communal society not every family had own plow or could afford own set of draft animals (horse, ox) draft= pull something draft animals--> most common= oxen horses until later ox= castrated bull, w/o testicles makes ox more docile make them more tractable and behave more also makes meat more tender also for selective breeding castrated stallion= gelding ox= one type of castrated bull if you castrate a male cow when it's young (still a calf)= steer oxen= simply male cattle that have been castrated you would share your draft animals, ploughs, equipment land wasn't divided into parts that you kept interminably often rotated

Rhine River

controversial boundary in France France had not reached it historically very German (german-speaking on both sides) thought they should expand to there his wars were about that more than anything else

serbo-croatian

croats= Catholic, use Latin alphabet Serbs= Orthodox, use cyrillic alphabet bosnian/bosniaks= Muslims

7 sacraments

cs, like mainstream Protestants, believe in infant baptism You want to baptize a baby, b/c if not, you would go to limbo Not horrible like Purgatory, but not heaven either Even a women could administer it---> the physical act is that important If someone is about to die then anyone could baptize that person Confirmation When you are coming of age A bishop has to confirm you Making sure you know what you are doing Marriage Luther says you shouldn't call something a sacrament if it wasn't uniquely Christian Penance Confession is part of it The old name What you do to atone your sins Ordination When you are made a priest So you can administer sacraments You are kind of a separate group Higher level Indelible character Eucharist Communion, mass The other one that most Protestants have Extreme unction, last rites, anointing of the sick Anointed w/ oil unction= oil extreme= at the end of your life First try to heal you Then over time happened when they knew you were pretty much a goner Didn't think that if you suddenly died then it was an issue Catholic church= mechanism for administering these

Miguel de Cervantes (d. 1616)

d. 1616 Very important author in Spanish golden age Wrote Don Quixote An early form of a novel Definitely fiction, fantasy story, satire Making fun of Spanish ppl and society Felt that the Spanish ppl lived in a dream world, starting to harm them in a practical sense Spain has precipitous decline b/c of this

serfdom

died off in Western Europe got stronger in Eastern Europe in 1500s and 1600s striking change by 1500s, essentially gone in Western Europe remnants of it Eastern Europe Poland, Hungary, Russia, eastern German states grows even more, harsher

albanian

distantly related to Greek

Saxony

duke of this principality is also an elector, Protestant

gold

economic factors probably strongest of all spice trade= most important thing that Europeans want pepper cloves, nutmeg, cinammon came from plants that really only grew far from Europe tended to grow either in India (great source of pepper) or Indies (Spice Islands, later East Indies, now Indonesia) want to get to the source of the spices you could make a fortune back then spiced up the food but also hierarchical conspicuous consumption a treat for nobility way of showing you had money limited diet very few choices, bland relatively little fresh fruit-- apples water (contaminated and unsafe) North--> beer, South--> wine no soft drinks no coffee no tea no chocolate no fruit juice almost no refined sugar (honey, but that was about it) lots of stuff based on grain and bread beets, onions NO: corn, tomatoes, potatoes China= main source of silk, porcelain, jade China doesn't want anything Europe has to offer--> only silver and gold hoping to cut out middlemen in trade Byzantine Empire (Constantinople) fell to Ottomans in 1453 crisis Turks were very aggressive Islam Turks were less mercantile culture, nomadic, considered not letting trade go on anymore popes even issued proclamations saying they should not provide muskets to Europeans about trying to find alternative routes to east also legend of sources of gold in sub-saharan Africa

doge

elected for life, main leader of the Venice, not very powerful, eventually became figurehead ruler, prestigious, head of state, instead of head of government

opera

era Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century develops in early 1600s in Italy and composers were lured north to France to compose there grand opera was pretty much invented during his reign

Agrarian

farming societies all of them were farming societies 3 administrative units that all overlap, if you were a peasant you lived in each of these parish everyone was in a parish the area served by a particular church and one or more ministers varied in size--> in a city they could be a neighborhood, in the countryside it could be a wider area tithe--> often obligatory diocese includes many parishes, ruled over by a bishop diocese make up a province ruled by an archbishop district government area some kind of administration (justice of the peace) taxes fell heavily on peasants b/c nobles and even bourgeoisie managed to win tax concessions from the monarchs often tax exempt church lands were tax exempt often would include several parishes manor an administrative unit of a landlord if you had a lot of land you often possessed several manors rents--> paid based on the manor that you lived in you had an overseer that the landlord appointed how you paid often didn't pay in money but in products or time sometimes a village might be divided peasants had to pay SO MUCH serfdom gone in W Europe by 1500s serfdom grows more intense in E Europe diff types of peasants freeholders peasants who own their own land outright yeoman farmers family farmers remnants of serfdom legacies ppl who were still tied to the lands that belonged to the great landlord landlords could sstill often decide if you could marry someone or not hunting privileges landlords/nobles would set aside land where they said peasants were not allowed to hunt there b/c they wanted to hunt for fun peasants wanted to kill them to eat and if they were pests--> eating your crops banalities monopolies that nobles had on the food processing side of things if you grow grain you don't eat raw grain, you have to mill it--> turn it into flower, run a mill mill and wine press and communal ovens would all be owned by the noble, and had to pay him every time you used them small fee but constant and peasants didn't have much cash also couldn't build their own it was tough to be a peasant

Battle of White Mountain (1620)

first major battle of the Thirty Years' War Frederick V, ruler of the Palatinate Calvinist German Chairman of the Protestant Unnion did not all join his side--> they said he started the war but the Calvinist members did help him 2 branches of the Habsburgs: Ferdinand II Spanish Habsburgs Married to a Stewart, daughter of James I related to Orange on mother's side Frederick loses this battle particularly important for Czechs (Bohemia) fell under complete control after the defeat Habsburgs declare the throne to be hereditary, not elected brought in Jesuits to try to convert ppl and set up schools shut down Protestant schools and churches @ start of 1600s, majority of Czechs were Protestant that is all pretty much eradicated today it is majority Catholic Catholic Church does not have fervent following among Czechs that Poland does and Hungary You still get the sense that the Czechs were driven back into the church native Czech nobility replaced by ppl the Habsburgs brought in from other parts of Europe Bohemia and Moravia are what now makes up the Czech republic stayed under Habsburg rule until November of 1918 Bohemia= region, of Czech ppl King of Bohemia

danube river

flows from Alp and East, more than one capital on it-- Budapest, Prague, Belgrade (capital of Serbia), Bucharest (capital of Romania)

Grand Alliance

formed in 1690s by William III to hold back Louis XIV England, Scotland, Ireland, Netherlands, Spain, Austrian Habsburgs, some German states, Sweden Dutch, English, Scottish, Irish, Austrians, Spanish, Swedish war called the 9 Years' War (1688-1697), fought during 1690s Louis is thwarted a bit before War of Spanish Succession William particularly leading alliance against Louis Louis was sstopped

winged man, winged lion, bull, eagle

four animals that are vital to understanding medieval art, all represent one of the four gospels

priest/pastor

gave sacraments made sermon/homily confession ministering to the sick some religious figures were famous for being involved in medicine educated often served also as the teacher this was a time when formal education was not available to rural areas (towns and cities at best) dealing w/ scientific and medical things they had that sort of interest keeping books and records parish registers record of births and deaths and marriages figuring out about premarital sex there was a huge emphasis on getting married before the child came illegitimacy rates were incredibly low a lot of pressure on the men a lot of ppl being forced to marry legitimacy rates

realpolitik

german words, realistic politics, machiavelli

icelandic, swedish, german, norwegian, dutch, flemish, English

germanic languages

Sardinia/Savoy/Piedmont

given to a state called Savoy in the reaty of Utrecht early 18th century had fought against Louis eventually known as the kingdom of Sardinia aka Piedmont most of Savoy today is in France Piedmont is at the foot of the Alps in Italy today

Dutch religious toleration

good for business long tradition of being fairly easygoing dominant state church= Calvinist Dutch Reformed Church large Catholic minority only second class in that they didn't have much political say Jan Vermeer (d. 1675) one of the most famous painters today Girl with the Pearl Earring from Catholic minority Jewish minority left pretty much alone Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1669) famous painter had a lot of Jewish friends, would have them pose as Mary, Jesus, etc bc THEY WERE JEWS

oil paint

great development around year 1400 in low countries (around Belgium) particularly on canvas (another new things) gives much more control-- subtle transitions, variations, etc.

demographics

in 1500s, population increased steadily had gone up and down before, esp b/c of black death prices go up population growth= more people to work land demand goes up for food more pressure on the land more mouths to feed food supply not growing as fast as population so prices went up food production went up but just not as fast so food prices went up and therefore all prices went up ppl needed to be paid more in order for them to live at the same standard coins= form of currency until late 1700s mainly metal copper for lower levels big influx of silver from the New World, particularly from Peru, Bolivia, and Mexico gold also but much more gold adds to inflation some you can now make a lot more coins, but not increase in goods produced made a lot more money, prices go up to reflect it when you produce more money, that isn't producing more products, just means you have more money not making ppl rich by increasing money supply screwing things up means you can't plan for the future gold and silver should've made Spain wealthy but has negative effect used not to build a healthy economy but for endless wars they were fighting really a curse all countries' governments could debase currency mixing base metals (lead, zinc, copper, tin) you can produce more money but inflates things way for a government to get its way out of debt paying ppl back w/ money that is worth less than it was when it came to the government

internecine

internal conflict, killing among/within, textbook said that Castile was torn by ___ conflict in years before Isabella

textual criticism

invented by Lorenzo Valla when he used philology to prove the forgery of the Donation of Constantine, skeptical attitude

Christian IV (1588-1648)

king of Denmark who also ruled Norway trying to extend power of monarchy too Lutheran his army not able to defeat Habsburgs at all--> humiliated entered war in 1626

James II (1685-1688)

late 17th century became king when Charles died accepted b/c ppl still remember English Civil War extremists did actually attempt to prevent him from becoming king Charles's illegitimate son led a brief rebellion this was the last land battle that occurred in England to this day (1685) elevated Catholics into positions-- ignoring Parliament and the Test Act wanted administrators to be ppl he could trust simply suspended the Test Act proved that Catholics are absolutists and absolutists are Catholics ppl were still hesitant to lead a rebellion Anne Hyde English and Protestant his first wife had Anne and Mary (two daughters) Mary married William of Orange he was not king b/c Netherlands was a republic (not hereditary and not all the time) became like a monarchy b/c it was only a role when the Dutch were at war but they were almost always at war and they continually picked from the Orange family also had Stuart blood on his mother's side he= stadholder in Netherlands died in 1671 Mary of Modena younger woman devout Catholic ppl were fearful that she would become pregnant and that it would be a boy she did get pregnant and had a boy James 'the Old Pretender' pretender= claimant to the throne, but you never get it his son= 'The Young Pretender' gave birth largely in private this is when everyone came together and decided they had to do something the possibility of having Catholics forever very quickly there is a revolt Glorious Revolution (1688) almost no fighting James and wife and kids fled to France replaced by his own daughter at the same time, Mary and William of Orange come over and take over

Brandenburg

leader= margrave One of the 7 electors of the HRE Protestant got some territory out of the 30 Years' war b/c the prince fought on the Protestant side part of the kingdom of Prussia that will later unite Germany capital= Berlin didn't look like it no big cities no frontiers no good soil devastated by war gets bigger and bigger, gets many other states to unite under their domination

remnants of serfdom

legacies ppl who were still tied to the lands that belonged to the great landlord landlords could sstill often decide if you could marry someone or not hunting privileges landlords/nobles would set aside land where they said peasants were not allowed to hunt there b/c they wanted to hunt for fun peasants wanted to kill them to eat and if they were pests--> eating your crops

subsistence economy

living off your own produce/crop you eat what you grow/raise you weren't growing things for market or really for profit

dialectic

logic, specifically in terms of making arguments, arguments in a back and forth way-- thesis and antithesis

enclosure

lords want to use commons for themselves

earl

lots of them uniquely British wife= Countess rest of Europe= Count

apprentice

lowest level of italian work, not paid, room and board, some skills, usually followed trade of father, might work for own father but believed it was better to make them go work with some other family

tempura

medieval art, egg yolk as the binding element, on parchment

fresco

medieval art, painted directly on a surface that isn't a canvas, wall, mural

Northern Earls' Rebellion (1569)

mid-16th century Reaction against centralization and about restoring Catholic Church in England Demanded that Elizabeth at least free Mary (or put her on the throne) Get rid of new Protestant advisors Reminiscent of Pilgrimage of Grace Elizabeth's gov was able to crush this revolt The very last baronial revolt in English history Last time you have a feudal revolt of nobles vs monarchs Shows that as much as there is this strong sense of Northern England being separate, the Tudor Revolution had succeeded Showed danger of having Mary alive As long as she existed there would be plots surrounding her

Count-Duke Olivares (1587-1645)

mid-17th century Favorite of Philip IV (1621-1665) of Spain Ruled a long time Remarkable decline of Spanish power Not very successful Perpetuated decline A lot of the glory of Spain was a facade Divine-right monarchy Weakness of Spanish empire Spain= very regionalized Wants to have common army belonging to all Spanish possessions Centralized military and w/ it a centralized tax system Succeeded in neither of these endeavors Aggressive foreign policy Advised them to keep fighting Netherlands and in 30 Years' War Italians fervently resisted tax system After 1580, Portugal was under the rule of the King of Spain Still had central identity Broke away in 1640, becomes separate kingdom again, picks new royal family Some of this was the right thing to do, but it was not well executed Eventually he had to take the blame, removed from office in 1643 1645→ died physically exhausted and mentally deranged Vision of centralization and union of arms One common Spanish-Habsburg army that would draw from all over the empire 1640→ Spain is fighting 30 Years' War, fighting 80 Years' War, and revolts b/c tax is so heavy on ppl in certain parts of their realm Revolts particularly in Portugal Succeeded Completely separate Picked own royal fam Monarchy until 1910 Nobles also supported rebellion Catalonian Revolt Barcelona= capital Want own country Crushed in 1652 Nobles also supported rebellion Destroyed our man Spain declines rapidly in late 1600s, falls from a great height Favorite of Philip IV

journeyman

middle level of Italian work, early teens into twenties sometimes later, before you join a guild

pride

most heinous of the 7 deadly sins in middle ages

urals

mountain range that signifies the 'end of Europe'

bosniaks

muslims, speak serbo-croatian

spades

nobles in deck of cards

united provinces

north netherlands

serbs

orthodox, use cyrillic alphabet, speak serbo-croatian

glory

out of pure curiosity partially Renaissance has restlessness, curiosity, optimism about humans expanding knowledge and power how Europeans are able to do this

palazzo

palace, often town hall, HQ of city government

festivals

part of the celebration is eating Catholic church--> feast day of each particular saint each day of the year has around 12 saints to celebrate--> depended on where you lived who you celebrated rites of May on May 1st, celebration of life coming back fertility celebration young adults sexual festival young single men would choose the eligible bachelorettes and put flowers on their doorsteps would choose a Queen of the May decorate everything w/ flowers--> flowers are sex organs of plants that reproduce sexually sap is running high marrying ppl off maypole would be erected in the town center, women would hold onto ribbons and dance around it it's a phallic symbol all Hallows' Eve all Hallows' Day= all Saints' Day= November 1 honor all saints collectively this is October 31 November 2=all Souls' Day when you pray for souls in Purgatory pre-Christian, pagan connotations idea that this was when the veil b/t living and dead was its thinnest dead walk the streets at night supposed to be not scary or morbid but a happy embrace of the other life 12 Days of Christmas after Christmas (Christmas is the first day) Christmas now ends on December 25 for them, it was the start of the 12 days last day for them= Epiphany January 6 a revelation the feast that honors when the magi find Jesus and worship him those 12 days were riotous times sometimes Calvinists tried to abolish Christmas nothing wrong w/ celebrating birth of Christ, but it became like Halloween is here adults would go around and expect rich ppl to give things out to them Church took December 25 as the day of the nativity b/c Europe already had a big festival in December when winter is coming on ppl want to have something to have some joy partly to enliven that dark time also celebration of when the sun starts coming back killing animals when winter comes on you slaughtered animals b/c you couldn't get enough hay to last them thru the winter one of the only times that poor people ate meat already a partying time, just added the celebration of Jesus Carnival before Lent penance leading up to Easter day before Lent= Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) Protestants got rid of it-- so still important in Catholicism can run all the way from Epiphany to Ash Wednesday oriented around Easter--> a movable feast, can vary a lot carne= meat valle= goodbye means giving up meat and the flesh carnal desires giving up sex giving up something you're going to miss at Carnival you indulge in those two things--> meat and sex there is a tradition in some cultures that all bets are off in Carnival rules don't really apply it is acceptable during this time to have wife-swapping Ash Wednesday is a sharp break breaking rules about sexuality, but also about social hierarchy theme= world turned upside down processions/floats= ppl doing things that are the reverse of what it is supposed to be masks= v important putting on diff persona "Lord of Misrule" someone elected the king for the day electing an outsider who gets to make the rules for the day able to grant noble titles for the day/week had immunity, could kick anyone's ass, even nobles would sometimes wear lots of sausages hanging from his suit cross-dressing upper classes went along w/ it starts to die off when in the 18th century the upper classes stop wanting to do it anymore two reasons for it: safety valve incredibly unequal society you let the poor, women, marginalized have their day so they don't explode by doing all that stuff, you are reinforcing the conventional view of how society is supposed to be saying 'look how crazy it would be if the world was like this' way of reinforcing conservative view of society importance of sausages--> lots of them

clubs

peasants in deck of cards

freeholders

peasants who own their own land outright yeoman farmers family farmers

laity

people who are not ordained clergy (king through peasants)

lay literacy

people who are not ordained clergy, more prevalent in cities in mercantile areas because this is necessary; early middle ages, only literate people were some clergy; by the late middle ages you have a fair amount of this-- meant people were thinking in different and individual ways, skepticism

Piazza and Palazzos

piazza= center square palazzo= palace, often town hall, HQ of city gov Designed and decorated by some of the greatest artists of the Renaissance where competition really came into play b/t Italian city-states Civic competition Huge divide b/t N and S Italians You want these to look better than anyone else's

city-state

polis meaning

Muscovy

principality around Moscow

genoa

produced Columbus, who ended up sailing for another country; another important port city

protectionism

protecting domestic industry (agriculture) from foreign competition use tariffs and taxes on imports also quotas Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France, mid-17th century advisor to Louis XIV

radical reformation

radix=root radical→ strike at the root of the problem Wants to do something extreme A fundamental change Luther was not trying to completely reroute the Church Even in his lifetime, ppl like Zwingli and Calvin disagree w/ him Even more radical reformers Anabaptists Decided that if you should only do things that are scriptural, they did a lot of other things Baptism= one of the two sacraments the Protestant accepted, initiation as a member of the Church Adult baptism→ better term is believer's baptism Shook a lot of ppl Most others believed that you should be baptized as a baby But Anabaptists went w/ adult baptism Usually baptized @ 11 or 12 Stressing stuff about being a true believer This is making a conscious choice, making a commitment to the church Also say infant baptism is not scriptural There is no scriptural evidence of infants being baptized, but adults Totally immersed underwater, symbol of you going into your grave Mainstream Protestants thought it was funny to kill Anabaptists by drowning them Church type vs. sect type Two ways you can view how the Christian community should interact w/ general society Church type→ Catholics and mainstream Protestants Don't try to distinguish committed true believers from insincere ones You baptize all of society Treat general society as being coterminous w/ the church Assuming that everyone is part of the church Baptize infants But also means there's no real separation of church and state-- prince is a Christian prince Sect type→ subgroup, you say the great majority of ppl/general society is not ever going to be Christian The true Christians in the world are always going to be a minority The sign of that is believer's baptism Only ppl who had consciously made a choice Narrow def of Christianity in a community You separate yourself from the world Trying to be apart from "the world" which they think of as simple polygamy→ saw that patriarchs had more than one wife, did so as well Very strict morality, unfashionable→ modesty, bonnets, etc Strict in lifestyle in terms of attire→ why they often live in rural areas Tended to be deeply pacifist Say when Christ said turn the other cheek, he meant that He who lives by the sword dies by the sword Majority of Christianity had not been Baptist Direct descendants of Anabaptists today (still sect type): Mennonites Will use iternal combustion engines, electricity Named after Menno Simons Pacifists Try to live simply and gently Don't live nearly as strictly as Amish and Hutterites Amish Say they will only use tech you had by the year 700 'Living plain' Simply, making your own clothes, not trying to be fashionable Separating yourself from the cool kids, who are sinful Famous for barn-raisings Largest Amish community in the US in Pennsylvania (SE corner of Pennsylvania) "Pennsylvania Dutch" Not Dutch→ German Not from the Netherlands Dutch came to Hudson River area, Michigan Hutterites Tend to live out West, w/ a lot of land Said early Christian community tended to share Communalism Believe in living in Christian communities Share the work, everyone had same standard of living, like Utopia Believed that you share the wealth Rejected idea of a Christian prince, rejected idea that most of society were Christians Often marginalized, persecuted→ saw this as a sign that they were true believers, always martyred Communities that were largely ethnically German, even if they were not living in Germany Austria, Germany, Eastern outskirts of Holy Roman Empire Netherlands Germanic Munster Rebellion (1534-1535) Group of Anabaptists who took over the city of Munster Drove out Catholics and mainstream Protestants Tried to set up a commune, heaven on earth Used violence to enforce things, polygamy Discredited Anabaptists largely, gave them a bad reputation Lutherans and Catholics united to take back the city Leaders were tortured to death Michael Servetus (died in 1553) Spaniard Medical doctor Came up w/ the idea of the circulation of the blood before the man who gets credit for it= William Harvey Became an amateur self-trained theologian Felt very strongly that there was a doctrine that the Catholics, Protestants, and Anabaptists taught that was wrong Not in the Bible, about the nature of God, didn't believe how this could be Unitarians-- most liberal of all Christians Reject the Trinity-- not Trinitarian but Unitarian Doctrine that the Christian church developed early on The explanation for how God could become man Said he didn't see it anywhere in the Bible Said they were supposed to be consistent Thought Jesus was special, but God wasn't 3 in 1 but 1 in 1 Wrote a book that was considered to be one of the most dangerous books Went on the run, Protestants and Catholics trying to chase him and catch him Caught in France Supposed to be executed-- burned at the stake Jail break-- escaped the night before he was supposed to be executed Fled to Geneva, thought he would find amnesty there from Calvin Arrested in Geneva Put on trial for heresy Calvin asked them just to behead him But town council overrode him and burned him at the stake Not just the Catholics who persecuted ppl Although Erasmus said you shouldn't kill someone for a belief

french, spanish, romanian, italian, portuguese, catalan

romance languages

aristocracy

ruled by the best, ruled by nobles, people w/ noble titles, usually wealthy, landed wealth

oligarchy

ruled by the few, usually the wealthy, small number of people who are well-to-do, usually takes the form of various councils, normally wealthy commoners, generally city-states, people did not have noble titles but were just wealthy commoners (bankers, merchants, etc)

plutocracy

ruled by the rich

Grand Duke of Muscovy

ruler of Muscovy

synoptic

seeing as one together, matthew, mark and luke, all have similar sources, fairly parallel (John has a lot of stories and verses that aren't in the other 3)

tormentum insomniae

sleep deprivation you don't let ppl fall asleep supposedly would loosen their tongue and they would speak the truth doesn't mean you start speaking the truth but start hallucinating and babbling A way of seeing if you were a witch But a lot of accusations were projections of fantasies on ppl or something

dragoon

someone who rides on horseback to a battle but then fights on foot like mountain infantry mountain footsoldiers known as being really tough now it's a verb to force by intimidation or threat of violence Louis's government made ppl take a certain number of dragoons into their homes told to make life miserable for the family if you converted they pulled the soldiers out Especially done to Huguenots

spanish netherlands

south netherlands

slovenian, serbo-croation

southern slavic languages

Masque

stage performance in which the actors wear masks often had royal family members play parts in it one of them was a cosmological allegory and Louis played the sun liked it so much Where Louis gets the nickname of the "sun king"

aristotle

student, Medieval western Europe had most of his work, translated into Europe, in Raphael's Philosophy, he is reaching out, more focused on natural world

taille

tax on land-holding in France, but nobles and clergy did not pay it although they owned most of the land, French monarchy could not tap into wealth of the country the way it should've been able to, one of the main reasons for the French Revolution, really had to squeeze a lot out of the people who were left

Plato

teacher, medieval europe had almost none of his work, missing basically 1/2 of Greek philosophy, all this comes back into western europe in the 1400s, created scholarly excitement-- in Raphael's Philosophy, he is pointing up, more focused on supernatural

alsace-lorraine

technically given to Louis XIV under Peace of Westphalia, but he had to fight some wars to get it

Dutch Empire

tended to replace a lot of where the Portuguese had been and then pushed them out from 1580 to 1640, Portugal was not really governing itself (governed by a mainly Spanish king) felt Spanish did not do enough to defend their colonies Dutch took a lot from the Portuguese tip of Africa areas in India took Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) had that until British took it from them in 1815 crown jewel= Dutch East Indies Portuguese got there first by early 1600s, Dutch are moving in Nutmeg Wars Dutch push out Portuguese and then Dutch and English fight Dutch win at the expense of environmental destruction Taiwan-- took it from Portuguese, then Chinese took it from them Manhattan New Netherland at first, and city was New Amsterdam originally their own British eventually managed to drive them off New Zealand Zeeland= southernmost province in Netherlands guy also discovered Tasmanian island

ecclesiastical principalities

their prince or ruler was a Catholic bishop Meinz (where the printing press originated) Peace of Augsburg specifically said that these could never become Protestant such a part of the Catholic ecclesiastical structure that Charles V really made this point some of them did turn Protestant, particularly in the northern parts of Germany

body politic

there is a hierarchy in society teaching quality that ppl are needed and they are helping out conservative--> toe shouldn't try to be the head or vice versa

cities and social welfare

they subsidized bread below market price for citizens of a city bread almost always meant food city ppl ate better than country ppl transportation hubs could bring in food from farther away would also try to maintain surpluses sturdy beggar (ppl who could work but don't) vs. deserving poor they tended to be charitable ppl thought the poor were doing them good b/c it allowed them to show their altruism poor rate--> a tax to specifically help the poor

swimming a witch

they thought that water would tend to reject a witch (particularly about baptismal vow) thought part of becoming a witch was you had to renounce your baptismal vow would bless water would drag a witch across a body of water if she seemed to float, they said water was rejecting them and they were a witch if they sank, they pulled them out and weren't a witch

claimants to Spanish throne

two main ones: Leopold I's son Leopold= Austrian-Habsburg emperor Louis XIV's grandson Philip of Anjou Bourbon most ppl in Europe did not want Philip of Anjou to become king Louis would have control over New World, Philippines, Spain and the Spanish Netherlands Spanish Netherlands was especially worrisome worked out a compromise eventually ppl were worried he was gonna get the whole European succession for his grandson reached a compromise that everyone signed off on and Leopold's son was going to get some and then he died so it had to be reworked finally decided that Spain's empire would be divided some would go to Philip of Anjou most would go to Austrian-Habsburgs completely ignored Spain, what Charles II wanted thwarts them, wrote in his will that all of the empire would go to Philip of Anjou most important thing to him was that the realm stay in tact if Philip of Anjou wouldn't take all of it then it would all go w/ Austrians perhaps b/c he thought Philip of Anjou would be able to keep the Spanish realm intact crisis when treaty is revealed in 1700 question of whether France will follow the compromise/treaty or if they will follow Charles's will and take it all Louis announced that France will take all of it what sparked the war Spanish ppl grudgingly accept Philip Philip= first Bourbon king of Spain

the commons

used in common by everyone legally belonged to a lord tradition= uncultivated land meadow, pasture, or forestland 'wasteland' didn't have a crop growing on it pond on it everyone got to fish in pond let pigs go out into woods and looked for acorns will change--> enclosure lords want to use commons for themselves

baron

usually just called lord

rotterdam

very important port city, was the most important one in the world

Spain's decline

very important story over-extension empires get so large that they can't control everywhere and collapse fought expensive wars usually ended up losing them 30 Years' War tried to help Austrian Habsburgs fought for Low Countries ended up essentially losing them 80 Years' War about the Dutch/Low Countries lost this tried to help French Catholics against Huguenots more successful often in conflict w/ England in conflict w/ Protestant Dutch and eventually w/ Catholic France contention b/t Spain and France still façade of Spain being in golden age, great power still great works of art Diego Velasquez religious intolerance Philip II was a strong Catholic, didn't want to rule over heretics you could not be king of Spain if you weren't Christian (eventually Catholic Christians) Jews and Muslims either left or converted, many conversos were still persecuted lost a lot of skilled/wealthy ppl so often religious minorities were more likely to be literate/part of the bourgeoisie Huguenots stressed literacy about reading the Bible for themselves Jews and Muslims stress on literacy among Jews losing good ppl also suppressing Protestants no important Spanish names in Scientific Revolution if you had any sort of different idea on life, you got in trouble even Cervantes was called in front of the Inquisition rise of the balance of power idea in Europe countries ganging up on Spain France and Dutch teaming up against Spain mindset of the culture Spanish b/c of the Reconquista maintained crusade mentality combining military aggression and intense Catholicism stress on aristocratic virtues had chivalric, aristocratic, medieval mindset to them, the only 3 valid occupations were a churchman, soldier, and work (either farmer or craftsman) had suspicion/disdain/hatred of mercantile activity and financial activity (banking) thought ppl were taking advantage buying low, selling high also condemned interest on loans usury charging loans even w/ huge economic windfall, they didn't use it very well influx of precious metal caused severe inflation it was the ideal to a mercantilist also just went into endless wars morale can change Spain became known for having a fatalistic attitude 'que sera sera' all fate, all predestined, nothing I do individually is gonna make any difference all fated to decline when Colbert was doing all canal building and helping French infrastructure and it was paying off and France was flourishing, some of the Spanish ppl said they should do it too study to connect two rivers committee said that God would've connected those rivers if he had wanted them to be so they didn't build the canal and economy kept going down toilet who cares, whatever attitiude quality of monarchs Philip IV= not a very great or intelligent ruler Charles II (1665-1700)= his son pretty horribly deformed born w/ a condition where he was sort of lame almost certainly epileptic prematurely bald called Carlos the Sufferer "El Hechizado" the bewitched kept his appearance from the general public also impotent had a queen, but not able to impregnate her Habsburg line ends w/ him precipitates the War of the Spanish Succession Philip V ppl began to plan for the eventuality of the end of the Habsburg line there were several claimants out there two main ones: Leopold I's son Leopold= Austrian-Habsburg emperor Louis XIV's grandson Philip of Anjou Bourbon most ppl in Europe did not want Philip of Anjou to become king Louis would have control over New World, Philippines, Spain and the Spanish Netherlands Spanish Netherlands was especially worrisome worked out a compromise eventually Grand Alliance formed in 1690s by William III to hold back Louis XIV England, Scotland, Ireland, Netherlands, Spain, Austrian Habsburgs, some German states, Sweden Dutch, English, Scottish, Irish, Austrians, Spanish, Swedish war called the 9 Years' War (1688-1697), fought during 1690s Louis is thwarted a bit before War of Spanish Succession William particularly leading alliance against Louis Louis was sstopped ppl were worried he was gonna get the whole European succession for his grandson reached a compromise that everyone signed off on and Leopold's son was going to get some and then he died so it had to be reworked finally decided that Spain's empire would be divided some would go to Philip of Anjou most would go to Austrian-Habsburgs completely ignored Spain, what Charles II wanted thwarts them, wrote in his will that all of the empire would go to Philip of Anjou most important thing to him was that the realm stay in tact if Philip of Anjou wouldn't take all of it then it would all go w/ Austrians perhaps b/c he thought Philip of Anjou would be able to keep the Spanish realm intact crisis when treaty is revealed in 1700 question of whether France will follow the compromise/treaty or if they will follow Charles's will and take it all Louis announced that France will take all of it what sparked the war Spanish ppl grudgingly accept Philip Philip= first Bourbon king of Spain

polish, czech, slovak

western slavic languages

gout

what Piero Medici had, conspicuous consumption

count

what an earl is called in the rest of Europe

luke

what gospel does the bull represent?

john

what gospel does the eagle represent?

mark

what gospel does the winged lion represent?

matthew

what gospel does the winged man represent?

interdict

when a city or an entire kingdom is 'excommunicated', no sacraments supposed to be performed by clergy in that area, no Christian burials, marriages, etc

canonization

when the Catholic and/or Orthodox Church make a deceased person a saint

sabbat

when witches would come together at some point during the year, only way to get back home was to fly so Satan also gave them the power to fly believed that Satan gave you formula for lotion that you could rub on yourself and fly belief that magic only worked best when you were naked went to meet Satan often in the form of a goat, a toad, or a dark mysterious handsome man had a black mass mass said backwards in Latin, crucifix held upside down, ate sliced onions or flesh of your own dead relatives or murdered infants, in England they said witches ate roast beef and ale then they had the big orgy having sex w/ Satan then you all fly home

economic warfare

when you are passing laws clearly intended to not only help your own economy, but to hurt others Navigation Acts in both France and England trying to hurt the Dutch Dutch made money from all kinds of things, but above all from the carrying trade great middlemen of the world in the 17th century you could hire them to ship your products to some other country they are the third party flyboats= breakthrough in trade smaller, less maneuverable but could carry a lot more for cheaper not the fastest or the prettiest developed first for the grain trade in the Baltic could be made fairly cheaply, almost mass produced ship itself didn't cost that much fairly cheap to run didn't require a large crew labor-saving devices very efficient not very fast, but didn't need to be didn't have artillery on the ships (not at all armed) unlike most ships Baltic was pretty safe, but Atlantic and Pacific Dutch military ships would escort them in convoys not a huge innovation, but just smarter technique as opposed to technology b/c of that, everyone used them for decades carry things at cheaper shipping rate also very dependable had twice as many ships as France and England combined tiny country, but probably most economically powerful country in the world in the 17th century said that you can't have a third party trade person do it only the country importing or exporting ultimately kinda works in the 1700s, Dutch ceases to be such a huge power were increasingly replaced by France and Britain Dutch were certainly involved in colonization did not hesitate to engage in the slave trade first black ppl to be brought to the US were brought in 1619 to the Virginia colony by a Dutch ship

queen consort

wife of the king, no hereditary rights to throne

3-field system

winter grain in one field spring grain in another field one field left fallow (to rejuvenate) letting soil rest crop rotation meant 1/3 of land was always not being cultivated knew you couldn't keep growing same crop year after year exhausts soil depletes soil of its nutrients mainly takes out nitrates strips were long, generally not fenced in or hedged worked communally opted for equality over efficiency

astrolabe

you use the stars as a guide, especially relying on the North Star if you use the North Star as your basis, if you measure the angle of the sea to the North Star you can tell whether you are going north or south

representative bodies

Structure of government Each king had to deal w/ one of these One of the 3 main obstacles to king's power England-- Parliament Roman Empire-- Diet Spain-- Cortes France-- Estates-General Iceland-- Thing Sweden-- Rad Kings are getting stronger relative to power of nobles and church and these in 1400s Viewed as creatures of the king-- creations of the monarch Viewed as being subordinate to the sovereignty of the king Kings often just didn't call them and got away with it Parliament tended to be the exception Never withered

Juan de Mariana (1598)

Late 16th century Theory of resistance Tyrannicide Jesuit professor Said anyone has a right to kill a tyrant regicide/assassination If a king is a tyrant, anyone had right to kill him A lot of ppl didn't agree w/ him

Mary, Queen of Scots

Mid- 16th century Raised in France, a lot of ppl considered her more French than Scottish father= James V she = Stewart Mother- Mary of Guise, French Catholic noble Marries Valois prince at 15, Francis II He rules for note quite a year, she= widowed at 16 Raised in elegant French court Comes back to Scotland after husband dies in 1560 Not easy b/c she didn't know Scotland very well Her mother had tried to rule Scotland for her But Scotland had turned Calvinist Protestant→ unfortunate for Mary Majority of Scotland went Presbyterian b/c of John Knox Clear blood claim Smitten by Lord Darnley, Catholic, they marry in 1565, he wanted the crown matrimonial, she did not se it that way, trying to grab the throne, she gets pregnant by him→ James (VI of Scotland, I of England, first person to unite British Isles under one crown) Granddaughter of Henry VII David Rizzio= confidant, resented by her husband, Darnley Foreigner, catholic, murdered in 1566 in the palace in the presencce of Mary Darnley was killed Had relationship w/ Earl of Bothwell (one of Darnley's assassins) Many ppl think she killed own husband, revolt in 1567 Earl of Moray= Mary's half-brother, illegitimate child of James V, becomes regent for her son, James, Mary is kept in a castle on an island Crosses border to England, hopes Elizabeth will help her Relatives Unspoken bond from being both queen regnants Fellow monarch Elizabeth has the pwr to give her her throne back but doesn't Imprisons Mary and ultimately executes her Mary had blood claim to English crown, threat to Elizabeth, had made moves to get this power Catholic-Protestant issue If you were a Catholic in Europe, you thought Mary was legitimate queen of not only Scotland but England also Northern Earls' Rebellion in 1569= reaction against centralization and about restoring Catholic Church in England, demanded that Elizabeth at least free Mary (or put her on the throne) Get rid of new Protestant advisors Elizabeth's gov= able to crush this revolt Last baronial revolt in English history Last time you have a feudal revolt of nobles vs monarchs Shows that as much as there is this strong sense of Northern England being separate, the Tudor Revolution had succeeded Showed danger of having Mary alive As long as she existed there would be plots surrounding her 1570→ Pope Pius V officially excommunicates Elizabeth Says Elizabeth is in no way a legitimate monarch, if you are a decent person you should try to get rid of her b/c she= bastard and Protestant Plots of English Catholic minority that worked w/ Spanish ambassador that wanted to murder Elizabeth I and put Mary on the throne After Elizabeth was excommunicated, any Church officials were regarded as spies Elizabeth hesitated, but had her killed after almost 20 years Male counselors urged her to kill Mary for years, got frustrated w/ her Didn't want anyone to ever think it was ok to execute a monarch 1587→ put Mary on trial Evidence she was involved in plots Executed by beheading

Francis II (1559-1560)

Mid-16th century First son of Henry II and Catherine de Medici Valois king Becomes king @ 15 Rules for not even a year Comes to throne in 1559 Dies in 1560 Married Mary Queen of Scots in that time She had no children, so went back to Scotland and had traumatic life

baptism

1 of the 7 sacraments Starting sacrament Catholics, like mainstream Protestants, believed in this for infants You wanted to do this to a baby, b/c if not, you would go into limbo Not horrible like Purgatory But not heaven either Even a woman could administer it→ the physical act is that important If someone is about to die then anyone could do this to that person

penance

1 of the 7 sacraments confession= part of it The old name What you do to atone your sins

Council of Trent (1545-1563)

Mid-16th century Pope Paul III (1534-1549) called the general council In Northern part of Italy today, but in the HRE back then Pope wanted to have it in Rome, Charles V wanted it further North Compromise Francis I didn't want Council to met, wouldn't let French bishops go once the council started meeting Wants life to be difficult for Charles V Catholic France and most German bishops didn't go So mainly Spanish and Italians Reflects very rigid anti-Protestant stance b/c these ppl are coming from areas where Protestantism isn't much of a big thing Did not heal the split, even though Protestants were invited Actually drives a deeper wedge b/t Protestant and Catholic worlds Abuses Addressed these issues Said Protestant have a point, Church is corrupt Passed lots of legislation→ some things really did change Said you had to keep vow of chastity and celibacy If you were a bishop you had to be resident in your diocese pluralism-> you could have more than one church office, but you could not hold more than one position that involved the care of souls (couldn't be bishop of more than one place) Nepotism simony→ says ppl have to be of age Don't abolish indulgences, but said they had to tighten up the usage of them→ ppl need to understand that they were truly contrite, not buying way out of Purgatory Clerical education improved, said every diocese should have a seminary Comes down to ppl→ law can't enforce itself St Pius V (1566-1571) Pope for a short time, lived pious life, later canonized, cracked down on a lot of issues in the church, very intolerant Doctrine Defined things more clearly Laity don't know what they're supposed to believe, Protestants play upon that, can confuse them in ways they can't refute Widens differences b/t Catholics and Protestants→ no room for interpretation, no gray areas left After Trent, you definitely could not believe in predestination and be a Catholic→ had to say that free will was part of salvation Couldn't choose not to venerate saints Reaffirmed list of things Luther objected to Virgin Mary as mother of God Purgatory Latin in the Church Higher form of Christian life is celibacy Reaffirmed every point and stated more bluntly Conciliarism is condemned→ said ultimate authority is the Pope (papal primacy) Sets nature of the church to this day→ there have only been 2 councils since Index of prohibited books→ long list of any book that the Catholic Church decided should not be read or published, eventually some books are put on it like science books, now embarrassing to the Church, they do believe in censorship Roman Inquisition set up in 1542→ Italian version of the holy office, inquiring into ppl's faith Makes church stronger, revitalized, but more narrow and rigid

War of the Three Kingdoms (1641-1651)

Mid-16th century Under Charles I of England so much a religious war in Europe we should look at whole British Isles--> not just call it the English Civil War conflict in Ireland and Scotland too Royalists ppl who supported the king nicknamed cavaliers originally meant Spanish or French Catholics who were persecuting Protestants a put-down Parliamentarians not everyone chose a side Roundheads--> particularly b/c of their haircuts eventually finds some excellent generals--> Lord Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell these were truly civil wars when it's not divided by sections, but every town, village and everything is divided hard to tell who the poorest ppl supported urban vs rural generally cities were more pro-Parliament cities tend to be more left wing everywhere cities are where ppl go to change rural areas are inherently conservative about everything southern England tended to be more densely populated mercantile ppl tend to be more open to change than purely agricultural societies middle class more pro-Parliament, also more politically active and educated about 1/3 of House of Lords were for Parliament, but majority for the king nobility only comes from royalty (king= font of nobility) urban middle class tend to be for Parliament rural poor tend to be for the king more most important factor= religion if you wanted to reform the church of England, puritanical inclination, you were almost certainly for Parliament if you liked the church the way it was, you were probably for the king if you were part of the persecuted Catholic minority, you generally opted for the king even though they faced discrimination, knew it would be worse under Parliament Oliver Cromwell emerged as a leader of the Parliamentarians not a very important political figure at the start of all this gentryman well to do, but still commoner lawyer eventually a member of the House of Commons not one of te most high-pfogile, outspoken prominent members of opposition to the king Puritan had natural military ability finally defeat Royalist armies Charles I is captured, tried to make a deal, at one point escapes and starts war up again, but by 1648 he was captured again split among parliamentary forces b/t more moderate and more radical two main issues Church do we want to change the church of England big question became do we even keep a state church more moderate wanted to keep state church said it just needed to be Presbyterian more radical wanted to not have a state church just have churches all do their own independent thing except Catholics to tolerate diversity at least among Protestants monarchy whether or not to abolish it moderates said they wanted to keep king but have a constitutional king more radical wanted to abolish majority of ppl in House of Commons were moderates but Cromwell and generals were more radical, and they had the guns Lord Fairfax= other great general in the wars put Charles on trial in January 1649 accused of treason he refused to cooperate said this was ridiculous b/c treason was defined as disloyalty to the king now ppl were saying there was something higher than the king knew he was gonna be found guilty executed at the end of January said he was exchanging an earthly crown for an eternal crown said Cromwell would be more of a dictator than he ever was ppl rushed up to dip bits of linen into the blood of the king wanted to preserve it some ppl thought it had miraculous healing pwr some ppl thought the king's touch was healing Commonwealth/Interregnum (1649-1660) Cromwell sent a colonel w/ troops into the House of Commons and purged the majority of ppl in the House of Commons who opposed Cromwell's policy (moderates) leaving what's known as the rump body Rump Parliament votes to abolish monarchy end having a state church have a commonwealth of England abolished house of lords Cromwell increasingly felt that the Rump was not doing what he wanted it to do Cromwell had very strong personality, had interest of Englad, Scotland and Ireland at his heart also thought he was the only person who could do this right 1653--> sends Rump Parliament home kept trying to come up w/ new Parliament system then eventually was ruling as a military dictator had limited toleration on religion but not at all tolerant towards Catholics crushed revolt in Ireland, killed civilians, considered a devil figure there it seemed clear that more and more ppl were not happy w/ how it was going as long as armies stayed loyal, he was in pwr his son= Richard when Cromwell died, ppl thought it was natural that Richard would inherit the role of Lord Protector didn't have deep-rooted system of republican gov much weaker-willed than dad becomes Lord Protector in 1658 closed down theaters--> thought they were places of immorality tried to close down taverns put an end to Christmas when Puritans get image of being killjoys Puritans banned bear-baiting b/c of the pleasure it brought to the humans--> too much fun gambling and drinking Puritans outlawed wife-beating

Philippe Duplessis-Mornay (1579)

Late 16th century Theory of resistance French Huguenot Lesser magistrates Justifying having noble families leading resistance Kings can be resisted, but not by any private individual b/c there was this hierarchy of authority, if the king is clearly off the rails, it's up to the lesser magistrates/the next level of authority They have a right to overthrow the king and restrain him There were many rich and powerful noble fams in France He was justifying what was happening-- ratifying reality Opens up door to saying that anyone can be a rebel

Johannes Gutenberg

1455 When movable type was created Wasn't just him who did it-- there are other people who should get credit Mainz-- on the River Rhine, where printing started and the Bibles were printed 200 Bibles printed in 1455, 48 still around, in Latin-- not the original, Catholic Church defended keeping it in Latin (NOT vernacular), Vulgate bibles

genre painting

dutch scenes of everyday life

russian, ukrainian, belarussian

eastern slavic languages

El Hechizado

The bewitched Charles II's nickname

Charles II (1660-1685)

Became king w/ the Restoration at the end of the Commonwealth, mid to late 17th century Has to pretend that a lot of the English Civil War never happened had to pardon almost everyone except regicides who were drawn and quartered for the most part he is known as the merry monarch had a good sense of humor a lot of ppl got scared by what happened--> it went farther than they had wanted it to go Queen= Portuguese princess No children w/ her Lot of illegitimate children, but no legitimate heir James II= next king Produces whole new problem Raised Protestant, becomes Catholic as adult, produces Glorious REvolution wife= Portuguese princess had a lot of mistresses wore outdated clothing and was made fun of had a bunch of illegitimate children thing that hung over dynasty question of religion how much toleration England would have question of the role of Parliament to what extent, blah blah blah wanted to be like his father, but also was wise enough not to be blatantly absolutist he was fascinated by Catholicism made ppl suspicious on his deathbed, they had a Jesuit come and convert him and perform anointing of the sick he died a Catholic Test Act (1673) passed by Parliament about ppl who were not Anglican Christians Charles didn't even want this to happen you had to prove with a certificate that you had received communion in an Anglican Church at some point during the last year in order to hold a government position no good Roman Catholic would do this Puritans/more extreme Protestants also wouldn't do this you couldn't vote, hold office, go to university if you were a Dissenter or a Catholic Nonconformists someone who is contrary to the majority in Britain, it means a non-Anglican Protestant Presbyterians, Baptists, Quakers, Congregationalists 1700s--> Methodists another very important dissenter group these ppl were a very important minority but they were second class citizens excludes these ppl from government trying to keep out radical political views question of Catholicism was still a problem fear that the court was leaning Catholic made a secret alliance w/ Louis XIV mainly trying to get money from France so he didn't have to go to Parliament part of the agreement was that Charles would either convert himself or make it easier for Catholics to live in England Nell Gwyn actress at a time when for the first time women were allowed to be on stage morally dubious thing mistress of Charles had two children by him popular w/ common ppl Protestant working class said at a point "It's me, the Protestant *****" why ppl liked her-- didn't put on airs "nah, I'm a hoe"-- Dr Echerd Louise de Kerouaille French foreign Catholic mistress of Charles great feud b/t her and Nell Gwyn had a son called Charles Lenox Charles would recognize his illegitimate children give them titles etc exclusion crisis (1678-1681) when it starts to be clear that James II will come to the throne ppl of Parliament began to pass things that said they wanted to exclude James II from the line to the throne some wanted to skip over to the next Protestant person in line others wanted him to legitimize his illegitimate child or skip to James II's children: who are Protestant Mary (William and Mary) Anne (will soon rule) Charles II vetoed this became an intense and violent crisis produced two nicknames exclusionists and non-exclusionists more conservative ppl voted against exclusion Tories-- loyalists in American Revolution became the conservative party term still used today more progressive ppl voted for exclusion Whigs-- revolutionaries in American Revolution became progressive party in favor of exclusion not just about being anti-Catholic idea that Catholicism is inherently and intimately intertwined with absolutism both originally put-down terms ultimately exclusion failed b/c Charles wouldn't allow it

raison d'etat

French way of saying Machiavellian Cardinal Richelieu, advisor to Louis XIII

Poland-Lithuania (1569)

Confederation finalized in 1569 (mid 16th century) Jagiellon family line died off monarchy was huge-- reached down almost to the black sea Poland slithers around a lot throughout history confederation not based on a conquest Poles accepted the Jagiellon dynasty conflict over the election of a king of Poland elected monarchies (just like HRE, Bohemian crown) Polish representative body= the Diet the Diet elected Sigismund III (1587-1632) elected b/c his mother was a Jagiellon his family was Swedish he was the heir to Sweden as well from the Vasa Swedish family 30 Years' War going on he was a Vasa but he was Catholic as was majority of Poland-Lithuania Vasa family were largely Lutherans really wanted to be king of Sweden asserted his claim to Sweden when his father died but they didn't like the fact that he was Catholic and they didn't like that he was Catholic Swedish nobles turned on him and pushed him out uncle becomes king, then later his son this is a conflict about religion only tsar of Russia for about 3 years, only king of Sweden for about 3 years kingdom of Poland was called the republic of Poland republic means that you don't have a monarch but this country had a monarch but was called a republic so the monarchy was not very strong Diet of Poland elected a monarch Polish nobles ultimately made a very selfish and ultimately disastrous decision about this question particularly in the 1700s, the Polish nobles would deliberately elect someone who they knew would not be a good ruler generally a foreigner next person they would elect would be from another family preventing any hereditary build-up of power to them, weak king= strong nobles Polish nobles were like kings on their own land kept kings weak, didn't grant them much power or taxes nobles wanted right to have peasants as serfs Poland had no standing army, hardly any central taxes Diet had had some non-nobles in it, but the Polish nobles eventually drove out everyone from the Diet who wasn't a noble purely noble/aristocratic body each noble in the diet had the right to the liberum veto free 'I forbid' it only took one noble to veto something if one noble said no, you couldn't pass anything never had any real national government Poland pays a price eventually other countries around them that were much more centralized devour Poland (Austria, Prussia, Russia) split Poland between them in the 1700s Poland disappears completely in 1795, doesn't come back until 1918 just one noble could dissolve the diet 'explode' the diet most diets would end that way everyone had to go home recipe for a weak central government Danish monarchy had ruled almost all of Scandinavia for a while most populous country in Scandinavia Finland and Sweden were jointly ruled by the Swedish ruling family Vasa family led revolt against the Danes to get out from under their control so by the 1520's you have a separate kingdom of Sweden under the Vasa family that included Finland then decided to change the religion of Denmark and Sweden from Catholic to Lutheran Scandinavia was pretty much 100% Lutheran toleration though Sigismund was king of Poland but not very exciting, then wanted to be king of Sweden but it wasn't very successful (and the Diet didn't support him), but then he turned his attention to the east of Poland made a serious attempt and even briefly seemed to succeed at becoming the ruler of Russia Russia was in the Time of Troubles 1601-1613 (strictly speaking) there was really no one who was accepted as the tsar foreigners--> Swedes coming in, Poles under Sigismund defensive giant Sigismund drives eastward took Moscow itself in 1610 proclaimed himself tsar of all the russias (tsar by conquest) Russian boyars finally did the patriotic thing, said they had to stop fighting amongst themselves, said they had to unite under one man head of Russian Orthodox Church was instrumental in bring Russia together they all unite under a native Russian, Michael Romanov Romanov (1613-1917) dynasty/family, starts ruling in 1613 under Michael Romanov Michael Romanov was a prominent boyar, 'one of us', had thru matrilineal line he had some connection to the earlier royal family Russia emerges out of the time of troubles w/ Michael Michael is not extremely important in Russian history other than him being chosen they do drive out the Poles, make a deal w/ Sweden to help them Declined in 1700s

Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642

France Early to mid 17th century Favorite of Louis XIII Early to mid-17th century France Brought by Marie de Medicis in to be a main advisor to Louis XIII Clash eventually b/t them over who will have the ear of the king She is sort of banished and lost by Louis XIII he= brains of the operation Early to mid 16th century France Marie de Medicis brought him in to be a main advisor to Louis XIII Clash eventually b/t them over who will have the ear of the king She is sort of banished and lost Louis didn't like work of governing, Richelieu loved it, sort of running the gov Very Machiavellian Wrote a work where he said that if you have to do something for the good of the state that if you were a private person it would be a sin/crime, then it's justified Raison d'etat, end justifies the means Image of beign manipulative Tries to do religious duty, but clear that secular duties came first Urged Louis XIII to enter into the 30 Years' War on the Protestant side of Sweden and Netherlands b/c it was the anti-Habsburg side Huge example of it was raison d'etat, angered pope emphasis= France is surrounded by Habsburg ring and they must do everything they can to weaken that fam's pwr Ascent of France to greatness again To him, there were two main problems: Nobles Did not like him and he did not like/trust them Knew they were selfish and jealous Let nobles have a lot of gov positions that don't mean much but sound prestigious Main advisors/councillors were mainly bourgeois ppl Excluded nobles from real policy-making pwr Pwr based a lot on the fact that they all have these castles Richelieu tore a lot of them down Could still be a real obstacle to kings asserting pwr Banned nobles' right to duel Said it disrupts public order Cared about making nobles realize they were beneath the law too Every noble had a spy/informer placed n it who was reporting back to him Intendants Local administrators Richelieu divides France into 32 districts Had had provincial governors before (nobles) This person was appointed by the central gov (th king technically) over one of the 32 districts Answer onnly to the king Sometimes nobles, ofte nbourgeois Story of centralization Huguenots he= Catholic, doesn't like them Didn't like one provision of Edict of Nantes Huguenots controlled fortified towns w/ Protestant churches Almost like a state w/in a state Had to get rid of this To do this, he provoked a revolt French Huguenot nobles were stupid enough to fall into that Said he was going to get rid of rights for Huguenots Thought letting ppl have state w/in state was particularism (letting nobles have power) Revolt is crushed La Rochelle= portcity, sort of the city capital of Huguenot France Didn't get rid of hwole Edict of Nantes, but just getting rid of fortigied towns Not many about religious intolerance, about execution Getting rid of separate indpendent pwr insidee Later Louis XIV will revoke the entire edict Knew nobles were conspiring against him When he dies, France in on ascent, pretty good position, can't wonctrol wthat when Louis XIII dies the crown goes to Louis XIV at the age of 6 Drops dead somewhat eunexpactedly Absolutism vs constitutionalism 17th c, particularly w/ British Isles, this was the great question Absolutism doesn't necessarily mean having a monarch Means ruler doesn't have to answer to any set of rules Whatever monarch says is law Arbitrary absolutist gov Constitutionalism Means even the king is beneath the law Rule of law= so important Not just about democracy Rule of law= more important than majority rule Basic distinction= whether you have rule of law or not Does not even mean having a written constitution mother= GB Does not have a written constitution to this day Constitution can mean the way we are constituted Made up of unwritten things No one single document It is now accepted that the monarch is not the real sovereign→ Parliament is

Toleration Act (1689)

Late 17th century England under William and Mary said Dissenters can now worship in a house of worship legally but they didn't tolerate Catholics still (looked other way in 1700s though) dissenters still couldn't go to universities, serve in gov, vote still second class just tolerated in religion not until 1800s are dissenters equal to Anglicans

duke of conde

Mid-17th century France Probably leading rebel of the Fronde Said he was leading the nobles against foreign authority of Anne and Mazarin

mercantilism

Need to build up own economy, preserving gold, wanting best possible trade relations Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France, mid-17th century advisor to Louis XIV attitude not a clear cut set of beliefs a mindset that every Euro country's rulers had you want to be a self-sufficient country want exports to be greater than imports zero sum gain when you approach something thinking that it is a fixed pie you think there is a fixed amount of trade in the world there is only a limited amount of wealth therefore our prosperity can only come at the expense of the prosperity of someone else for the most part, they wanted means of production to be privately owned but with close ties to the government above all, an attitude about how the government should deal with the economy, specifically with trade what role should gov play in trade? tariffs ultimate objective is a strong state the subordination of economics to politics ultimately not trying to achieve an economic goal strong military leads to strong state strong navy, strong army bullionism leads to strong military money, leads to strong military bullion= gold and silver you have to pay the military favorable balance of trade leads to bullionism exporting more importing very little ideally nothing goal is self-sufficiency then the question of how do you achieve a favorable balance of trade? exploration? to have chartered companies private companies that have very close ties to gov they are given a monopoly in return for that privilege, you would pay a large sum of money each year safer investment you are more likely to invest as a private stockholder if you know the government is backing them up English East India Company starts in 1600 monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth grows into one of the most important businesses in the world eventually running whole Asian subcontinent until 1857 Dutch East India Company (VOC)- 1602 had 6 times the amount of investment capital in it for at least a century but then they also completely control prices not good for consumers also not fair disservice to the idea of equal opportunity and free market economy tariffs mainly lessens the appeal of imports-- not primarily for revenue not only increases price of foreign products but also increases prices for local products b/c it means there is less competition so they can up the prices quotas slavery question of colonies if you are trying to decrease imports, you don't want to have to buy certain goods from foreigners that you can't produce in your own country so you then try to grab colonies in the West Indies/Caribbean, Brazil, Americas (for sugar especially) no white ppl would go work there unless they were indentured servants or political prisoners no one did it voluntarily so while it had disappeared inside Europe, grew exponentially in these new colonies colonies things that you control you can also demand that they buy everything from you, the motherland investing in your own businesses government puts money into smaller businesses and production often loaned, subsidized, or even gave money to private companies who they thought were producing something that had a future trying to improve the infrastructure make roads better canals wider and more extensive bridges in repair anything that is part of transportation and communication, you promote leads to economic warfare hwne you are passing laws clearly intended to not only help your own economy, but to hurt others Navigation Acts in both France and England trying to hurt the Dutch Dutch made money from all kinds of things, but above all from the carrying trade great middlemen of the world in the 17th century you could hire them to ship your products to some other country they are the third party flyboats= breakthrough in trade smaller, less maneuverable but could carry a lot more for cheaper not the fastest or the prettiest developed first for the grain trade in the Baltic could be made fairly cheaply, almost mass produced ship itself didn't cost that much fairly cheap to run didn't require a large crew labor-saving devices very efficient not very fast, but didn't need to be didn't have artillery on the ships (not at all armed) unlike most ships Baltic was pretty safe, but Atlantic and Pacific Dutch military ships would escort them in convoys not a huge innovation, but just smarter technique as opposed to technology b/c of that, everyone used them for decades carry things at cheaper shipping rate also very dependable had twice as many ships as France and England combined tiny country, but probably most economically powerful country in the world in the 17th century said that you can't have a third party trade person do it only the country importing or exporting ultimately kinda works in the 1700s, Dutch ceases to be such a huge power were increasingly replaced by France and Britain Dutch were certainly involved in colonization did not hesitate to engage in the slave trade first black ppl to be brought to the US were brought in 1619 to the Virginia colony by a Dutch ship

by grace and free will

RCC salvation

patriarchy

The term that is associated w/ a male-dominated society

irish/gaelic, welsh, breton

celtic languages

quotas

Way to achieeve favorable balance of trade in mercantilism Limits imports

universe

cosmos meaning

war of spanish succession

fought over who would get the Spanish throne Spanish Habsburg line ended after the death of Charles II rules from 1665-1700 ultimate end-product of Habsburg in-breeding he was a mess ppl thought he would die during the first year of his life sometimes nicknamed Charles the Sufferer CRAZY PROMINENT CHIN reviving Grand Alliance w/o Spain William of Orange dies in 1702, so doesn't end up leading the war freak accident Anne becomes the British monarch, rules the exact same years Anne I (1702-1714) not a great leader, but stays in alliance John Churchill general who fought in this war, British army, kinda conducted British government in general Anne had a very very close relationship w/ his wife, Sarah Churchill lesbian? basically France and Spain vs everybody else Britain, Dutch, Austrian Empire, Sweden, specific German states (Brandenburg [turns into Prussia]) shows how strong France was that the war went in for a number of years often called the first world war in history fought mainly in Europe, but also in New World West Indies Canada Ohio Territory Asia both British and French wanted India b/c Britain's navy was able to get control of seas, British win war overseas on land in Europe, thanks to John Churchill, armies were often defeated there war should've ended in 1709, but allies drive such a hard bargain that the French keep fighting Peace of Utrecht (1713-1715) fighting stops in 1714 so many issues involved that they had to work through a lot and there were many separate treaties in the Netherlands French lose area around Hudson Bay in Canada, two maritime provinces (Nova-Scotia (used to be called Acadia) and Newfoundland) eventually expel French settlers there start of Britain grabbing a lot of Canada also rule that France and Spain can never have the same monarch Philip V stays pretty good king not kicked off so Spain recovers a little bit there is a Bourbon monarch rn ruling in Spain stripped away all Spanish European possessions Italian possessions Milan, Sardinia, Naples taken away from Spain ultimately the Southern part of Italy becomes ruled by the Austrian Habsburgs means Austria has a whole lot of interference w/ Italian affairs Sardinia was given to a state called Savoy had fought against Louis eventually known as the kingdom of Sardinia aka Piedmont most of Savoy today is in France Piedmont is at the foot of the Alps in Italy today Gibraltar at the foot of the Iberian peninsula right across from Morocco British took it still have it today one of the few crown colonies left today made a difference that Britain controlled that spot in later conflicts Austrians also get what had been the Spanish Netherlands now called Belgium after 1714, it is the Austrian Netherlands France has essentially been halted but still a strong power Spain has lost a lot of its power in Europe Britain comes out luckiest, w/ most Savoy on its way Brandenburg state in Germany asiento Britain wanted to be able to bring over slaves to Spanish colonies, Spanish New World Spain had to concede to allow British slave ships to bring over slaves to Spanish New World war not about idelogy, but about dynastic claims and also global/commercial war French settlers in what had been called Acadia eventually went to Louisiana and became the Cajuns 1714-1715 Hanoverians to England Death of Louis XIV treaty changes

gaelic

language in Ireland

Why was the Netherlands unique?

unique in that they were a republic (besides Switzerland and Venice) dominant social class= bourgeoisie merchants, bankers, etc while they did have landowners and a type of aristocracy (House of Orange) gov/politics was dominated by bourgeois not an aristocratic society set the tone for society religiously tolerant good for business long tradition of being fairly easygoing dominant state church= Calvinist Dutch Reformed Church large Catholic minority only second class in that they didn't have much political say Jan Vermeer (d. 1675) one of the most famous painters today Girl with the Pearl Earring from Catholic minority Jewish minority left pretty much alone Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1669) famous painter had a lot of Jewish friends, would have them pose as Mary, Jesus, etc bc THEY WERE JEWS innovative open to change no monarchy no huge palaces first true stock exchange in the world founded in 1602 Amsterdam Stock Exchange brilliant at banking Bank of Amsterdam founded in 1609 not state-owned but had connection w/ government said they stood behind deposits, guaranteed deposits up to a certain amount safer b/c gov ensured deposits if bank collapses, you won't lose everything waaaaaay ahead of everybody else even the Spanish would put their money in this b/c you got a good interest rate and it was considered safe had a big fat milk cow on their money represent prosperity but also not predators (like lions and eagles) golden age in art subject matter was different landscape new as being the only object of a painting ordinary life genre paintings landscapes still lives generally more modern not huge ppl or historical events Jan Vermeer (d. 1675) Girl in the Pearl Earring so many of his paintings have light source coming through on left side Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1669) did a series of self portraits Dutch masters Anatomy Lesson every face in his paintings has distinct, particularized emotional appearance psychological acuity real ppl as he got older, he tended to do lots of biblical scenes very Protestant types of religious art also golden age for Dutch literature though the language is not that international so their literature is not hugely celebrated politically central country in trying to hold back France's ambitions Louis XIV hated the Dutch b/c they were everything he didn't like tolerant, republican, bourgeois, in the way William III was delighted when he came to the English throne b/c he wanted them in on his alliance against Louis caused a great flip in the balance of power empire tended to replace a lot of where the Portuguese had been and then pushed them out from 1580 to 1640, Portugal was not really governing itself (governed by a mainly Spanish king) felt Spanish did not do enough to defend their colonies Dutch took a lot from the Portuguese tip of Africa areas in India took Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) had that until British took it from them in 1815 crown jewel= Dutch East Indies Portuguese got there first by early 1600s, Dutch are moving in Nutmeg Wars Dutch push out Portuguese and then Dutch and English fight Dutch win at the expense of environmental destruction Taiwan-- took it from Portuguese, then Chinese took it from them Manhattan New Netherland at first, and city was New Amsterdam originally their own British eventually managed to drive them off New Zealand Zeeland= southernmost province in Netherlands guy also discovered Tasmanian island scientific discoveries invented two most important scientific instruments microscope and telescope only ppl eventually allowed to trade w/ Japan Japan eventually kicked out all Euros except the Dutch b/c other Euros were a lot of time trying to convert Japanese ppl b/c Japanese ppl needed to believe that the emperor was a god kept Dutch b/c they weren't interested in conversion, but only money even so only allowed to trade at Nagasaki each Dutch province elected own states had States General (national congress) loose confederation each of the 7 provinces picked their own stadtholder (generally the same guy) freedom, toleration

sfumato

used by Leonardo da Vinci, smokiness, a painting technique for softening the transition between colours, mimicking an area beyond what the human eye is focusing on, or the out-of-focus plane

rhetoric

using words to persuade, move, and inspire, shape actions and opinions

The Courtier

written by Castiglione, aristocrat, upper class person Book about how to be a nobleman-- noble class, aristocratic Guidebook-- handbook of etiquette expressing Renaissance view of education, embodiment of what we call the Renaissance Man Says nobility isn't about your bloodlines If you're the son of a wealthy merchant, you don't have a noble title yet, but if you can do the things in this book, turn yourself into an elegant person, that's what true nobility consists of Moving towards a modern ideal that nobility is about character rather than nobility Of the virtues that are a prerequisite to being noble includes being literate Not new for UC noblemen to be able to read and write, but not considered required Up until 1500s, nobles needed to possess wealth, marshall virtues (skill at arms, horseriding), political diplomacy/administrative skill/leadership (diplomats, judges, etc) Renaissance men were above all warriors, but then they had civic virtues as well Says loyalty, sense of honor, warrior virtues, still very important Added literacy and the 'finer things in life' Book was a best-seller-- now had publishing and movable type, translated into different languages Not profound brilliant work-- just popularizing ideas that were already out there-- popularizing was important He could write in a popular vain Yet he wasn't noble Audience was people who are well-to-do but socially insecure-- didn't have noble titles Wealth was mercantile or banking Trying to reassure these people that they can make it if they polish themselves, superiority

Secretum Meum

written by Petrarch An autobiography (very rare in that time in Europe) Talks about himself in a way that sounds very modern Medieval writers rarely ever did that To talk about your own individuality was considered spiritually arrogant Examines himself, talks about own inner conflicts

Stuarts (1603-1714)

English ruling family from early 17th century to early 18th century James I (1603-1625) First Stuart to rule Ruled England and Scotland together Duke of Buckingham= favorite Faced w/ resistance of Parliament and Puritans Charles I (1625-1648) Relied heavily on Parliament funds James I's son Belief in absolutism, fondness for Buckingham, wanted to preserve C of E Connoisseur Needs money, Parliament would do it quid pro quo Puritans wanted to get rid of episcopacy Petition of Right (1628) Called out 4 things about Charles Arbitrary arrest/imprisonment w/o cause shown Martial law Extraparliamentary revenues quartering/billeting Era of Personal Rule (1629-1640) Charles is furious, doesn't let Parliament meet for 11 years Brings back extraparliamentary revenue Ppl didn't like his wife Two main officials Thomas Wentworth (1593-1641) Chancellor, unpopular policies Archbishop of Canterbury/William Laud National Covenant (1638) Charles prompted revolt in Scotland, said they would resist any attempt to be made like the Church of England Long Parliament (1640-1660) Called in response to the revolt in Scotland Executed in January 1649 Commonwealth/Interregnum (1649-1660) Charles II (1660-1685) Question of religion and the role of Parliament Fascinated by Catholicism Test Act (1673) Said you could only hold a gov position if you had received communion in Anglican Church at some point during the last year Exclusion crisis (1678-1681) When it starts to be clear that James II will come to throne (Catholic) James II (1685-1688) Accepted b/c ppl still remember English civil War Second wife= Mary of Modena, devout Catholic Became pregnant and had a boy child, ppl lost it b/c of the possiblity of having Catholic kings forever Glorious Revolution (1688) James and wife fled France with children Replaced by his own daughter (Mary) and William of Orange William and Mary (1688-1702) Dual monarchy Had to agree to the Bill/Declaration of Rights (1689) Toleration Act (1689) Said Dissenters can now worship in a house of worship legally Act of Settlement (1701) Said that the monarch of Britain has to be a Protestant Anne (1702-1714) No surviving children Mary's younger sister last one on throne

Ivan IV

Early to late 16th century First to be crowned as Tsar of all the russias Ivan III's grandson Greatest ambition was to gain a port on the Baltic Sea and establish a northern outlet for commerce Nicknamed the terrible-- awesome or awe-inspiring Boyars Traditional Russian nobility Thought there was a conspiracy against his mother and that she was poisoned by the nobles Had a lot of nobles executed Strengthened Russia, expanded it, kind of like consolidation in West but more barbaric Defeated last remnants of Tatar power Independent states on E and S border of Muscovy Khanates Had terrorized Russian people in the past Finally defeats them in a long series of war They become part of Russian state Trying to create a new nobility that owes its power completely to him Boyars executed in large numbers or moved to other areas (lands dispossessed) Not as prestigious as nobles Rules as an autocrat During his reign, you start having Europeans from the WEst visiting Muscovy Russia being alien to outsiders Impressed by how devout they were tsar= complete autocrat, no sense of law, everyone in Russia was his slave Arbitrary autocratic power By 1560 you can start talking about Russian Empire Expands Eastward Past Urals, into Siberia Basically had a harem Married a women named Anastasia She calmed him down, but died mysteriously-- he broke down and was incredibly brutal St. Basel's Cathedral built under him Blinded architect so he couldn't ever build anything more beautiful Got into fight w/ one of his sons, hit him w/ iron staff on head and killed him His only heir was now a son who was mentally challenged-- Theodore the Simple After Theodore died, Russia went into Time of Troubles-- no one knows who true ruler is 1601-1613 Peasant revolts, noble revolts, dynastic conflicts, different claims to throne, foreign invasion (Poland, Sweden) State in peril Ended in 1613 Nobles and churchmen decided they needed to settle on one person or Russia would not survive-- the Romanovs

Charles I (1625-1648)

Early to mid 17th century England Son of James I Relied very heavily on Parliament funds Struggle b/t crown and Parliament reaches peak Is v different from father in some ways Shared certain things Belief in absolutism Fondness for Buckingham Didn't want to change C of E Liked episcopacy, Christmas, kneeling, high church Anglican (smells and bells), bliked being head of it Had older brother who died before becoming king→ not set out expecting to be king Conoisseur Patron of great painters Many different portraits of him (Van Dyke) Needs money Parliament willing to grant taxation only if he was willing to do something for them Quid pro quo Constant Demanded they raise taxes They say only if you persecute Catholics more in England and abroad, or change the Church, or accept constitutional limits on pwr Religion gets intertwined w/ political opposition Didn't take long for things to come to a head 3 years into his reign Puritans Episcopacy Wanted to get rid of this and its hierarchy Means having bishops Rulers didn't want to do this b/c it meant ceding pwr Wanted to get rid of bishops Wanted to get rid of a lot of ritual/outward forms But church stayed pretty high church under James and Charles 1628→ Buckingham assassinated by disgruntled officeseeker king= sad and ppl= joyful Petition of Right (1628) Series of documents Said Charles had been doing 4 things that were wrong Arbitrary arrest/imprisonment w/o cause shown Particularly critics, Puritans Throwing them in prison but not bringin them to trial Martial law He would proclaim military law in an area Means gov could do all sorts of things it couldn't normally Detaining ppl indefinitely Confiscating property Search and seizure Ppl felt he was using it for his own arbitrary reasons Extraparliamentary revenues Ways for king to raise $ w/o Parliament's consent Ppl thought more and more that these methods were dubious Ship money Forced loans Told you had to loan king money at low interest over long time Shaking down own population, virtual blackmail quartering/billeting In private homes Way to save money on part of the gov A burden Unpopular Said he had to stop doing these 4 things He had to grudgingly make promise in order to continue getting $ from Parliament Up there w/ Magna Carta, Bill of Rights House of Commons was going to condemn king, king sent in representative to stop Parliament from making decision Ultimately they agreed to condemn the king Era of Personal Rule (1629-1640) Charles is furious Doesn't let Parliament meet for 11 years Able to rely on his own, cut costs, stuff like that Resorted to do the things he promised not to do in Petition of Right Extraparliamentary revenue Brings back old laws from England that everyone had forgetten about Never technically repealed, but not enforced Started using forced loansa gain Big thing= ship money Many house of commons members refused to pay this and it went to courts Every port city had to supply king w/ ships that were outfitted for war→ medieval tradition Only supposed to happen when there was a real threat to England Only coastal cities do it traditionally Now king says he will take money in lieu of ship Uses it to practically run gov Couldn't give real explanation over the crisis that was going on Required even non-coastal cities to pay it Not tradition but not forbidden Comes to an end finally Isn't particularly popular b/c of his wife Henrietta Maria French princess Bourbon Sister of Louis XIII Open, devout Catholic→ Puritans not fond of this Trying to make alliance She got to have mass said for her in own private chapel in palace Two main ofifcials practically running the gov Thomas Wentworth (1593-1641) Made first Earl of Stratford Chancellor Conducting these pretty unpopular policies Pretty heavyhanded→ intolerant to opposition to king Archbishop of Canterbury/William Laud Not Catholic Believes in uniformity, as all absolutists do Loved C of E as it was Born in Scotland but grew up in England and didn't understand Scotland Scotland had v diff way of worshipping Tried to make Scottish ministers use Book of Common prayer Riot in Edinburgh, drove guy out of whole church Scottish church= up in arms National Covenant (1638) Prompted revolt in own kingdom of Scotland that woul dnot have happened if he had let it be Wrote this up saying they would resist any attempt to be made like church of England Covenanters Drew up army, invaded N England Finally knows he cannot keep not having Parliament meet Needs a lot of money Calls them in 1640, they= furious Complain so much he immediately sent them home (Short Parliament) Knows he has to call Parliament back (1640) Long Parliament (technically 1640-1660) Leverage over him Proposed # of reforms Parliament had to be summoned every 3 years Due process Imprisoned Laud Tells king if he wants Parliament to raise taxes he will have to do things for them Puritans of Parliament sympathize w/ Scots Start making demands 1640-1642, caves in a little bit Impeach and eventually execute Strafford and Laud Charles had to allow that to happen Say from now on the king has to agree that he can't go longer than 3 years w/o calling another Parliament King can't dissolve Parliament Taking control of own destiny Abolish all extraparliamentary revenues (ship money, forced loans) Parliament now controls taxation and revenues Prerogative courts= abolished (not common law courts) Viewed as instrument of absolutism He doesn't want to do any of this Trying to limit him in all sorts of ways 1642→ demanded 2 things he wouldn't agree to, led to war Tried to abolish episcopacy Wanted to control military Appointing generals, top officers Had to say no b/c that's the very definition of the king Went into House of Commons w/ guards Rides in to capture 5 men who were giving him trouble They got away Most outspoken opponents of king, radicals Incident starts tradition of king not being able to go into house of commons Children Mary→ went on to become Mary II of William and Mary James II (died before becoming king) Charles II (becomes king later) Princess Elizabeth Princess Anne (becomes queen later) Then goes to Nottingham Has more support there Announces he is declaring war on own Parliament Raises royal standard (royal flag) Then storm knocked flag over into mud (seen as a sign) Loses war and throne and head Captured, tried to make a deal, escapes and starts war up again, but by 1648 he is captured again Put on trial in January 1649 Accused of treason Refused to cooperate Said this was ridiculous b/c treason= defined as disloyalty to king Now ppl were saying there was something higher than king Knew he was gonna be found guilty Executed at end of January Said he was exchanging earthly crown for eternal crown Ppl rushed up to dip bits of linen into blood of kin

Act of Settlement (1701)

Early 18th century England under William III basically said the order of succession said that above all it has to be a Protestant this law has not been overturned says the monarch of Britain has to be a Protestant

George I (1714-1727)

Early 18th century, King of England When Queen Anne died, they had to follow the line and find the closest Protestant to the throne becomes king of GB and Ireland when Anne dies German prince Hanover not a nice guy disgusting person may have had his own wife murdered English don't like him, Scottish like him even less James II's son by Mary of Modena= James the pretender, tried to take it back son Charles also tried to take back the throne Victoria was the last Hanover

Lord Darnley (aka Henry Stewart, d. 1567)

Early to mid 16th century Mary, Queen of Scots is smitten by him Had Stewart blood in his background so somewhat related to Mary Catholic Grown up in England Get married in 1565 He said that he is her husband, therefore she= subordinate to him Wanted 'crown matrimonial' She did not see it that way he= selfish and arrogant and immature Trying to grab the throne Gets pregnant by him He knocked her down the stairs She came to hate him She has his child= James, James VI of Scotland, James I of England, first person to unite the British Isles under one crown Resents David Rizzio Nobles ganged up and decided to murder Rizzio, he was in on it Then had second thoughts about being on the side of the nobles Starts to side w/ Mary over nobles→ didn't go over well Lived separately from Mary in a cottage→ cottage blown up one night, he= killed in the ruins

excommunication

throwing someone out of the church

anglican church

Aka Episcopal Comes about b/c of a political and marital problem Thomas Wolsey= chancellor during early reign of Henry, basically running the show, initially tells Henry he can get the annulment but can't Henry is determined to have a male heir, can't seem to have it, Catherine of Aragon→ only one child survives= Mary tudor By the end of the 1520s, Henry starts looking for other women, has mistresses, is unfaithful to Catherine, trying to have a male heir Not a Protestant in terms of theology, but Catholic church to this day does not have divorce Pope gave dispensation for marriage of Henry and Catherine of Aragon (said Catherine and Arthur's marriage wasn't legitimate b/c it wasn't consummated) Henry came back saying that the pope should never have given the dispensation, he had sinned by marrying his brother's wife, God was punishing him now by not giving him a male heir→ said pope should dispense the dispensation, doing it for the good of England Wanted an annulment w/ Catherine of Aragon so that he could marry Anne Boleyn Makes pope look bad, also Charles V was C of A's nephew Couldn't give the annulment By 1530s, Henry decides he will break away from the church If the pope can't give him the annulment, he will make himself the head of the church of England 1533→ started getting Parliament to pass laws that will distance them from Rome 1533→ granted annulment by Archbishop of Canterbury, married Anne Boleyn, she gave birth to Elizabeth (Henry = unhappy) Thomas More opposed this, resigned as chancellor in 1532, beheaded b/c he wouldn't accept Henry's annulment Act of Supremacy (1534) Parliament said whoever was king/queen of England was head of both church and state So that the pope had no jurisdiction The start of this Became more Protestant even though Henry didn't necessarily want it that way Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) Henry had made him Archbishop of Canterbury, granted annulment so he could marry Anne Boleyn Tried to push for a little more reform-- English translation of Bible, got rid of some of the ritual things Church doesn't become clearly Protestant until Henry dies Writes Book of Common Prayer under Edward VI (Catholic mass liturgical book translated into beautiful English, changed in certain ways to get rid of the distinctly Roman Catholic parts of it) Dissolution of monasteries Late 1530s→ Henry claims they are all corrupt, shuts them all down and takes all their lands Brings influx of wealth to monarchy and central gov (a lot of it blown by Henry) Some given to nobles to tie them to the crown Important for strengthening the monarchy Also changed the lives of common people Monasteries had provided health care, social welfare, artistic center, education Changes nature of society in England in a significant way Edward VI Raised as a Protestant, if he had lived longer the Church of England would've become almost Calvinist Mary Tudor Returns England to Catholicism, says she doesn't want to be the head of the church b/c the pope is the head of the church Bloody mary Had over 300 people burned at the stake for opposing the return to Rome Cranmer= most famous of the victims Not naturally heroic, scholar, didn't want to die Signed a recantation at one point, but then went back on it One of the Oxford martyrs, Protestant martyr, other bishops killed in this way Led to common thought that Catholics were intolerant and terrible Elizabeth I Moderate Protestant What the Church of England finally becomes→ Elizabethan settlement Calls itself a via media Middle path/road They think they combined the best of both worlds Some Catholic elements Uses the word priests, saints, liturgical churches (Book of Common Prayer at the core of their worship, set order of worship) Crucifixes in churches Music, including human hymns (not just psalms) Stained glass So outward forms were ok Took aspects of both Catholic and Protestant practices and combined them into the 'best' combination Protestant features: Pope is not the head of the church Catholic church outlawed in England for a long time (not fully legalized until the 19th century) Brings back vernacular in Church services Even the high church priests do not take the vow of chastity-- are not celibate No Purgatory Nothing like pilgrimages, shrines, saints' cults Monasticism was out, even if nuns come in much later 2 sacraments Was in many ways a Protestant church Deliberately fuzzy about certain things-- Elizabeth said not to define doctrine too specifically/narrowly Doesn't want things defined-- particularly the Eucharist Tended to split people So there was a real presence, but vague High Church Anglicans vs Low Church Anglicans High church→ stresses ritual and ceremony Closer to Catholicism, lots of liturgy, use the word priest Low church→ more Protestant, simpler services, don't use the word priest Depends on the minister of the church on what kind of church it will be Episcopacy Church government 3 ways → Presbyterian, Congregationalist, and Episcopacy Form o f the Catholic church, Anglican, etc Government by bishops Pope not at top, but monarch Hierarchy Turned what had been Catholic diocese into Protestant ones Became known as not really puritanical about things-- a little looser Not everyone in England accepted the Church even though they tried to make it broad Wants a church that can be accepted by everyone Since it will be the only legal church, wants it to be a broad church-- inclusive Also wants to stay head of it Elizabethan settlement-- settling the religious question, early in her reign Called governor of the church, instead of being called head Early Anglican church was much more Protestant than it was in years to come-- didn't want a secular head of the church Puritans-- wanted to purify the Church of England, got the nickname as early as the 1560's Wanted to get rid of episcopacy Often Calvinists who thought the Anglican Church remained way too Catholic Dissenters/Nonconformists Name for people who were not on board w/ the Anglican Church Usually means English Protestants who are not Anglican Able to more safely express their dispute/discomfort w/ the Anglican Church In the 1600s life got harder for them under James I and Charles I Pilgrims left first-- 1620, Plymouth Rock Recusants Catholics who still wanted to stay Roman Catholics outlawed→ you could not legally have a Catholic mass said in England under Elizabeth I Become a minority Majority ppl in England accept the Anglican Church as it was

great schism

1378-1417, late 14th to early 15th century Italian said they couldn't take back election Frenchman said he had more cardinals on his side Both excommunicated e/o At one point they decided neither could be pope, elected new one, neither accepted so had 3 popes Council healed it in 1417 Weakened ppl's belief in the pope One they finally selected goes back to Rome

Dutch East India Company (VOC) (1602)

Chartered company Aka VOC had 6 times the amount of investment capital in it for at least a century

Peace of Lodi

1454 (mid 15th century) Naples and Venice as a power that makes a treaty with the other main alliance-- Milan and Florence No war b/t those 4 major states for 40 years Didn't mean violence was banished from Italian peninsula Smaller city states were snubbed or overtaken, so there was war

Thirty Years' War

Early to mid 17th century Last big catholic-Protestant war in Europe, most horrible neither the Protestants nor the Catholics in the empire trusted e/o, thought they had true religion, etc Peace of Augsburg excluded Calvinism--> said you could only choose Lutheranism or Catholicism no German princes could even choose Calvinism some German princes did become Calvinist most important Calvinist 'splotch' in Germany was Palatinate (their ruler became Calvinist) ecclesiastical principalities→ their prince or ruler was a Catholic bishop, Peace of Augsburg specifically said that these principalities could never become Protestant, such a part of the Catholic ecclesiastical structure that Charles V really made this point, some of them did turn Protestant, particularly in the northern parts of Germany by 1600, you had a large number of German Protestants who legally were not supposed to be Protestant emperors in the 1500s did not try to enforce this rule really feared that an emperor might come in and try to enforce the rule Protestant states formed what was called the Protestant union in 1608 most Lutheran and all Calvinist states the next year, the Catholic states form the Catholic League HRE= right in the middle of Europe, surrounding countries care mutual paranoia Mathias (d. 1619) had been a fairly tolerant, easy-going Habsburg Catholic childless one of his younger cousins, Ferdinand, was the next in line even though you had to be elected that worried people b/c apparently there was a story that Ferdinand had promised to the Virgin Mary that he would never rule over heretics let Ferdinand rule some of his land 'for practice' Mathias let Ferdinand rule over Bohemia the word Bohemian= not the main-stream, not conventional, alternative lifestyle, more accepting of everything it is the western half of the Czech Republic today capital= Prague (in Bohemia and Czech Republic) bohemian ppl were largely czechs many had become Protestant kinda like Low Countries in that they let a lot of ppl worship different religions and it wasn't overly enforced Ferdinand II (1619-1637) becomes emperor eventually Habsburg very Catholic, intolerantly Catholic when he becomes king of Bohemia in 1617, starts to make life difficult for Protestants in Bohemia persecuting them shutting down Protestant churches, schools, etc. Defenestration of Prague (1618) Protestant nobles were furious, they marched to the castle in Prague where the Catholic officials were (not Ferdinand himself) said Ferdinand was a tyrant, broke promises took two of the Catholics and threw them out of the window intended for the guys to die but ended up falling into a pile of manure Protestant nobility in Bohemia then vote to depose Ferdinand didn't want him as king it was still technically an elected monarchy elected Frederick V ruler of the Palatinate German prince Calvinist electing a clear Protestant chose him b/c: he had relations w/ the House of Orange in the Netherlands head of the Protestant Union wife= Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of James I apparently the real driving force important b/c they have a daughter named Sophia who eventually marries a German prince who is the elector of Hanover why the royal family today is who they are-- where the line comes in called the 'Winter King' lasted only thru one season Habsburgs not about to let this happen 1619--> Frederick takes the throne, Mathias dies, Ferdinand becomes Emperor Ferdinand has support of all of the Habsburgs, including Habsburg Spanish king also Catholic League, led by the Duke of Bavaria war at first goes against the Protestant side Protestants are sort of divided Protestant union did not all come to his aid, said they don't have to help b/c alliance says if anyone is attacked they will help, but they thought he kinda started this fight Catholics were initially more united than Protestants pope encouraged any Catholic leader to help the Habsburgs single biggest German Catholic state= Bavaria Battle of White Mountain (1620) first major battle of the Thirty Years' War Frederick V, ruler of the Palatinate Calvinist German Chairman of the Protestant Unnion did not all join his side--> they said he started the war but the Calvinist members did help him 2 branches of the Habsburgs: Ferdinand II Spanish Habsburgs Married to a Stewart, daughter of James I related to Orange on mother's side Frederick loses this battle particularly important for Czechs (Bohemia) fell under complete control after the defeat Habsburgs declare the throne to be hereditary, not elected brought in Jesuits to try to convert ppl and set up schools shut down Protestant schools and churches @ start of 1600s, majority of Czechs were Protestant that is all pretty much eradicated today it is majority Catholic Catholic Church does not have fervent following among Czechs that Poland does and Hungary You still get the sense that the Czechs were driven back into the church native Czech nobility replaced by ppl the Habsburgs brought in from other parts of Europe Bohemia and Moravia are what now makes up the Czech republic stayed under Habsburg rule until November of 1918 Bohemia= region, of Czech ppl King of Bohemia after this, Habsburgs just keep winning for the next long time Protestants start to get nervous Ferdinand II (1619-1637) tried to take back the throne of Bohemia also trying to make the Holy Roman Empire a more centralized state along the lines of what Spain and England had become where the Holy Roman Emperor would really be the boss and to spread the Catholic Church Frederick V and Elizabeth Stewart become royal refugees--> bop around Europe never able to regain the Palatinate Christian IV king of Denmark who also ruled Norway trying to extend power of monarchy too Lutheran his army not able to defeat Habsburgs at all--> humiliated entered war in 1626 after about 10 years of fighting, any state that had helped Frederick were being conquered by Ferdinand finally issues Edict of Restitution (1629) to restore something that had been changed restoring things the way they should've been saying to enforce the Peace of Augsburg said the Peace of Augsburg had been violated in two ways, we are now going to go back and enforce this rule didn't say anything about Calvinism, so said you cannot be a Calvinist in the HRE not legal at all ecclesiastical principalities city-states scattered across empire w/ Catholic bishop as the ruler were never supposed to turn Protestant, but some had ppl thought he was heading towards getting rid of Protestantism in the entire empire brings counter-reaction on the part of Protestants even the conservative Lutherans who had not joined the war were moved to join the cause big turning point= Gustavus Adolphus (1611-1632) joined the war THE Swedish king Van Dyke beard= the style, Van Dyke was a great painter in the time period, painted many ppl w/ that look goes out of fashion in late 1600s then men go clean-shaven in 1700s facial hair comes back in by 1830s important not just for this war brilliant military leader the Napoleon of his day reorganized Swedish army one of the first to have soldiers wear uniforms had a whole lot of soldiers in his army that weren't Swedes enters war in 1630 smashes every Habsburg army he encounters tide is turning for the first time enters some Catholic states that had escaped all the destruction this was a violent, bloody, destructive war especially for civilians became synonymous w/ apocalyptic horror wins a series of battles fought in German states Germans= the ones that suffered the most fulfilled prophecy of being the 'lion of the north' Magdeburg (1631) right in the middle of Germany Catholics conquered it and pillaged and many were killed became a propaganda point--> Protestants need to avenge and join in used as a propaganda tool to get lukewarm Protestants to join the cause held out against Habsburg army for a while, when it fell the Habsburgs were horrible helped Gustavus Adolphus killed in a battle-- last big victory lost great leader Habsburgs start to recover a bit in the war, but can't completely win the war even w/ him gone b/c almost every Protestant country was involved country that makes sure that the Habsburgs don't win outright= France Habsburgs lose Louis XIII (1610-1643) 2nd Bourbon king raised Catholic Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642) Catholic cardinal advising him pisses off the pope famous for believing in raison d'etat French equivalent of Machiavellianism defending something underhanded, unprincipled, immoral was a Catholic country had established Edict of Nantes entered the war on the Protestant side but politics took precedence over religion they were surrounded on all sides by the Habsburgs-- "Habsburg ring" Bourbons continue tradition of fighting the Habsburgs for almost 100 years politics is trumping religion officially join in 1635 (when they declare war on Habsburg Spain) but particularly worrying about Habsburgs ruling the Low Countries started as a religious war with political undertones, but ended as a political war with religious undertones started of religious questions war goes on into 1640s 12 Year Truce Spain and Dutch had signed treaty in 1609 that lasted 12 Years then expired and they went back to fighting armies lived off the land-- took whatever they could wherever they were even ppl whose armies were on 'their side' were still afraid were often mercenaries often weren't paid almost anything young men, inclined to be violent no rules, no one would punish them war led to a decline in the population of the HRE 1600s--> pop of Europe plateaus and maybe even declines a little bit from famine disruption caused by war not natural famine, but from conflict disrupts an already fragile substistence economy and sickness Plague made a big comeback and immense hunger meant that people were susceptible wolves appeared where they had not been seen for years retarded progress of the German states Battle of Rocroi (1643) Spanish army defeated by French army turning point French on ascent to become the great power again Spain on descent Spanish army seemed to be invincible before that took 5 years of negotiating to get peace started talking in 1643 it was such a complicated conflict that it took a long time Peace of Westphalia (1648) two different treaties Westphalia= region in NW part of Germany together, the two treaties collectively end this war negotiations took sooo long big turning point in history establishes geographical lines for the next century there are some significant changes also what this war represents as a turning point in civilization added Calvinism to the list of legal choices under the Peace of Augsburg ecclesiastical principalities if one had turned Protestant in the 16th century, they can stay Protestant but remaining ones still had to follow Peace of Augsburg and not change French = glad that the Low Countries end up being sort of split Spanish Habsburgs agreed that the Northern half of the Low Countries is now an independent country-- ratifying reality southern part stays under Spanish Habsburg rule why Belgium= Catholic, Netherlands= Calvinist but Dutch were acting like independent country as early as 1580s Habsburg family also recognizes Switzerland as being independent it was inside the old HRE where the Habsburgs really came from Swiss Confederation had tried for centuries to be its own republic that is now ratified good for French--> weakens Habsburgs Alsace and Lorraine were in the HRE, given to France both pretty wealthy, on the border of French and German speaking worlds Joan of Arc= from Lorraine, symbol= cross of Lorraine Lorraine was more French Alsace= more east, more German, capital= Strasbourg treaty was so complicated that it wasn't quite clear what the French had gotten at least in the eyes of the emperor so had to fight some wars to ensure they gained these things emperor is left almost completely as a figurehead princes wanted to rule their own states had already pretty much controlled domestic policy in theory, princes still under HRE for foreign policy and P of A gave princes control of religious policy but Peace of Westphalia said each German prince controlled his own foreign policy HRE was a very hollow term, but keep electing them for a while victories of Counter-Reformation Habsburgs won and kept Bohemia if Habsburgs were hoping to undo Reformation and make HRE a holy, centralized state Spanish lost control of northern half of the low countries Sweden gains some territory along the southern coast of the Baltic successors of Gustavus Adolphus make sure of this Holy Roman Emperor was elected--> 7 electors 1 elector was King of Bohemia Count Palatine (Prince of the Palatinate) 3 of the ecclesiastical principalities Mainz printing press Trier Marx from here (secular Jew) Cologne Brandenburg--> Margrave of Brandenburg got some territory out of the war b/c the prince fought on the Protestant side part of the kingdom of Prussia that will later unite Germany capital= Berlin didn't look like it no big cities no frontiers no good soil devastated by war gets bigger and bigger, gets many other states to unite under their domination Duke of Saxony Catholics get 3 archbishops and Bohemia (as long as the Habsburgs have it) Brandenburg, Saxony, and Palatinate are Protestant if Bohemia got into Protestant control, then Protestants would have a majority... this doesn't happen though Peace of Westphalia adds an elector--> Prince of Bavaria results Spain= in decline France on the rise Scandinavian world Denmark had been the dominant kingdom, but declines Sweden becoming the dominant power German ppl and society were devastated by famine and disease even after the war ends, the fact that you now have 300 essentially independent states 300 states, each w/ own prince, currency, bureaucracy, armies completely fragmented it will be a long time until they achieve that kind of political unity mixed results w/ Habsburgs lost claim to Switzerland and Low Countries but future lies to the East Austria-Hungary= lands that Habsburgs get their hands on one way or another grows eastward increasingly, particularly following the Danube sort of the end of Christendom any kind of political or social Christian unity accept that Protestants can't completely win, and Catholics can't completely win big turning point in terms of secularization of Western politics pope= furious territorial state was now the highest authority Pope denounced the Peace of Westphalia, utterly condemned it, said they shouldn't do it met w/ polite silence start of a type of toleration born of exhaustion a start to accepting the idea that you can't impose religion on ppl secularization of European society it turns into a conflict about the Habsburg family rather than religion as we go on, wars aren't really based on religion anymore

dynastic states

Formed by some ruling family, grabbing, inheriting lands, becomes their realm Often has more than one nationality in it or part but not all of one

Netherlands

Lowlands Habsburg possession→ ruled by a man who was also king of Spain Ruled as if they were a colony of Spain although they are just part of the Habsburg possessions Today, it is Netherlands (North), Luxembourg (south), Belgium (South) Not united linguistically, but united Philip wanted to keep them Catholic, as he had done in Spain He wasn't ever seen-> after he becomes ruler, he stayed in Spain and never traveled Took Peace of Augsburg beyond the letter of the law Coexistence of all different religions→ Anabaptists, Calvinists, Catholics, Lutherans Calvinism really took off there One of the most prosperous parts of the world b/c hey had a hard work ethic, and Rhine River flows there A lot of trade Financial and banking center Amsterdam eventually becomes banking center of the world for a while Along w/ Northern Italy, great areas producing fabric Very different from Spanish→ bourgeois really influenced general thought They made the money, hard work, saving money, avoiding war Pretty tolerant mainly by just looking the other way Philip II made his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent of the Low Countries More practical Just wanted to keep peace, live and let live Had problems b/c Low Countries felt they were treated like cash cow (taxed heavily) and Spanish ruled there) Calvinism became very popular in southern parts, militant form of Protestantism, Philip II said they had to crack down Iconoclasm (1566) Destruction of icons, b/c it's a form of idolatry Destroying pictures of saints, statues, tapestries, stained glass, crucifixes b/c Calvinism said it was idolatry Partially to cleanse own cathedrals But to Catholics it was blasphemy To Philip it wasnot only blasphemy but rebellion respone= called in a bunch of Jesuits to build schools, trying to convince ppl of Catholicism by persuasion Council of Blood→ started sentencing a lot of ppl to death Duke of Alba→ tough, skilled, ruthless general, put many nobles on trial 80 Years' War→ on and off from 1568-1648 Doesn't formally end until Spanish gov agrees to independence of what is now called the Netherlands Religious, but also economic and political political→ wanted to rule as a colony, wanted independence economic→ taxes, trade disrupted by conflict Religion colors everything More of a national revolt→ leaders tend to be Calvinist, but a lot of Catholics join in William the Silent (d. 1584) Aka William of Orange Became the leader of this revolution From principality in the middle of France Calvinist, but fairly tolerant, wanted Catholics to join the revolt Said it wasn't Calvinists vs. Catholics, but Low Countries vs. Spanish Tyranny Calvinists tend to be leaders b/c they have the most to lose if Spain wins Not a brilliant tactical general Good at holding ppl together and compromising and trying to maintain revolt Better politician than general Conflict goes on for years and years Reason why North gets independence was b/c of geography England under Elizabeth I could not ignore the struggle Stard sending weapons and money, volunteers, then finally English soldiers Under her, england turned almost completely Protestant Did it less for religious reasons than some of her counselors Worried about political threat Low Countries= right across from them, never want a strong country there, worried about Spain getting control of it Know Spain and Habsburgs oppose her reign as well Economic side→ trade, particularly wool trade England produced raw wool that the Low Countries turned into fabric, this trade was disrupted She finally had to start helping the rebels when William the Silent was assassinated Made it harder to continue Elizabeth told Privy council that if they don't openly intervene then Spanish will win Philip= very angry, she= bastard and heretic pirates/seadogs Raided Spanish treasure ships Philip responded by helping Mary, Queen of Scots Spain recognized freedom of the Netherlands at the end, especially after the defeat of the Armada

tithe

Revenue of a parish Church tax, often obligatory in agrarian societies

veneration

Worship is only for God But you do this for saints respect

marquess

equivalent of marquis

sovereignty

who is te ultimate boss

countess

wife of an earl

extreme unction/last rites/anointing of the sick

1 of the 7 sacraments Anointed w/ oil unction= oil extreme= at the end of your life First to try to heal you Then over time happened when they knew you were pretty much a goner Didn't think that if you suddenly died then it was an issue

Pedro Cabral (1500)

1500 Portuguese Trying to sail to India, but hit Brazil instead and claimed it

virtu

Ability to do things well Celebrating human achievement and accomplishment Root word= vir (man) Means like string combination of virtue and virtuosity, valor, character, and ability human beings are capable of good

Bavaria

Added as an elector for the HRE in the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 Single biggest German Catholic state Germany

naturalism

Aka realism Renaissance→ realistic proportions, but often idealizes figures

semitic

Arameic was in this language family, not Indo-European

monk

Back then, meant any kind of religious order Luther became one

property tax

Did that some in Europe, but not most important taxation

diocese

District under the jurisdiction of a bishop

Dios o Nada!

God or nothing Spanish expression Going all out

estates-general

Henry IV (1589-1610) never calls it France Doesn't wanna mess w/ it Wants to do it his own way Never becomes a regular part of gov the way Parliament in England is

session/consistory

In an ecclesiastical/Presbyterian government, Church is governed w/ the pastor and elders together on this

Duke of Alba

Late 16th century, Netherlands Tough, skilled, ruthless general Would sometimes level an entire town that had rebelled to make an example of it Rounded up nobles, put on trial Becomes a nasty struggle

Battle of the Boyne (July 12, 1690)

Late 17th century Ireland William III brings army over to Ireland fights them in Ireland means James will not make a comeback-- has to flee back to France Protestants celebrate this to this day

Renaissance Art

Monumental in how they figured out to depict certain things Secular and symbolic while also incorporating religious themes Naturalism-- art looks more 'realistic,' naturalistic, like that of ancient Greece and Rome Clearly set in this world Illusion of 3 dimensions Body proportions are pretty correct Perspective, specifically vanishing point perspective Filippo Brunelleschi- very important in painting, perspective Giotto-- move toward naturalism Masaccio-- mottling, depth, more color, individualized faces, sense of focus, direction Revival of the nude Big part of Western art (ancient Greeks, since Renaissance) Even more in sculpture Accurate proportions of the body Mottling Paint changed-- development around the year 1400 in low countries= oil paint Particularly on canvas (another new thing) In contrast to fresco and tempura of Medieval art Gives much more control-- subtle transitions, variations, etc Patronage changes actual subject matter of art People commission portraits Before, it was corporations (church, etc) or monarchs or guilds Now individuals were commissioning art (wealthy merchants, etc) Also classical mythology Way artist is viewed changes Before, artist was supposed to be a humble craftsman who subordinated individuality Renaissance= assertion of individuality, development of style, now viewed as geniuses Vasari-- art historian in 1500s, stresses individuality of Renaissance artists Piazzas and palazzos designed and decorated by some of the greatest artists of the Renaissance-- civic competition (Italian city-states were competitive rivals) Huge divide b/t N and S Italians Piero della Francesca-- illusion of depth Botticelli-- pagan themes, whimsical subject matter Donatello-- sculptor, naturalism, nude Duomo-- cathedral, development of architecture, geometry and proportions, domes Revived use of the dome, changed nature by making it higher and more elongated Almost like a Gothic arch-- combination of Gothic and classical antiquity, creates a new thing Renaissance churches tended to be more human-friendly

regicides

Only ppl Charles II did not have to pardon in 1660 Ppl who killed the monarch They were drawn and quartered

Isabella of Castile

Ruler of Castile Late 15th to early 16th century Elopes w/ Ferdinand of Aragon b/t two heirs in line In 1469 Supposed to marry Alfonso, the king of Portugal (didn't want that) Queen regnant Hereditarily inherited Vs. queen consort (wife of king, no hereditary rights to throne) One of the first queen regnants in history Both-- queen regnant of Castile and queen consort of Aragon She was the ruler of Castile, not him Aragon and Castile not really unified Castilian Spanish is what we think of today Language difference in Aragon-- included Catalan Cortes Like Parliament Legislative Each region had own Cortes Still kind of divided She and Ferdinand did some things to try to bind Aragon and Castile together To foster a sort of Spanishness Made Castilian Spanish the language in both Aragon and Castile Imposed it as the language of government Established single coinage Tried to get aristocracy to think they were Spanish and intermarry Traveled all around Spain, no central residence, largely illiterate population, quite possible that every Spanish person saw them face-to-face Given nickname 'Catholic Monarchs' Closest to capital city= Toledo (center) Where primate of Spanish Catholic church is (where archbishop presides) War also brought people together Fight to finish Reconquista Common army against this last kingdom As Spain expands, wars in Europe and overseas brought people together Conquered Granada at start of 1492 Very devout Said she would be canonized Helped RCC out a lot Agreed to let Columbus explore Aragonese merchants couldn't trade w/ New World for a while, only Castilians Opened up a whole new world of Catholic proselytization Not canonized b/c she and Ferdinand set up Spanish Inquisition Higher reputation than Ferdinand Centralizing Classic new monarch thing-- didn't rely on nobles, rather bourgeois (educated commoners) to be their advisors/counselors Tried not to make cortes have too much power Made smart marriages Catherine (younger) married Henry VIII Joanna the Crazy married Philip the Fair (Habsburg) Also established strong military

philology

study of words, literally love of words

wicca

the craft, the knowledge associated w/ cunningmen and cunningwomen

manor

1 of the 3 administrative units of agrarian society an administrative unit of a landlord if you had a lot of land you often possessed several manors rents--> paid based on the manor that you lived in you had an overseer that the landlord appointed how you paid often didn't pay in money but in products or time sometimes a village might be divided

Eucharist

1 of the 7 sacraments Communion, mass The other one that most Protestants have

marriage

1 of the 7 sacraments Luther says you shouldn't call this a sacrament b/c it isn't uniquely Christian

confirmation

1 of the 7 sacraments When you are coming of age A bishop has to do this to you Making sure you know what you are doing

ordination

1 of the 7 sacraments When you are made a priest So you can administer sacraments You are kind of a separate group Higher level Indelible character

Muscovy

1200s-- most Russian principalities conquered by Mongols Tatars in Russian history (people from hell) tatar= mix of Mongol and Turk Set Russian civilization back in some ways Not a lot of arts or architecture Mongol Yoke-- impressive way of governing Russians Became the most important principality Capital city= Moscow Began to conquer some of the other Russian principalities Began to lead fight to drive off Tatars and break Mongol Yoke Accumulated larger realm Ivan III= Ivan the Great, idea of Third Rome in Moscow Makes Russians really special in their minds Preserving truth-- ruler is emperor, tsar of all Russians Double headed eagle, originally symbol of Byzantine empire, Russia took it on as their symbol Saint George= patron saint of Muscovy Saint Andrew= patron saint of Russia as a whole Ivan IV/the terrible, treatment of boyars, strengthened and expanded Russia, defeated last remnants of Tatar power, trying to create new nobility, autocrat, St. Basel's Cathedral, fight with son Romanovs-- ruled Russia until there were no more monarchs left

avignon papacy

1309-1376 (early to late 14th century) Pope in 1309 was a Frenchman, decided he would prefer to live in Avignon over Rome-- at the time it belonged to the Papal States Scandalous-- he was supposed to be in Rome, ppl thought French king controlled papacy if it was practically in the French kingdom 7 popes during this time period, some definitely under the thumb of the French king Another pope decided he would move back Disputed election-- some demanded they elected a Roman-- cardinals under duress voted for an Italian as pope Then the majority of the cardinals had another election and picked a Frenchman who then went back to Avignon Great Schism (1378-1417) Late 14th to early 15th century Italian said they couldn't take back election Frenchman said he had more cardinals on his side Both excommunicated e/o At one point they decided that neither could be pope, elected new one, neither accepted so had 3 popes Council that healed schism in 1417 But weakened ppl's belief in the pope One they finally selected went back to Rome

High Renaissance

1490-1530 Turn of the century Incredibly fruitful period

Line of Demarcation

1494 Portugal and Spain went to the Pope and asked him to establish a border in the New World Pope drew a line, said Spain would have open seas on things west of that line, Portugal would have things east of that line Portugal got Brazil and Africa and Asia Spain got North and South America Natives disputed it Other Euros disputed it Eventually all fell apart b/c other countries in Europe don't care

population increase

1500s improved general life of the people in the first half of the 1500s ate more meat increased income last half of 1500s--> more ppl than food supply can keep up with more ppl, less jobs, inflation pressure on food supply influx of gold and silver from New World made more currency out there, Spain handled it badly, it inflated prices they also debased/devalued the currency more money chasing same amount of goods, prices go up governments keep being tempted (particularly when you start having paper money) to devalue currency speculative/financial bubble

Henry VIII

1509-1547/early to mid 16th century father= Henry VII (respected, feared, strong, most intelligent, best businessman, bureaucrat, squeezing $ for taxes out of ppl) Older brother= Arthur Henry VII and wife Elizabeth of York had this son Never becomes king Dies at 15 or 16 By that time he was married to Catherine of Aragon Intelligent, pious, beautiful Spanish princess parents= Ferdinand and Isabella Way of tying Spain to England in this anti-French alliance Slightly older than Arthur Henry VII wanted to keep the alliance going, decided w/ Ferdinand and Isabella that Catherine and Henry VIII would get married Love match for some time, liked her, English loved her, very popular, married for a long time Obsessed w/ his own personal glory-- thought that meant going and fighting wars on the continent (which his father was wise enough to avoid) Shifted back and forth b/t alliances w/ Habsburg and Valois But expensive, English didn't get anything out of it, many died Thomas Wolsey Classic example of new noble (humble background, father= butcher) Rose through the church Perfect example of pluralism-- all different church offices (virtually everything but Archbishop of Canterbury) Eventually also Cardinal Brilliant administrator, great at manipulating ppl, somewhat underhanded, resented by nobles, not liked at all by general public In Henry's early reign, he was the chancellor, basically running the show Built Hampton Court Thomas More was the chancellor after this Initially tells Henry he can get the annulment-- can't Henry blames it on Wolsey, stripped of the chancellorship Died of sickness, not execution Problems start to arise-- Tudor fam has a very weak claim to the throne Henry is determined to have a male heir, can't seem to have it Catherine of Aragon had many miscarriages, still-borns, infant deaths, only 1 daughter survived= Mary Tudor End of 1520s→ Henry starts looking for other women, has mistresses, unfaithful to Catherine Trying to have male heir, England had never had queen regnant, thought if he died w/o a male heir the nation would fall back into dynastic war Not Protestant in terms of theology, but Catholic church to this day does not have divorce Papal dispensation A pope can put aside a rule if there are good reasons/biblical grounds to do it When Arthur dies, he was the brother of Henry Verse in the Bible-- you aren't supposed to marry your brother's widow Pope said it was ok b/c marriage of Catherine and Arthur wasn't legitimate b/c it wasn't consummated Catherine had to swear on relics that she was a maid still when she married Henry Pope gave dispensation for the marriage Then Henry came back and said the pope should never have given the dispensation, he had sinned by marrying his brother's wife, God was punishing him now by not giving him a male heir So the pope should dispense the dispensation Henry said he was doing it for the good of England Also proud and wanted a son, and looking at younger women Had already had Anne Boleyn's sister Mary as a mistress Anne Boleyn Henry starts going after her, pregnant when they got married Annulment Would end a marriage that was never legitimate Whereas divorce would end a legitimate marriage Nobles and everyone wanted the pope to grant this annulment Makes the pope look bad Going back on predecessor Making it look like papacy would do anything the monarch asked for Catherine' nephew= Charles V Could be problematic for pope to go against HRE When Rome fell, pope became practically a prisoner of Charles V Pope probably would've liked to have given this, but had to stall and couldn't Intelligent, not a classic beauty Wants her first as a mistress, but then decides to marry her Catherine insists the whole time she was a maid when she married Henry Standing up for daughter Saying she= Henry's wife, deal w/ it By 1530ish, decides to break away from church If pope can't give him the annulment, he will make himself the head of the church of England 1533→ starts getting Parliament to pass laws that will distance them from Rome 1533→ granted annulment by Archbishop of Canterbury, married Anne Boleyn Gave birth to Elizabeth, Henry= unhappy, sure it was going to be a boy, had another child that was male but stillborn Opponents: Thomas More, his own chancellor, resigned in 1532 Henry later demanded that More accept annulment, he won't and is beheaded Common people on Catherine of Aragon's side Wronged woman Anne Boleyn was hated, the 'other woman' Act of Supremacy (1534) Parliament said whoever was king/queen of England was head of both church and state So that the pope had no jurisdiction Start of the Anglican Church Finally accuses Anne Boleyn of having adultery w/ more than one person in court, including a musician and one of her own brothers Jury included her own father, found her guilty of treason First of his wives to be beheaded (by French executioner) Jane Seymour= wife #3 From upper-class english fam Finally produces a son= Edward VI (1547-1553) Died 9 days after she gave birth from infection, in 1537 Anne of Cleaves= wife #4 Married 2 years after Seymour died Common belief= she was ugly and barely wanted to sleep w/ her Cromwell tells him he has to have an alliance w/ some Protestants on the continent, looking like Habsburg and Valois were coming to peace, could form alliance against England German princes were a real Protestant power Made alliance w/ German Prince of Cleaves to marry his sister Wanted to get out of marriage, but had to go thru w/ wedding to go thru w/ alliance Then Cranmer offered an annulment Anne= unhappy, but didn't want to fight back that much Stayed in London, raised some of Henry's children, titled the "king's sister" Outlives Henry Cromwell takes the fall for this, gets head cut off Married 1539-1540 Catherine Howard= wife #5 Married in 1540 Gets beheaded Member of powerful conservative Catholic fam Accused of committing adultery w/ at least one person in court Beheaded in 1542 for treasonous adultery, died bravely Catherine Parr= wife #6 Scholarly, Protestant Shaped policy as much as a woman could Wrote first book written by a woman published in English, about Protestant theology Important in shaping the development of Edward VI, made sure next ruler would be very Protestant Importance would have been greater if Edward had lived on Church of England becomes more Protestant even though Henry didn't necessarily want it that way Thomas Cromwell (1540) Son of a blacksmith Chancellor for Henry after Thomas More resigned and was executed, from 1532-1540 When Henry taking over Church, taking over Church land Rose through ranks Helped get More convicted and executed There to facilitate divorce w/ C of A so he could get AB, then getting rid of AB Excellent bureaucrat Part of creating the Privy Council Core of administrators who each had a department of state that they were responsible for Organization and specialization-- each person doing a specific job Forerunner of Cabinet gov Advised king Policy making and implementing body Rationalizing the state Said that when we make changes we need to get Parliament to ratify those changes Good at manipulating and getting things past Nobles hated him, conspired against him, lied about him to the king Henry was easy to convince to go against someone, very trusting Had Cromwell executed Regretted that he had killed one of his best servants-- never has a chancellor nearly as brilliant as Cromwell Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) Henry had made him Archbishop of Canterbury Granted annulment so he could marry Anne Boleyn Tried to push for a little more reform English translation of the Bible Got rid of some of the ritual things Church doesn't become clearly Protestant until Henry dies Died in 1547 Dissolution of monasteries Late 1530s→ claims they are all corrupt, shuts them all down and takes all their lands Bring influx of wealth to monarchy and central gov (a lot of it blown by Henry) Some given to nobles to tie them to crown Important for strengthening the monarchy Also changed the lives of common ppl Monasteries had provided health care, social welfare, artistic center, education Changes the nature of society in England in a significant way

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

1648, NW Germany Took 5 years of negotiating to get peace→ very complicated conflict two different treaties together, the two treaties collectively end this war big turning point in history establishes geographical lines for the next century there are some significant changes also what this war represents as a turning point in civilization added Calvinism to the list of legal choices under the Peace of Augsburg ecclesiastical principalities if one had turned Protestant in the 16th century, they can stay Protestant but remaining ones still had to follow Peace of Augsburg and not change French = glad that the Low Countries end up being sort of split Spanish Habsburgs agreed that the Northern half of the Low Countries is now an independent country-- ratifying reality southern part stays under Spanish Habsburg rule why Belgium= Catholic, Netherlands= Calvinist but Dutch were acting like independent country as early as 1580s Habsburg family also recognizes Switzerland as being independent it was inside the old HRE where the Habsburgs really came from Swiss Confederation had tried for centuries to be its own republic that is now ratified good for French--> weakens Habsburgs Alsace and Lorraine were in the HRE, given to France both pretty wealthy, on the border of French and German speaking worlds Joan of Arc= from Lorraine, symbol= cross of Lorraine Lorraine was more French Alsace= more east, more German, capital= Strasbourg treaty was so complicated that it wasn't quite clear what the French had gotten at least in the eyes of the emperor so had to fight some wars to ensure they gained these things emperor is left almost completely as a figurehead princes wanted to rule their own states had already pretty much controlled domestic policy in theory, princes still under HRE for foreign policy and P of A gave princes control of religious policy but said each German prince controlled his own foreign policy HRE was a very hollow term, but keep electing them for a while victories of Counter-Reformation Habsburgs won and kept Bohemia Spanish lost control of northern half of the low countries Sweden gains some territory along the southern coast of the Baltic successors of Gustavus Adolphus make sure of this Holy Roman Emperor was elected--> 7 electors 1 elector was King of Bohemia Count Palatine (Prince of the Palatinate) 3 of the ecclesiastical principalities Mainz printing press Trier Marx from here (secular Jew) Cologne Brandenburg--> Margrave of Brandenburg got some territory out of the war b/c the prince fought on the Protestant side part of the kingdom of Prussia that will later unite Germany capital= Berlin didn't look like it no big cities no frontiers no good soil devastated by war gets bigger and bigger, gets many other states to unite under their domination Duke of Saxony Catholics get 3 archbishops and Bohemia (as long as the Habsburgs have it) Brandenburg, Saxony, and Palatinate are Protestant if Bohemia got into Protestant control, then Protestants would have a majority... this doesn't happen though adds an elector--> Prince of Bavaria

Time of Troubles

1601-1613 (strictly speaking), Russia there was really no one who was accepted as the tsar foreigners--> Swedes coming in, Poles under Sigismund defensive giant

catalonian revolt

1640 Barcelona= capital Catalan= own language (not a dialect of Spanish) Wanted own country Crushed in 1652 Nobles also supported rebellion Destroyed Olivares

revolt in Portugal

1640 Revolt b/c tax is so heavy on ppl in parts of their realm After 1580, this country was under the rule of king of Spain Still had central identity Broke away, became separate kingdom again, picked new royal fam Succeeded Completely separate Picked own royal fam Monarchy until 1910 Nobles also supported rebellion

absolutism vs. constitutionalism

17th c, particularly w/ British Isles, this was the great question Absolutism doesn't necessarily mean having a monarch Means ruler doesn't have to answer to any set of rules Whatever monarch says is law Arbitrary absolutist gov Constitutionalism Means even the king is beneath the law Rule of law= so important Not just about democracy Rule of law= more important than majority rule Basic distinction= whether you have rule of law or not Does not even mean having a written constitution mother= GB Does not have a written constitution to this day Constitution can mean the way we are constituted Made up of unwritten things No one single document It is now accepted that the monarch is not the real sovereign→ Parliament is

Samuel Johnson

18th century scholar in England Very devout Episcopalian Said he was amazed how Luther was able to break Catholicism's spell Surprised all women aren't Catholics→ glitter, trinkets, nice smell, external objects, beauty, women liked saints' cults

grammar, rhetoric, dialectic

3 basic liberal arts, taught in humanist education

Francis Xavier (1506-1552)

Jesuit Early 16th to mid 16th century Spanish Met w/ Ignatius, part of founding Jesuits Goes to Portuguese Empire→ Africa, East Indies One of the first white ppl to set foot in Japan, wanted to go to China but died in Japan Known as the Apostle of the Indies Now patron saint of all missionaries in the Catholic Church

politiques

A lot of Catholics, including Catherine de Medici Being called this was a negative term, a put-down→ said you were putting politics above God Being heretical, willing to accept a Protestant King in order for peace Said we couldn't keep living in anarchy like this Ppl who said that peace= the goal Other Frenchmen said they couldn't have a heretic on the throne of Saint Louis Louis IX, ruled in 1200s, considered by a lot of ppl as the ideal Medieval King Eventually went on a crusade

popular support

A lot of common people were attached to the way Catholicism was Specifically Southern Europe (Spain) Question of women Samuel Johnson Very devout Episcopalian Said he was amazed at how Luther was able to break Catholicism's spell Surprised all women aren't Catholics

conversos

Jews/Muslims who converted to Catholic Christianity by the orders of the Inquisition, treated as 2nd class, not pure of blood, could easily be accused of being crypto-jew or crypto-Muslim

papal dispensation

A pope can put aside a rule if there are good reasons/biblical grounds to it When Arthur dies, he was the brother of Henry Verse of the Bible-- you aren't supposed to marry your brother's widow Pope said it was ok b/c marriage of Catherine and Arthur wasn't legitimate b/c it wasn't consummated Catherine had to swear on relics that she was a maid still when she married Henry Pope gave this for marriage Then Henry came back and said that the pope should never have given the dispensation, he had sinned by marrying his brother's wife, God was punishing him now by not giving him a male heir So the pope should __ the ___ Said he was doing it for the good of England Also proud and wanted a son Also looking at younger women

parish registers

A specific area that a church serves Inside each province there are diocese, inside each diocese are these Clergymen started to keep records near the end of the 16th century Used for average life expectancy, birth rates, illegitimacy rates Keeping basics of marriage, birth, death Clergy said they had to keep these things-- gov is using them too

fiscal policy

About revenue and spending Money coming in and money going out Revenues (taxation= most important) Gov spending

autocrat

Absolutist ruler Byzantine empire, like late Roman Empire, had an absolutist emperor Not constitutional or limited Russia adopted this too Eventually, you have a Russian ruler by early 1500s claiming to be heir of Byzantines

marquis de louvois

Advisor to Louis XIV minister of war built up army and navy tried to make sure that officers w/ real authority actually knew what they were doing established storehouses for weapons and ammunition supply line less glamorous but essential permanent standing army starting to happen in Europe as opposed to having mercenary or feudal arrays uniform, professional, paid, year-round expensive wanted it b/c almost continually fighting wars over half the time he was ruling Louis was convinced that France had natural boundaries that the political boundaries had not quite reached said God had clearly meant for France to have these frontiers the Atlantic the Pyrenees The Mediterranean The Rhine River controversial one France had not reached it historically very German (german-speaking on both sides) thought they should expand to there his wars were about that more than anything else Alps English Channel he was pushing into the Low Countries a small but critical area very wealthy strategically just south of the Dutch Republic next to England felt he had legitimate claims to it trying to grab it generally won wars for territory that had been part of the Roman Empire eventually took a coalition of almost everyone in Europe against them to win

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

Advisor to Louis XIV in mid to late 17th century France finance minister one of the most self-sufficient definitely a mercantilist not how we today think is the correct way to approach things said they needed to build up their own economy improved infrastructure roads, bridges, canals, tunnels, communication lines had a religious belief in canals tried to support growth industries targeted things as having a future like the silk industry would support them w/ subsidies and loans protectionism protecting domestic industry (agriculture) from foreign competition use tariffs and taxes on imports also quotas promoted shipbuilding w/ loans and stuff believed very much in colonies French started to colonize overseas @ same time English did--> 1600s Quebec= first permanent one in 1608 (Henry IV) a lot of emphasis on what becomes Canada strict about keeping accounts a quantifying kind of guy French economy grew government able to almost finance everything after his death it broke the bank Louis got involved in wars and building French had financial crisis that it shouldn't have had a bourgeois bureaucrat conscientious and genius

time of troubles

After Ivan IV's son Theodore died, Russia went into this No one knows who is the true ruler 1601-1613 (early 17th century) State in peril Peasant revolts, noble revolts, dynastic conflicts, different claims to throne, foreign invasion (Poland, Sweden) Ended in 1613 Nobles and churchmen decided they needed to settle on one person or Russia would not survive-- the Romanovs

Romanov (1613-1917)

After Time of Troubles, Sigismund III proclaimed himself tsar in 1610 Russian boyars finally did the patriotic thing, said they had to stop fighting amongst themselves, said they had to unite under one man head of Russian Orthodox Church was instrumental in bring Russia together they all unite under a native Russian, Michael Romanov dynasty/family, starts ruling in 1613 under Michael Romanov Michael Romanov was a prominent boyar, 'one of us', had thru matrilineal line he had some connection to the earlier royal family Russia emerges out of the time of troubles w/ Michael Michael is not extremely important in Russian history other than him being chosen they do drive out the Poles, make a deal w/ Sweden to help them

anti-clericalism

Against the clergy governing Skeptical and antagonistic view of the role of the clergy and not just in a political sense Against clergy controlling schools Against church having legal control/privileges

holy commonwealth

Aka theocracy What Zwingli and Calvin wanted Christian princes If sin was wrong, sin should be illegal But how much do you enforce sexual morality-- being unfaithful is wrong, but should someone be imprisoned for that Blasphemy: taking the Lord's name in vain-- you could be fined in Zurich for doing this Remember the Sabbath and keep it holy Honor thy mother and thy father-- you could be beheaded for talking back harshly to your parents

Bohemia

Along w/ Moravia, makes up the Czech Republic today Stayed under Habsburg rule until November 1918 Region of Czech ppl King position disputed b/t Ferdinand II and Frederick V in early 17th century

believer's baptism

Anabaptist belief Adult baptism Shook a lot of ppl Most others believed you should be baptized as a baby→ high rates of infant mortality Usually baptized at 11 or 12 Stressing stuff about being a true believer Making a conscious choice, making a commitment to the church Also say infant baptism is not scriptural No scriptural evidence of infants being baptized, but adults Totally immersed underwater, symbol of you going into your grave Mainstream protestants thought it was funny to kill Anabaptists by drowning them

nepotism

Appointing people based on relation instead of qualification One of the things Erasmus criticized about the RCC

Vasari

Art historian in the 1500s Stresses individuality of Renaissance artists From Arezzo Society paid these people well

Mannerism (c. 1530-1600)

Artistic movement mid to late 16th century Very long period where Renaissance style becomes mannered More artificial, more extreme Not like High Renaissance

maritime technology

Astrolabe Compass (from east) Multiple sails on one mast, multiple masts

papal primacy

At Council of trent, conciliarism is condemned Said the ultimate authority is the Pope It has been that way ever since

ad fontes!

Back to the sources Shared by both Northern and Italian Renaissance, even though they had different emphasis Both the Northern and Italians believed there was something in the distant past that was pure and golden-- from the source Sources are different-- Italian was classical antiquity/Greco-Roman culture; Northern was the Bible, New Testament and Old Testament, early Church fathers, idea that the earliest forms of Christianity are the purer forms, over time, things get sullied, passed down, corrupted, warsped In both cases, there is a sense of a distant past you are trying to get to Recent past (middle ages) was something you had to denigrate Northerners thought the most horrible thing about the middle ages was that the church had gone wrong-- paternity of the Reformation, neither one of the two most important Northern humanists turned Protestant, Northern Renaissance laid foundation by stressing the need to get back to the sources-- Greek and Hebrew texts

peter paul rubens

Baroque painter Did a bunch of portraits of Marie de Medicis

romanovs

Became the rulers of Russia at the end of the Time of Troubles (1613, early 17th century) Ruled Russia until there were no more monarchs left Russia has canonized the family

Tudors

Began rule in late 15th century after battle of Bosworth Henry VII Ruled late 15th century to early 16th century, example of new monarchs, kept expenses down, avoided foreign war, Machiavellian, married Yorkist princess (combined house of York w/ house of Lancaster) Used diplomacy Married off daughters in smart ways Common law Claim was very weak-- thru matrilineal line, marriage w/ illegitimate child Gentry, not even royal family, not nobility, just landowners, not even English but Welsh Owen Tudor and Margaret Beaufort had Henry VII Prerogative courts Parliament Henry VIII-- early to mid 16th century

mausoleum

Building where you have tombs above ground Escorial was partially this Philip II wanted all Habsburg ancestors dug up and brought to this one place

simony

Buying and selling relics, mainly meant buying and selling church offices, lots of money exchanging hands

maritime technology

By 1400s, Europeans were a little ahead of the rest of the world w/ ship and navigational technology

Siege of Vienna

By ottomans Lasted for a while Held tough and Ottomans retreated

double-headed eagle

Byzantine imperial emblem adopted by Ivan the Great as the symbol of Russia

Fall of Constantinople

Byzantine scholars fled from Ottomans to Italy Kept Greek language alive When Ottoman Turks started taking over, Byzantines brought with them the knowledge of Greek language and Greek texts Greek language in 1400s is very exciting to scholars, particularly in Florence

geneva

Calvin fled from Paris, friend was burned for Protestantism, goes a couple of other places first, but ends up here A guy from here was trying to structure their church, tried to convince Calvin to stay Said town council had voted to go Protestant, kicked out bishop (who was also political leader), but needed Calvin Said if Calvin didn't stay he would be cursed by God, he took it seriously Becomes a model for reformed Protestantism Eventually had two main types of Protestants Lutherans Reformed Zwingli and Calvin Aka Presbyterian In British Isles, particularly in Scotland, they get this name Became known as the Protestant Rome Great publishing center-- printing out catechisms, Bibles, prayer books Like the Vatican for Calvinism University-- ppl came from all over Europe to study theology there Refugee center-- if you were fleeing from Catholic persecution

Moors

Came to Spain and conquered almost all of Iberian Peninsula exept far north in 711 From North Africa Arabic/Berber-speaking Muslims dark-skinned

maritime artillery

Cannons and artillery aboard ships Difficulty When you fire a cannon, it recoils (kick-back) Heavy, had to have reinforced decks Knew how advantageous it would be if you could put cannons on ships

Duomo

Cathedral Where bishop has his headquarters/presides In Florence Gothic elements, but largely a Renaissance church Use of geometry and proportions Most famous thing= dome Built by Brunelleschi Holds a lot of weight seemingly miraculously Roman dome but stretched out to make it look almost like a Gothic arch Combination of Gothic and classical antiquity, creates a new thing

El Siglo de Oro

Century of gold Golden Age→ more than one actualy century In terms of cultural influence and literature and art= ~1550-1650 Spanish expansion, gold coming in Miguel de Cervantes (d. 1616) Very important author Wrote Don Quixote An early form of a novel Definitely fiction, fantasy story, satire Making fun of Spanish ppl and society Felt that the Spanish ppl lived in a dream world, starting to harm them in a practical sense Spain has precipitous decline b/c of this Domenikos Theotokopoulos (d. 1614), aka El Greco Greek, from Crete Famous artist Good example of late Renaissance/Mannerism Long period where Renaissance style becomes mannered More artificial, more extreme Not like High Renaissance Greek, Byzantine influence

usury

Charging loans

martial law

Charles I, early 17th century One of Parliament's complaints in Petition of Right He would proclaim military law in an area Means gov could do all sorts of things it couldn't normally Detaining ppl indefinitely Confiscating property Search and seizure Ppl felt he was using it for his own arbitrary reasons

quartering/billeting

Charles I, early 17th century One of Parliament's complaints in Petition of Right In private homes Way to save money on part of the gov A burden Unpopular

arbitrary arrest

Charles I, early 17th century One of Parliament's complaints in Petition of Right Particularly critics, Puritans Throwing them in prison but not bringin them to trial

extraparliamentary revenue

Charles I, early 17th century One of Parliament's complaints in Petition of Right Ways for king to raise $ w/o Parliament's consent Ppl thought more and more that these methods were dubious Ship money Forced loans Told you had to loan king money at low interest over long time Shaking down own population, virtual blackmail Bring it back during Era of Personal Rule, mid-17th century Brings back old laws from England that everyone had forgetten about Never technically repealed, but not enforced Started using forced loansa gain Big thing= ship money Many house of commons members refused to pay this and it went to courts Every port city had to supply king w/ ships that were outfitted for war→ medieval tradition Only supposed to happen when there was a real threat to England Only coastal cities do it traditionally Now king says he will take money in lieu of ship Uses it to practically run gov Couldn't give real explanation over the crisis that was going on Required even non-coastal cities to pay it Not tradition but not forbidden

Thomas Wolsey

Classic example of new noble Humble background (father= butcher) Rose through the church Perfect example of pluralism-- all different church offices Was virtually everything, but never Archbishop of Canterbury Eventually also Cardinal Brilliant administrator Great at manipulating people-- somewhat underhanded Resented by nobles Not liked by the general public Early reign of Henry→ was the chancellor, basically running the show Built Hampton Court Thomas More was chancellor after him Initially tells Henry that he can get the annulment Can't Henry blames it on him, stripped of the chancellorship Died of sickness, not execution

pluralism

Clergymen had too many positions, couldn't fulfill them, tasks weren't adequately done Led to absenteeism One of the things Erasmus criticized about the RCC

wars

Comes w/ rise in commerce in France under Louis XIV Fought increasingly not about religious or dynasty, but commerce

perambulation

Community-building ritual happened in the spring blessing the harvest religious thing b/c priest would bless field if they had a relic they would hold it with them and proceed through they would call out who had that strip of land way of delineating borders-- confirming who had what being a farmer is risky--> can't control weather, droughts, pests

conquistadors

Conquerors Men who were not from the highest nobility (gentry/hidalgos) Looking for opportunity Wanted to make name and money by the sword Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro Cortez takes Aztec empire by 1520s Had about 1000 men when he got started Pizarro takes Incan Empire by early 1530s Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile

anabaptists

Decided that if you should only do things that are scriptural, they did a lot of other things baptism= one of the two sacraments the protestants accepted, initiation as a member of the Church Adult baptism→ better term is believer's baptism Shook a lot of ppl Most others believed that you should be baptized as a baby→ infant mortality was so high They went w/ this Usually baptized @ 11 or 12 Stressing stuff about being a true believer This is making a conscious choice, making a commitment to the church Also say infant baptism is not scriptural There is no scriptural evidence of infants being baptized, but adults Totally immersed underwater, symbol of you going into your grave Mainstream protestants thought it was funny to kill Anabaptists by drowning them Church type vs sect type 2 ways you can view how the Christian community should interact w/ general society Church type→ Catholics and mainstream Protestants Don't try to distinguish committed true believers from insincere ones You baptize all of society Treat general society as being coterminous w/ the church Assuming that everyone is part of the church Baptize infants Bat also no real separation of church and state-- prince is a Christian prince Sect type→ subgroup, you say the great majority of ppl/general society is not ever going to be Christian The true Christians in the world are always going to be a minority The sign of that is believer's baptism Only ppl who had consciously made a choice Narrow def of Christianity in a community You separate yourself from the world Trying to be apart from "the world" which they think of as simple polygamy→ saw that patriarchs had more than 1 wife, did so as well Very strict morality, unfashionable→ modesty, bonnets, etc Strict in lifestyle in terms of attire→ why they often live in rural areas Tended to be deeply pacifist Say when Christ said turn the other cheek, he meant that He who lives by the sword dies by the sword Majority of Christianity had not been Baptist Direct descendents today (still sect type): Mennonites Will use internal combustion engines, electricity Named after Menno Simons Pacifists Try to live simply and gently Not as strict as Amish and Hutterites Amish Say they will only use technology you had by the year 700 "Living plain" Simply, making your own clothes, not trying to be fashionable Separating yourself from the cool kids, who are sinful Famous for barn-raisings Largest Amish community in US in PA (SE corner) Hutterites Tended to live out West, w/ a lot of land Said early Christian community tended to share Communalism Believe in living in Christian communes Share the work, everyone had the same standard of living, like Utopia Share the wealth Rejected the idea of a Christian prince, rejected the idea that most of society were Christians Often marginalized, persecuted→ saw this as a sign that they were the true believers, always martyred Communities that were largely ethnically German, even if they were not living in Germany Austria, Germany, Eastern outskirts of Holy Roman Empire Netherlands Germanic Munster Rebellion 1534-1535 Group of Anabaptists who took over the city of Munster Drove out Catholics and mainstream Protestants Tried to set up a comune, heaven on earth Used violence to enforce things, polygamy Discredited Anabaptists largely, gave them a bad reputation Lutherans and Catholics united to take back the city Leaders were tortured to death Their doctrine posed both a psychological and doctrinal threat Sola sciptura-- by word alone Religious radicals derived many conclusions from this principle Some groups argued the case that since true Christians were only those who had faith, all others must be cast out of the church Some denied the power of civil authority over true believers Would have nothing to do w/ the state, refusing to pay taxes, perform military obligations, or give oaths Some argued for the community of goods among believers and rejected private property Some literally followed passages in the Old Testament that suggested polygamy and promiscuity Persecuted to the brutal extent of the laws of heresy Catholics burned them Protestants drowned them They were stoned and clubbed out of their communities Never a large group w/in the context of Protestant churches, they represented an alternative to mainstream views-- Lutheran or Calvinist-- that was both attractive and persistent Enough substance in their ideas and enough sincerity in their patient sufferings that they continued to recruit followers as they were driven from town to town Finally settled on the eastern edges of the Holy Roman Empire (Bohemia and Hungary

desiderius erasmus

Dutch, Mid 15th to early 16th century Wanted literacy to be spread as much as possible, believed in vernacular translation of the Bible King of the Northern Renaissance Portraits by Holbein Scholar Dies a bachelor From Rotterdam, Netherlands Really European in nationality-- moved around a lot, doesn't think of himself in nationalistic terms, lived in England, Italy, Switzerland, very cosmopolitan, very internationalist Educated partly in a monastery, but decided he didn't want to be a monk, didn't want to be involved w/ corruption, but stuck w/ Catholic Church when it came down to it Purifying parts of the Bible, getting it to the original form, in Greek, it had been diluted To him, the most important thing he did was a lot of work on the Greek New Testament-- edited it, extremely important b/c of the textual errors that had come through in the time, back to the sources and scholarship of the Northern Renaissance, made himself learn Greek at 30 b/c he thought it was so important, wanted to get as close as possible to the original texts of the Greek new Testament, got the ones he thought were closest to the original, compared and contrasted them Published what he said was as close as we were ever going to get to the original Greek New Testament Annotated it, talked about passages that were difficult, etc Wants Greek New Testament original to be turned into the vernacular of all nationalities in Europe great emphasis on the need for everyone to be able to read the Bible had this in common w/ a lot of Protestant Reformers, why they thought he would join them, but he wasn't said it's stupid that ordinary people can't read the Bible and understand it, did not do a vernacular translation himself but did an improved version of the Vulgate (Latin Translation) Criticized the church: greed, institutionalization of spiritual ideas can lead to corruption, clerical ignorance (even the clergy was illiterate, horrible esp when you are supposed to be saying a mass in Latin, giving a sermon, homily), doctrine (teaching, led to indulgences), nepotism (appointing people based on relation instead of qualification), pluralism (clergymen had too many positions, couldn't fulfill them, tasks weren't adequately done-- led to absenteeism), sexual immorality Saints' cults-- what he criticized more than anything else Showing devotion to a saint Having churches dedicated to him or her, prayers said in their name, images of them, pilgrimages to where they lived Veneration-- worship is only for God, but respect for saints A lot of common people were substituting saints for God-- became polytheism Said they had become way too important Huge part of this were saints' relics Item or possession of the Saint that has a sacred aura, special properties Something left behind-- bones, teeth, hair, clothing, splinters of the cross People made pilgrimages to see them Supposed to have healing power Prayed as close as you could to them-- sanctity around them, praying for healing People wanted something tangible Question of should you venerate anyone other than Christ-- Protestants end up saying no Said he believed in "philosophia Christi" Philosophy of Christ, living a Christ-like life of simplicity, moderation, compassion Said it was simple Trying to live the life Christ lived Emphasizing the moral side of Christianity-- not supernatural Did not reject miraculous aspect of Christianity, but downplayed it Downplayed authority, being tied in tradition, complex rituals and ceremonies If the key thing is morality and living a good life, then a pre-Christian person could be considered Christian Ora pro nobis, Socrates! Pray for us, Socrates! Plato's teacher Said you could consider Socrates a Christian saint even though he died in 399 BCE so was not Christian Lived a life of moderation, reason, compassion You pray for saints to intercede for you, also asking them for help No intellectual before him has ever had the prestige that he had in society Popes wanted him to work for them, kings wanted him to work for them, everyone knew of him Called 'Prince of Humanists'-- uncrowned king of the Northern Renaissance Praise of Folly, 1509-- original book Gets caught in the midst of the Reformation struggle A lot of things he said lined up w/ Protestants, but did not join w/ them Said the worst thing you could do would be to split the Christian Church Not the violent Christian that Luther was Wanted peace Very tolerant Lives into a very intolerant, immoderate time period Dies a sad, disillusioned figure Both sides condemned him-- Protestants mad he wouldn't join them, Catholics said he was to blame for the Reformation-- laid the foundation Laid the egg that Luther hatched

thomas cromwell

Died in 1540 (late 15th to early 16th c) Son of a blacksmith Chancellor for Henry VIII after Thomas More resigned and was executed, from 1532-1540 When Henry was taking over church, taking over Church land Rose through the ranks Controversial figure→ if you admire Thomas More, he is a villain Helped get More convicted and executed Accused of having no deeply held principles Actually did have a type of vision, even though he could be ruthless and underhanded There to facilitate divorce b/t him and Catherine of Aragon so that he could get Anne Boleyn, and then getting rid of Anne Boleyn Excellent bureaucrat Part of creating the Privy Council Core of the administrators who each had a department of state that they were responsible for Organization and specialization-- each person doing a specific job Forerunner of a Cabinet gov Advised king Policy making and implementing body "Rationalizing the state" Said when we make changes we need to get Parliament to ratify those changes Good at manipulating and getting things past community/great men of the realm agreed to this Parish registers parish= a specific area that a church serves Inside each province there are diocese, inside each diocese are parishes Clergymen started keeping records near the end of the 16th century Average life expectancy, birth rates, illegitimacy rates Keeping basics of marriage, birth, death Clergy said they had to keep these things-- gov is using them too Nobles hated him-- conspired against him, lied about him to the king Henry was very easy to convince to go against someone, very trusting Had him executed Then regretted that he had killed one of his best servants-- never has a chancellor nearly as brilliant

michael servetus

Died in 1553 Spaniard Medical doctor Came up w/ idea of circulation of the blood before the man who got credit for it-- William Harvey Became an amateur self-trained theologian Felt very strongly that there was a doctrine that the Catholics, Protestants and Anabaptists taught that was wrong Not in the Bible, about the nature of God, didn't believe how this could be Unitarians-- most liberal of the Christians Reject the Trinity-- not Trinitarian but Unitarian Doctrine that the Christian church developed early on Explanation for how God could become man Said he didn't see it anywhere in the Bible Said they were supposed to be consistent Thought jesus was special, but God wasn't 3 in 1 but 1 in 1 Wrote a book that was considered to be one of the most dangerous books Went on the run, Protestants and Catholics trying to chase him and catch himf Caught in France Supposed to be executed-- burned at the stake Jail break-- escaped the night before he was supposed to be executed Fled to Geneva, thought he would find amnesty there from Calvin Arrested in Geneva Put on trial for heresy Calvin asked them just to behead him But town council overrode him and burned him at the stake Not just Catholics who persecuted people Although Erasmus said you shouldn't kill someone for a belief

amish

Direct descendents of Anabaptists today, still sect type Saying they will only use tech you had by the year 700 'Living plain' simply , making your own clothes, not trying to be fashionable Separating yourself from the cool kids, who are sinful Famous for barn-raisings Largest community in the US is in Pennsylvania (SE corner of PA) "Pennsylvania Dutch" Not dutch→ German Not from Netherlands Dutch came to Hudson River area, Michigan

Ireland 17th century

Dublin= under English control At the end of Elizabeth's reign, there was a revolt in Ireland, particularly in the North (Ulster) much stronger resistance to English rule there than anywhere else English gov had a really hard time crushing this revolt linguistic difference--> Gaelic/Irish gov finally succeeded in crushing the the Ulster revolt Ulster Plantation (1609-) a lot of Scottish Presbyterians were brought over and planted there wanted them to be a loyal population Irish pop had stayed Catholic, and were becoming intensely Catholic vs the monarch Irish fought back Parliament is saying that James needs to crush that revolt, James is saying that he needs an army

Protectorate (1653-1660)

Duriing Commonwealth/Interregnum (mid-17th century) when in 1653 Cromwell makes himself Lord Protector Cromwell never took title of king, but of Lord Protector rump sent home in 1653 too

prerogative courts

During Long Parliament (mid 17th century, Charles I) abolished (not common law courts) Viewed as instrument of absolutism

Act of Union (1707)

Early 18th century under Anne, when Scottish Parliament and English Parliament met and agreed to combine/unite Makes it official

flyboats

Dutch breakthrough in trade smaller, less maneuverable but could carry a lot more for cheaper not the fastest or the prettiest developed first for the grain trade in the Baltic could be made fairly cheaply, almost mass produced ship itself didn't cost that much fairly cheap to run didn't require a large crew labor-saving devices very efficient not very fast, but didn't need to be didn't have artillery on the ships (not at all armed) unlike most ships Baltic was pretty safe, but Atlantic and Pacific Dutch military ships would escort them in convoys not a huge innovation, but just smarter technique as opposed to technology b/c of that, everyone used them for decades

Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1669)

Dutch painter, golden age of art in mid 17th century did a series of self portraits Dutch masters Anatomy Lesson every face in his paintings has distinct, particularized emotional appearance psychological acuity real ppl as he got older, he tended to do lots of biblical scenes very Protestant types of religious art famous painter had a lot of Jewish friends, would have them pose as Mary, Jesus, etc bc THEY WERE JEWS

Jan Vermeer (d. 1675)

Dutch painter, golden age of art in mid to late 17th centure Girl in the Pearl Earring so many of his paintings have light source coming through on left side one of the most famous painters today Girl with the Pearl Earring from Catholic minority

manhattan

Dutch possession New Netherland at first, and city was New Amsterdam originally their own British eventually managed to drive them off

Giotto

Early 14th century Florentine Move towards naturalism

masaccio

Early 15th century From Florence Lived to be 27 A number of important paintings naturalism Depth More color Each face is individualized Mottling (shade being cast), shadowed Shading of light and shadow and brilliant use of linear perspective to create illusion that a flat surface is 3D Sense of focus, direction Worked with standard Christian themes, but brought an entirely new approach to them all Expulsion of Adam and Eve From Garden of Eden Shows despair on Eve's face The Trinity

Lorenzo Valla

Early to mid-15th century From Rome Humanist-- most influential Foundation for the humanist movement Pioneered philology-- the study of words and their roots Study of origins of words, meaning, and proper grammatical usage Disproved the Donation of Constantine Pope claimed Papal States based on this document (was a forgery) Supposedly an event and a document Impressive-looking manuscript in Papal library One of the reasons popes claimed they had the right to oversee politics (depose kings, etc) Constantine= first Christian emperor Didn't make it the state religion legend= Constantine caught leprosy, Pope at the time cured him, and COnstantine told him that the Pope and his followers would be the rulers of the western part of the Roman Empire and Constantine would moe and rule the East from Constantinople Claimed to be the official granting of secular political power of the pope over Western Europe Pope ruled central band in Italy and had for a long time Valla was working for one of the political rivals of the Pope-- Alfonso, King of Naples Says he thinks he can prove the document ilegitimate Proved that the words in the document would not have been used until much later (probably forced in late 8th century) Invented modern textual criticism by proving the forgery Skepticism combined with forgery led to a practical effect had a great understanding of the history of Latin in order to understand this Ieas had vital impact on diplomacy

henrietta maria

Early to mid-17th century Charles I of England's wife Not very popular French princess Bourbon Sister of Louis XIII Open, devout Catholic→ Puritans not fond of this Trying to make alliance She got to have mass said for her in own private chapel in palace

slavic

Eastern Slavic Russian Ukrainian Belarussian Western Slavic Polish Czech Slovak Southern Slavic Slovenian Serbo-Croatian croats= Catholics, use Latin alphabet Serbs= Orthodox, use cyrillic alphabet Bosnian/Bosniaks= Muslims

Trier

Ecclesiastical principality One of the 7 electors, Marx is from here

Cologne

Ecclesiastical principality One of the 7 electors, in addition to Mainz and Trier

Mainz

Ecclesiastical principality Where printing press originated One of the 7 electors

Restoration (1660)

Ends the Commonwealth/interregnum (mid-17th century) of the monarchy and the Church of England and the Stuart line and the House of Lords went and found Charles II and wanted to bring him back and put him on the throne Charles II has to pretend that most of this had never happened had to pardon almost everyone except regicides who were drawn and quartered for the most part he is known as the merry monarch had a good sense of humor a lot of ppl got scared by what happened--> it went farther than they had wanted it to go

anne hyde

First wife of James II in mid to late 17th century English and Protestant his first wife had Anne and Mary (two daughters) Mary married William of Orange he was not king b/c Netherlands was a republic (not hereditary and not all the time) became like a monarchy b/c it was only a role when the Dutch were at war but they were almost always at war and they continually picked from the Orange family also had Stuart blood on his mother's side he= stadholder in Netherlands died in 1671 Before he became king

forced loans

Form of extraparliamentary revenue Prevalent during Era of Personal Rule in mid-17th century under Charles I of England Told you had to loan king money at low interest over long time Shaking down own population, virtual blackmail

Amsterdam Stock Exchange

Founded in 1602 First true stock exchange in the world

Henry IV (1589-1610)

France, late 16th to early 17th century Roman Catholic Bourbon Successful king after all religious wrangling Establishes peace Tries to strengthen infrastructure(roads, bridges, canals, ports) Employed both Catholics and Protestants in court Tended to rely more on Huguenots Thought they had good advice As much as he tried to help his ppl, he can't really do that but he can try, but he was an absolutist Doesn't ever call the Estates-General Doesn't wanna mess w/ it Wants to do it his own way Never becomes a regular part of gov the way Parliament in England is You can be an absolutist and be a good king Tried to shift taxes slightly off the peasants and onto the nobles Good king Remembered finely Did a lot of what he could do to make things fair in society Assassinated by a fanatical Catholic who was convinced he was going to try to turn everyone Protestant Had married Margaret of Valois in 1572 but she died Then married Marie de Medicis second Sort of queen of France for a while Salic law said a woman could never be queen, but she was a regent Louis XIII was 9 in 1610 when this guy died Dominant personality Peter Paul Rubens Did a bunch of portraits of Marie de Medicis Baroque painter

Battle of Rocroi (1643)

France, mid-17th century 30 Year's War Spanish army defeated by French army turning point French on ascent to become the great power again Spain on descent Spanish army seemed to be invincible before that

estates-general

French representative body Equivalent of English Parliament Never had importance or regularity of Parliament There was a period of 175 years when it wasn't called Partially b/c each province of France had its own Estates Taxes worked on a provincial level Unequal taxes Some parts of France paid heavier taxes than others Provincial estates dealt w/ king So people didn't feel like this had to meet very often But put a lot in the hands of the king

salvation

God deciding to save you even though you don't deserve it RCC→ by grace and free will Luther→ by grace alone (predestination)

great chain of being

God is father figure of the whole universe, King is father of whole country, dad is father of family Way of social hierarchy

senate

Great council would elect people to serve on this, 250 people, only served one term of one year, tried to limit despotism, more power, made big decisions, picked doge

Ferdinand II (1619-1637)

HRE, early 17th century becomes emperor eventually Habsburg very Catholic, intolerantly Catholic when he becomes king of Bohemia in 1617, starts to make life difficult for Protestants in Bohemia persecuting them shutting down Protestant churches, schools, etc. Defenestration of Prague (1618) Protestant nobles were furious, they marched to the castle in Prague where the Catholic officials were (not Ferdinand himself) said Ferdinand was a tyrant, broke promises took two of the Catholics and threw them out of the window intended for the guys to die but ended up falling into a pile of manure Protestant nobility in Bohemia then vote to depose Ferdinand didn't want him as king it was still technically an elected monarchy elected Frederick V ruler of the Palatinate German prince Calvinist electing a clear Protestant chose him b/c: he had relations w/ the House of Orange in the Netherlands head of the Protestant Union wife= Elizabeth Stewart, daughter of James I apparently the real driving force important b/c they have a daughter named Sophia who eventually marries a German prince who is the elector of Hanover why the royal family today is who they are-- where the line comes in called the 'Winter King' lasted only thru one season Habsburgs not about to let this happen 1619--> Frederick takes the throne, Mathias dies, Ferdinand becomes Emperor Ferdinand has support of all of the Habsburgs, including Habsburg Spanish king also Catholic League, led by the Duke of Bavaria war at first goes against the Protestant side Protestants are sort of divided Took back throne of Bohemia as well after winning the Battle of White Mountain tried to take back the throne of Bohemia also trying to make the Holy Roman Empire a more centralized state along the lines of what Spain and England had become where the Holy Roman Emperor would really be the boss and to spread the Catholic Church

Maximilian I

HRE, late 15th to early 16th century Married Mary of Burgundy Lucrative marriage Got low countries, Burgundy proper, and Milan Father of Philip the Fair

nobility

Hierarchy based on titles rather than level of wealth lord= overall title for all nobility highest noble title= duke royal prince, especially younger son Marquess equivalent of marquis Earl lots of them uniquely British wife of earl= Countess rest of Europe= Count Viscount little below the earl Baron usually just called lord

Cloistered

How monks lived Away from the world Deliberately turning your back on the world Take a vow of stability→ you will be in that monastery your whole life Contemplative order→ inner life, meditation, thought

saints' relics

Huge part of the saints' cults Items or possessions of the Saint that have a sacred aura, special properties Something left behind-- bones, teeth, hair, clothing, splinters of the cross People went on pilgrimages to see these Supposed to have healing power Prayed as close as you could to them-- sanctity around them Prayed above all for healing People wanted something tangible

huguenots

Important Calvinist minority in France, activist, fought back against authority unjust by God

Riga

Important port city in Livonia/Latvia a port on the Baltic, capital of Latvia now great victory for Sweden and Gustavus Adolphus that he took this port Sweden turns the Baltic into a Swedish lake for a while

community-building rituals

Important for reminding everyone that they are on the same team church one building that didn't belong to any one person festivals often based on something about Christianity often had some sort of pagan element that correlated w/ season of harvest priests--> there for every part of life, birth, marriage, death keeps records maybe only person in town who could be a teacher would often convey news to ppl perambulation happened in the spring blessing the harvest per= through ambulare= to walk religious thing b/c priest would bless field if they had a relic they would hold it with them and proceed through they would call out who had that strip of land way of delineating borders-- confirming who had what being a farmer is risky--> can't control weather, droughts, pests marriages def a community-building event skimmingtons--> your marriage life was everyone else's business funerals--> bonding ceremonial processions perambulations happen in rural areas occurred at different times, either on the feast day of the patron saint of your city, or the day that your city was granted the liberties of your town liberties= tax exemptions, not being under prerogative of your noble in court these were big events and they would celebrate that every year also showed social hierarchy hierarchy of guilds and within the guilds but also about solidarity festivals part of the celebration is eating Catholic church--> feast day of each particular saint each day of the year has around 12 saints to celebrate--> depended on where you lived who you celebrated rites of May on May 1st, celebration of life coming back fertility celebration young adults sexual festival young single men would choose the eligible bachelorettes and put flowers on their doorsteps would choose a Queen of the May decorate everything w/ flowers--> flowers are sex organs of plants that reproduce sexually sap is running high marrying ppl off maypole would be erected in the town center, women would hold onto ribbons and dance around it it's a phallic symbol all Hallows' Eve all Hallows' Day= all Saints' Day= November 1 honor all saints collectively this is October 31 November 2=all Souls' Day when you pray for souls in Purgatory pre-Christian, pagan connotations idea that this was when the veil b/t living and dead was its thinnest dead walk the streets at night supposed to be not scary or morbid but a happy embrace of the other life 12 Days of Christmas after Christmas (Christmas is the first day) Christmas now ends on December 25 for them, it was the start of the 12 days last day for them= Epiphany January 6 a revelation the feast that honors when the magi find Jesus and worship him those 12 days were riotous times sometimes Calvinists tried to abolish Christmas nothing wrong w/ celebrating birth of Christ, but it became like Halloween is here adults would go around and expect rich ppl to give things out to them Church took December 25 as the day of the nativity b/c Europe already had a big festival in December when winter is coming on ppl want to have something to have some joy partly to enliven that dark time also celebration of when the sun starts coming back killing animals when winter comes on you slaughtered animals b/c you couldn't get enough hay to last them thru the winter one of the only times that poor people ate meat already a partying time, just added the celebration of Jesus Carnival before Lent penance leading up to Easter day before Lent= Fat Tuesday (Mardi Gras) Protestants got rid of it-- so still important in Catholicism can run all the way from Epiphany to Ash Wednesday oriented around Easter--> a movable feast, can vary a lot carne= meat valle= goodbye means giving up meat and the flesh carnal desires giving up sex giving up something you're going to miss at Carnival you indulge in those two things--> meat and sex there is a tradition in some cultures that all bets are off in Carnival rules don't really apply it is acceptable during this time to have wife-swapping Ash Wednesday is a sharp break breaking rules about sexuality, but also about social hierarchy theme= world turned upside down processions/floats= ppl doing things that are the reverse of what it is supposed to be masks= v important putting on diff persona "Lord of Misrule" someone elected the king for the day electing an outsider who gets to make the rules for the day able to grant noble titles for the day/week had immunity, could kick anyone's ass, even nobles would sometimes wear lots of sausages hanging from his suit cross-dressing upper classes went along w/ it starts to die off when in the 18th century the upper classes stop wanting to do it anymore two reasons for it: safety valve incredibly unequal society you let the poor, women, marginalized have their day so they don't explode by doing all that stuff, you are reinforcing the conventional view of how society is supposed to be saying 'look how crazy it would be if the world was like this' way of reinforcing conservative view of society importance of sausages--> lots of them shaming rituals skimmington reinforced male-dominated society occurred when something was turned upside down in household if wife was unfaithful or was verbally or physically abusive to the husband two village people would play the wife and husband husband would have to ride backwards on a horse/donkey women would be dunked in water or mud to scare men and women into doing what they're supposed to cuckold= female bird, man who has an adulterous wife (a man whose wife is cheating on you) also ppl often stole from ppl at times anything that remotely smacked of the woman being the boss shaming the man for letting the wife have dominance and shaming wife for being that way to enforce the social order of everything putting horns on the man making lots of noise w/ pots and pans, cacophony late 1500s--> occurred more frequently women were becoming more independent society in general seemed to be out of joint inflation religious wars when societies feel that way, they almost always go after women and blame them somehow

Huguenots

In France, becoming a pretty strong minority in the 16th century→ 10-20% Nobles in higher percentages→ 40% Resisting power of the king, if you weren't a Catholic the king had less power to tell you what you had to do Tended to be more from towns More skilled, more literate

Florence

In North Italy, specifically were the Renaissance was born, many important Renaissance people were from here Center of Renaissance culture Pisa's subjugation in 1406 was a turning point in this city-state's history became known for silks and jewelry Famous for high-quality fabric restored pope to head of temporal estates and began long period of papal dominance over Rome and satellite territories Made a lot of coins Financial capital as well as center for manufacture of fine luxury goods Greek language spread here when the Ottoman scholars fled after the Fall of Constantinople, it was very exciting to scholars in the 1400s Eventually became known as the city of the Medici Nominally a republic, but during 15th c., ruled in effect by principal banking family, the Medici Cosimo de Medici starts becoming the boss of the city in the early to mid 15th century Although never holding office Medicis= bankers, started using some of that wealth to play the game of politics Bailed out own city gov from bankruptcy Bribed people Patron of a lot of people Influence peddling Patrons of the arts Piero the Gouty, early to mid-15th century, ruled for a little while Lorenzo de Medici-- mid to late 15th century, grandson of Cosimo

Lorenzo de Medici

Mid to late 15th century Cosimo's grandson, continued Medici legacy diplomacy = his greatest achievement Facilitated production of art as it reached its height in Florence Regarded as leading citizen of Florence, in terms of wealth and influence Power based on personality and reputation

urban vs rural

In the War of the THree Kingdoms, this was often a dividing line Mid-17th century generally cities were more pro-Parliament cities tend to be more left wing everywhere cities are where ppl go to change rural areas are inherently conservative about everything southern England tended to be more densely populated mercantile ppl tend to be more open to change than purely agricultural societies middle class more pro-Parliament, also more politically active and educated about 1/3 of House of Lords were for Parliament, but majority for the king nobility only comes from royalty (king= font of nobility) urban middle class tend to be for Parliament rural poor tend to be for the king more most important factor= religion if you wanted to reform the church of England, puritanical inclination, you were almost certainly for Parliament if you liked the church the way it was, you were probably for the king if you were part of the persecuted Catholic minority, you generally opted for the king even though they faced discrimination, knew it would be worse under Parliament

royalists

In the War of the Three Kingdoms Mid-17th century ppl who supported the king nicknamed cavaliers originally meant Spanish or French Catholics who were persecuting Protestants a put-down

language

Indo-european Most languages in Europe from this family Slavic Eastern Slavic Russian Ukrainian Belarussian Western Slavic Polish Czech Slovak Southern Slavic Slovenian Serbo-Croatian croats= Catholics, use Latin alphabet Serbs= Orthodox, use cyrillic alphabet Bosnian/Bosniaks= Muslims Celtic Gaul Irish/Gaelic Welsh Breton Germanic Icelandic Swedish German Norwegian Dutch Flemish English Romance French Spanish Romanian Italian Portuguese Catalan Baltic Lithuanian Latvian Distantly related to Slavic Albanian Distantly related to Greek Basque Not indo-European Live in the Pyrenees, majority in Spain but some in France Famous for smuggling operations Has no known related language Strong sense of unity Separation movements Hungarian Not indo-Euroepan Magyar-- what they call themselves Related distantly to Turkish Includes Finnish language Came from central Asia Huns leader = Atila Originally pagan

liberty of the christian man

One of the more important books Luther writes Liberation from the sense that you are damned- you are saved Not a sense of earning salvation

civic humanism

Influence of humanist values on practical affairs Public service unto the people Being individual to serve the greater good Leonardo Bruni-- translated Plato and Aristotle, spread learning among intellectuals Leon Battista Alberti-- writer, architect, stressed that public service was what ultimately knowledge should be applied to, extolled civic virtues, valued individuality but said you should apply it to the group Said the active life was superior to contemplative life Believed you should get out there and do things Medieval scholars said contemplative life was superior (Dante represented medieval sensibility) Religious orders also both contemplative and active Active life is changing society for the better Said a republic is better than a monarchy Not necessarily a democracy, but the state is owned by the people People living in republics are citizens as opposed to subjects Implies you have ownership Some people have power other than just one Venice lasted as the longest republic Almost everyone was under a monarch Treats people as if they can actually rule themselves Niccolo Machiavelli-- the prince, instructing people about how to gain power and keep it

diseases and exploration

Invisible microbes Lack of immunities in South Pacific Isalnders and North and South America Europeans and black slaves from Africa both brought diseases in their bodies over to the Americas Only possible disease that came from Americas was syphilis Euros and Africans had a fair amount of immunities Smallpox was the biggest killer Measles killed most of the Hawaiian Polynesian population when American missionaries got there Not deliberate Native Americans often died off in parts of North America before the Europeans even got there→ they spread it to other Native Americans Led Europeans to think that a lot of North America was just empty-- >wasn't true Demoralized Native Americans→ when they couldn't do anything to stop it and white Europeans weren't dying that maybe the Euros had the right powerful God on their side

Edict of Restitution (1629)

Issued by Ferdinand II in HRE in early 17th century to restore something that had been changed restoring things the way they should've been saying to enforce the Peace of Augsburg said the Peace of Augsburg had been violated in two ways, we are now going to go back and enforce this rule didn't say anything about Calvinism, so said you cannot be a Calvinist in the HRE not legal at all ecclesiastical principalities city-states scattered across empire w/ Catholic bishop as the ruler were never supposed to turn Protestant, but some had ppl thought he was heading towards getting rid of Protestantism in the entire empire brings counter-reaction on the part of Protestants even the conservative Lutherans who had not joined the war were moved to join the cause

parish registers

Kept in churches in Europe record of births and deaths and marriages figuring out about premarital sex there was a huge emphasis on getting married before the child came illegitimacy rates were incredibly low a lot of pressure on the men a lot of ppl being forced to marry legitimacy rates

diet of worms

Key event for Luther's career 1521 invited/commanded to come to the city of Worms, on the Rhine river Diet= legislative body, Parliament of the HRE Charles V was there Pope sent nuncios Brought before all these pepole Asked if these are his books Say church authorities have determined this is heresy, they will give him one night to think, then he will have the chance to recant or not Gave him a day-- life at stake Says they had not shown him using scripture that he is wrong "My conscience is captive to the word of God" To go against his conscience is neither safe nor right Standing up to Pope and HRE, whole world Took a lot of bravery, hero Not executed-- b/c of the printing press, had gained fame around Europe Church knew if they executed him it would cause such an uproar among his followers-- it was too politically divisive, might cause some osrt of revolt Even more about the nobles-- Charles V having trouble controlling them HRE= elected monarchical position, had to please 7 electors to make sure your son was elected Frederick III= prince of Saxony, the Wise, one of the 7 electors Sympathetic to Luther, partially b/c Luther was his own subject Other princes either felt that way or did not want HRE to have pwr to kill one of their own subjects Power struggle-- relationship of princes to emperor Frederick and Luther went back to Saxony, where Frederick feels he can protect Luther Even there, Luther goes into hiding for a year or two, spends his time writing and above all translating the Bible from Hebrew and Greek to German Beautiful German bible, still the one German Protestants use Had an impact on shaping the German language Eventually goes out in public and goes back to being a professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg

etiquette

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century ppl began copying rules at Versailles all across Europe

William III

King of England (1688-1702) Dutch very strange, unique thing dual monarchy crowned equally, sit on thrones that are the same side she= both queen regnant and queen consort normally, she should've been ruling by herself b/c she has the main blood claim instead they wanted the most stability as possible William tended to be the stronger character also solidified Protestantism in England and he was already a ruler he was not king b/c Netherlands was a republic (not hereditary and not all the time) became like a monarchy b/c it was only a role when the Dutch were at war but they were almost always at war and they continually picked from the Orange family also had Stuart blood on his mother's side he= stadholder in Netherlands Married to Mary II of England Mary only lives a few more years, William becomes William III and rules for 8 more years until he dies in 1702

cunningmen and cunningwomen

Knowledge of herbs, stuff like that ppl would go to them if they were giving birth, needed help w/ love or sickness occult-- secret, knowledge other ppl didn't have connected it more w/ women (cooking, preparing) idea that women were viewed as having a kind of knowledge that men didn't (intuitive) for a long time, these women were not viewed as being contrary to Christianity supplement, parallel Wicca= the craft, the knowledge (wicca women) in the 16th century when ppl are trying to make Christianity better, they were trying to cleanse what they considered superstitious, non-pagan rituals in their societies women were dealing w/ supernatural occult things that the church felt were contrary to religion both Catholics and Protestants went zealously after witches

Flemish

Language spoken in Northern half of Belgium Essentially same language as Dutch

liturgical languages

Languages used in worship By the time of Jesus, people only used Hebrew as this Latin was the Catholic one Hebrew is the Jewish one Sanskrit is the Hindu one Arabic is the Muslim one

Louis XIII (1610-1643)

King of France in early to mid 17th century Became king at 9 In 1614, came under pressure by nobles Always try to take advantage when king is a child Calls a meeting of the Estates-General Last time it will meet for 175 years Hoped to turn it into a mechanism to control the king and become more like England But it didn't Nobles couldn't agree, were selfish, squabbled Dissolved Got the nickname of ___ the Just Marie de Medicis is his regent for a while Marie de Medicis brought Richelieu in to be a main advisor Clash eventually b/t them over who will have the ear of the king She is sort of banished and lost Didn't like the work of ruling but Richelieu loved it Richelieu sort of running gov But still in completely fragile position, had to keep favor of king Liked to go hunting Richelieu (d. 1642) Early to mid 16th century France Marie de Medicis brought him in to be a main advisor to Louis XIII Clash eventually b/t them over who will have the ear of the king She is sort of banished and lost Louis didn't like work of governing, Richelieu loved it, sort of running the gov Very Machiavellian Wrote a work where he said that if you have to do something for the good of the state that if you were a private person it would be a sin/crime, then it's justified Raison d'etat, end justifies the means Image of beign manipulative Tries to do religious duty, but clear that secular duties came first Urged Louis XIII to enter into the 30 Years' War on the Protestant side of Sweden and Netherlands b/c it was the anti-Habsburg side Huge example of it was raison d'etat, angered pope emphasis= France is surrounded by Habsburg ring and they must do everything they can to weaken that fam's pwr Ascent of France to greatness again To him, there were two main problems: Nobles Did not like him and he did not like/trust them Knew they were selfish and jealous Let nobles have a lot of gov positions that don't mean much but sound prestigious Main advisors/councillors were mainly bourgeois ppl Excluded nobles from real policy-making pwr Pwr based a lot on the fact that they all have these castles Richelieu tore a lot of them down Could still be a real obstacle to kings asserting pwr Banned nobles' right to duel Said it disrupts public order Cared about making nobles realize they were beneath the law too Every noble had a spy/informer placed n it who was reporting back to him Intendants Local administrators Richelieu divides France into 32 districts Had had provincial governors before (nobles) This person was appointed by the central gov (th king technically) over one of the 32 districts Answer onnly to the king Sometimes nobles, ofte nbourgeois Story of centralization Huguenots he= Catholic, doesn't like them Didn't like one provision of Edict of Nantes Huguenots controlled fortified towns w/ Protestant churches Almost like a state w/in a state Had to get rid of this To do this, he provoked a revolt French Huguenot nobles were stupid enough to fall into that Said he was going to get rid of rights for Huguenots Thought letting ppl have state w/in state was particularism (letting nobles have power) Revolt is crushed La Rochelle= portcity, sort of the city capital of Huguenot France Didn't get rid of hwole Edict of Nantes, but just getting rid of fortigied towns Not many about religious intolerance, about execution Getting rid of separate indpendent pwr insidee Later Louis XIV will revoke the entire edict Knew nobles were conspiring against him When he dies, France in on ascent, pretty good position, can't wonctrol wthat when Louis XIII dies the crown goes to Louis XIV at the age of 6 Drops dead somewhat unexpectedly

Louis XIV (1643-1715)

King of France mid 17th to early 18th century Becomes king at age of 5 Means there is a regency mom= Anne of Austria (Habsbuurg) Trying to make peace Wife of Louis XIII Tying whole thing together Also a cardinal, picked by Richelieu, to carry on his work→ Italian Cardinal Mazarin Brilliant man, same absolutist views as Richelieu Ppl thought he had a sort of precocious arrogance Fronde (1648-1653) Series of upheavals Peasant riots Urban rioting/insurrection core= aristocratic/baronial revolt A lot of French nobles didn't like what had been happening, esp w/ Richelieu and centralization This was their chance to undo some of the centralization They taxed specifically the nobles who had bought gov offices Supposed to be tax-exempt A lot of thigns all coming together in 1640s Food shortages, crop failures, 30 Years' War, war w/ Spain War w/ Spain didn't end until 1650s Parlement Courts, several of them (regional) There was a central one→ Parlement du Paris Ppl who sit on them are nobles, seats are hereditary Try to act like legislatures Nobles would try at times to use them to obstruct any kind of centralizing legislation At a point they were claiming that they had the right to register (ok) the law, so the monarchy could not tax them Trying to argue that they had the authority to review and strike down the changes At one point they got control of Louis Clear that their motivations were more personal than for all of France Rebels turned to Spain for help→ made it look like they were really just out for own personal interests Ultimately failed Probably leading rebel= Duke of Conde Said he was leading the nobles against foreign authority of Anne and Mazarin At the height of it he was being kept at the Louvre, humiliated and scared hiim French ppl decided that if the choice was b/t a strong king and anarchy, they wanted a strong king Declared of age at 13 Knew from the start that he needed to make sure the nobles could never do that again→ kept them on a very short leash Versailles Nobles required to stay there for ½ the year Outside Paris Used partly to intimidate ppl w/ its grandeur and size Particularly cut off nobles from real source of power (provinces) b/c nobles almost never out in province that they were supposed to be noble of Thus ppl of the provinces were not necessarily as loyal to nobles as they had been before King had them constantly running w/ social activities (very deliberate), constantly changing up fashion became a boy king when his dad dropped dead suddenly mother= Anne of Austria 1648--> Fronde series of upheavals, insurrections, baronial noble revolt Mazarin eventually put it down discredited nobles and strenghtened the monarchy when he turned 13, he was declared to be the real king (of his majority) never forgot the humiliation he suffered in the Fronde not the best or greatest French king, but most famous ruled longer than almost any European monarch in history 1714-1715 is another good turning point when Hanoverians come into English end of war of Spanish succession when Louis XIV died "L'etat c'est moi." I am the state represents the hollow nature of the European monarchy did have important advisers but didn't have a favorite in that way, didn't want to trust that spent too much on wars and buildings "I have loved wars and buildings too much"-- on his deathbed also revoked Edict of Nantes lost most Huguenots skilled, educated Versailles was a huge part of intimidating ppl, but also the extravagance was over the top and a financial drain 'the Sun King' masque stage performance in which the actors wear masks often had royal family members play parts in it one of them was a cosmological allegory and Louis played the sun liked it so much Versailles there was already a large hunting lodge there, but he enlarged became the largest palace in Europe outside of Paris he didn't like being in Paris b/c it reminded him of the Fronde Louvre was a palace trying to get away from that built estate also used it to intimidate ppl diplomatic function also lots of ordinary ppl came too almost like a tourist attraction nobles required to live there half the year also a lot were there year round happening place social center of Europe caught up in pecking order, endless cycle of parties and stuff like that a lot of competition for who got to be closest to the king also encouraged couturiers (fashion designers) to change the fashions frequently they were devoting time, energy, and money to frivolous stuff that wasn't very serious more about not being in the provinces their power was rooted out in provinces they were the head of justice, source of patronage also manipulating lower nobles local connections that were very important esp w/ lower nobles losing that connection which was the root of their power he has cut them off from their power golden age for art French remember his reign w/ a great deal of fondness b/c a lot was created partly thru his patronage opera develops in early 1600s in Italy and composers were lured north to France to compose there grand opera was pretty much invented during his reign ballet during particularly the middle of the 1600s, all these terminologies came around literature no one ultimate national writer number of great writers esp playwrights Moliere wrote comedy his plays are done here all the time timeless social satires did not make fun of the king partly patronized also director and actor Racine tragedy doesn't translate well usually based on myths elevated French social arts etiquette ppl began copying rules at Versailles all across Europe cuisine idea that the French are the great culinary geniuses social dance minuet fashion Paris as the ultimate fashion destination language becomes the common language of all upper class educated ppl in Europe advisors Jean-Baptiste Colbert (d. 1683) finance minister one of the most self-sufficient definitely a mercantilist not how we today think is the correct way to approach things said they needed to build up their own economy improved infrastructure roads, bridges, canals, tunnels, communication lines had a religious belief in canals tried to support growth industries targeted things as having a future like the silk industry would support them w/ subsidies and loans protectionism protecting domestic industry (agriculture) from foreign competition use tariffs and taxes on imports also quotas promoted shipbuilding w/ loans and stuff believed very much in colonies French started to colonize overseas @ same time English did--> 1600s Quebec= first permanent one in 1608 (Henry IV) a lot of emphasis on what becomes Canada strict about keeping accounts a quantifying kind of guy French economy grew government able to almost finance everything after his death it broke the bank Louis got involved in wars and building French had financial crisis that it shouldn't have had a bourgeois bureaucrat conscientious and genius Marquis de Louvois minister of war built up army and navy tried to make sure that officers w/ real authority actually knew what they were doing established storehouses for weapons and ammunition supply line less glamorous but essential permanent standing army starting to happen in Europe as opposed to having mercenary or feudal arrays uniform, professional, paid, year-round expensive wanted it b/c almost continually fighting wars over half the time he was ruling Louis was convinced that France had natural boundaries that the political boundaries had not quite reached said God had clearly meant for France to have these frontiers the Atlantic the Pyrenees The Mediterranean The Rhine River controversial one France had not reached it historically very German (german-speaking on both sides) thought they should expand to there his wars were about that more than anything else Alps English Channel he was pushing into the Low Countries a small but critical area very wealthy strategically just south of the Dutch Republic next to England felt he had legitimate claims to it trying to grab it generally won wars for territory that had been part of the Roman Empire eventually took a coalition of almost everyone in Europe against them to win Huguenots Protestant schools= shut down kids were taken from their families and put in Catholic homes taking away rights Edict of Nantes (1598) Richelieu got rid of fortified cities that Huguenot councils governed Louis wanted uniformity meant everyone being Roman Catholic also about his own personal sense of fear of death and God's judgement had not lived most Christian life looking for something to do to please God shut down Protestant schools, publishing houses expelled clergy took Huguenot children away and put them in Catholic homes and raised Catholics dragoon someone who rides on horseback to a battle but then fights on foot like mountain infantry mountain footsoldiers known as being really tough now it's a verb to force by intimidation or threat of violence Louis's government made ppl take a certain number of dragoons into their homes told to make life miserable for the family if you converted they pulled the soldiers out eventually after this didn't seem to work he revoked it Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) said that there were none left so they didn't need it anymore Louis also never said he thought this was wrong a popular decision most Frenchmen resented Huguenots b/c they were more successful, tended to be bourgeois lost their skills, went to a lot of countries that were enemies of France went to England, Netherlands, Brandenburg it was a mistake permanent blot on his record wars finally brought his reign into dispute has to deal w/ mercantilists, commerce commerce starting to have a global economy cotton fabric, tea, coffee two horrible things come with it slavery revives, becomes stronger sugar tobacco and rice in America wars fought increasingly not about religious or dynasty now really about commerce

Lepanto (1571)

Late 16th century Part of the Morisco Revolt in Spain Huge naval battle off the coast of Greece Involved hundreds of ships Last great battle the old-fashioned way Ppl had to row boats-- galleys Cannons on board Both sides viewed this as a holy war Battle b/t Holy League and Ottoman Empire Don Juan led Spanish army, ½ brother of Charles V Spanish supplied about ½ ships Pope sent benner of Virgin Mary as a symbol Ottoman Empire used this as a jihad Ottoman admiral killed in battle, head cut off Cervantes fought and lost his arm Ottoman fleet defeated decisively in the end Spanish feel like they practically saved Christian Europe It meant the Western Medit was not going to become a Muslim lake Meant Morisco REvolt failed Ottomans couldn't help Moriscos, even suspected, were expelled God and glory

dissolution of monasteries

Late 1530s→ Henry claims they are all corrupt, shuts them all down and takes all their lands Brings influx of wealth to monarchy and central gov (a lot of it blown by Henry) Some given to nobles to tie them to the crown Important for strengthening the monarchy Also changed the lives of common people Monasteries had provided: health care, social welfare, artistic center, education Changes the nature of society in England in a significant way

Malleus Maleficarum (1486)

Late 15th century mallet to do evil→ Satan would give you this when you were a witch book that popularized idea that there are witches out there hammer of the evil-doers two Dominican German friars said this was how you could root out witches saying that when talking to a witch, lead them to believe that they will not be put to death if they confess, but they will only 30 years after invention of the printing press one of the first best-sellers in history translated into different language endorsed by the pope at the time ppl began to think there was this vast diabolical conspiracy, alternative religion Planting ideas in ppl's minds

Bartolomeu Dias (1487-1488)

Late 15th century, Portugal Got as far south as the tip of Africa Rounded the tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope) Wanted to keep sailing and try to get to the indies but his crew mutinied and they had to turn back Gets back to Portugal and says he thinks they can round the tip of Africa That's what they try to do Seagoing empire Took certain strategic ports in coastal areas where they could get provisions and all that (West and East coast of Africa)

Vasco da Gama (1497-1499)

Late 15th century, Portugal Got to India and back Many of his men died→ diet was horrible, ppl got diseases/scurvy Got to West coast of India Said he was looking for Christians and spices They had brought stuff to trade→ wool and pewter and fabric They really just gave him stuff out of the goodness of their heart Came back w/ a lot of cinnamon and ginger Worth 60x the cost of the voyage Many Indians didn't want to trade w/ them→ Portuguese mutilated them and sent them back as a warning to others

theology

Luther continued to go to university but studied this and got his doctorate in it Medieval Europe created universities 1 of 3 things you could get a doctorate in-- medicine, law, and this Became a professor, very popular one Taught at University of Wittenberg

Philip the Fair

Late 15th to early 16th century Married Joanna the Crazy of Spain parents= Maximilian I and Mary of Burgundy Maximilian= pope Mary of Burgundy= lucrative marriage Maximilian got low countries, Burgundy proper, and Milan Habsburg Now, Spanish monarchy is ultimately ruled by Habsburgs b/c F and I don't have a son Unfaithful to Joanna Took over after Joanna put away in mental rest home-- Philip I of Castile child= Charles V

St Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556)

Late 15th to mid 16th century Founded Jesuits Basque (Spanish) From lower Aristocratic fam soldier/warrior, got hurt in battle Before then, theology/religion hadn't been a main focus for him Leg almost got shattered by a small cannon ball Had a limp the rest of his life When he got hurt, read the history of saints, life of Jesus b/c he was bored and it was all he could do Decided he wanted to be a warrior for Christ, would fight for the Virgin Mary instead of some earthly lady From there, he went on pilgrimages to Jerusalem Got education in Barcelona, went to University of Alcala @ age of 33 Then decides to go to University of Paris @ age 37 Very intense life of abstinence and self-denial Had apostles Grew w/ emphasis on education and reading Society of Jesuits Meets w/ some other guys, including Francis Xavier (1506-1552) Spanish, 10 years younger Decided they needed to do something Thought about joining an order of friars Decided they wanted to found a whole new religious order That would have basic free vows, work in the world Wanted to be the right hand of the Pope→ whatever he needed them to be Went to the pope, who at that point as Paul III (who called Council of Trent) Somewhat corrupt, but saw something in this guy Big book he wrote: The Spiritual Exercises You go through a series of meditations Try to mold your own will in the direction of serving God Even though he became a soldier for God, never ceased to be a type of soldier Had military mindset Fighting for purity of the church Struggle w/o actual violence

Lent

Leading up to Easter, when you do penance, deny yourself of something

bullionism

Leads to strong military in mercantilism money, leads to strong military bullion= gold and silver you have to pay the military Favorable balance of trade leads to this

strong military

Leads to strong state in mercantilism Strong navy, strong army Bullionism leads to this

benefice

Led to pluralism Each church office had a certain amount of money that came w/ it So the more offices you had, the more you got So often, Church officials worked as gov officials→ chancellors in England (Thomas Wolsey) Now hardly doing much for Church, doing gov job Led to absenteeism

condottieri

Led war bands Mercenary bands Fighting for pay, hired to pay

the sun king

Louis XIV's nickname, from masque play

favorable balance of trade

Leads to bullionism in mercantilism exporting more importing very little ideally nothing goal is self-sufficiency then the question of how do you achievethis? exploration? to have chartered companies private companies that have very close ties to gov they are given a monopoly in return for that privilege, you would pay a large sum of money each year safer investment you are more likely to invest as a private stockholder if you know the government is backing them up English East India Company starts in 1600 monopoly granted by Queen Elizabeth grows into one of the most important businesses in the world eventually running whole Asian subcontinent until 1857 Dutch East India Company (VOC)- 1602 had 6 times the amount of investment capital in it for at least a century but then they also completely control prices not good for consumers also not fair disservice to the idea of equal opportunity and free market economy tariffs mainly lessens the appeal of imports-- not primarily for revenue not only increases price of foreign products but also increases prices for local products b/c it means there is less competition so they can up the prices quotas slavery question of colonies if you are trying to decrease imports, you don't want to have to buy certain goods from foreigners that you can't produce in your own country so you then try to grab colonies in the West Indies/Caribbean, Brazil, Americas (for sugar especially) no white ppl would go work there unless they were indentured servants or political prisoners no one did it voluntarily so while it had disappeared inside Europe, grew exponentially in these new colonies colonies things that you control you can also demand that they buy everything from you, the motherland investing in your own businesses government puts money into smaller businesses and production often loaned, subsidized, or even gave money to private companies who they thought were producing something that had a future trying to improve the infrastructure make roads better canals wider and more extensive bridges in repair anything that is part of transportation and communication, you promote

by grace alone (predestination)

Luther salvation God deciding to save you even though you don't deserve it Predestination-- the idea that God chooses "the elect"-- certain souls that he gives the gift of faith to, who then accept the gift of salvation and are saved It's all in God's hands The idea of free will is an illusion, we cannot take credit for our own salvation You don't earn or deserve salvation-- it is given to you Said you will do good works b/c you already have God's love-- good works are not what earns you salvation, they are a result of salvation, you therefore attempt to live a Christ-like life Not a type of fatalism Convinced that grace saves us alone, that is stays that in the bible

scripture

Luther, Bible contains the word of God, the ultimate truth, only source of authority Church can make mistakes, Bible cannot

marriage and family

Luther, Christian family was the highest form of Christian life, more so than celibacy

priesthood of all believers

Luther, he himself married a former nun, therefore they aren't really clergy, they are simply doing the religious job, but they are no more Christian than anybody else

John Knox (1514-1572)

Majority of scotland went Presbyterian b/c of him England, early to late 16th century fiery Calvinist wrote Monstrous Regiment of Women felt that way regiment= rule by 3 Mary's he was thinking of, all threats to Protestants Mary Tudor Mary Stewart Mary of Guise unfortunately for him, when this book came out, Mary Tudor died and Elizabeth I came to the throne had to back up b/c he was so critical confronts Mary in the 1560s she said she was Catholic but she's not going to try to make ppl convert to her religion he said even one Catholic mass in Scotland was too dangerous called her a papist hoe

monetary policy

Making of money, money supply, how much do you print

Franciscans

Mendicant order First ones from St. Francis of Assisi Around since early 1200s Reform movement led to the formation of the Capuchins

augustinians

Mendicant order that Luther joined

friar

Mendicant orders (not supposed to have property), English form of frater-- brother

ovid

Metamorphoses is our main source of classical myths Poet before Christ Very sexual, erotic, almost pornographic poems about the human body They claimed it was an allegory of the pursuit of the soul by God and the pursuit of God by the soul Treated classical works as a collection of wise sayings instead of taking the work as a whole Renaissance people read him for what he is, didn't want to distort him

Pieta

Michelangelo End of 15th century Breaks through Depiction of Mary holding dead body of Jesus in her lap When people saw it they started calling him the Divine Michelangelo Infinite sadness-- Mary's look of resignation Very skillfully carved 2 things realistically wrong: Mary's age But Michelangelo says virtue keeps you young Relative size Mary is too big Gives more of a sense of mother and child

Columbus (1451-1506)

Mid 15th to early 16th c From Genoa in Italy (rival port city to Venice) Had dream of getting to Indies by sailing west Didn't have to convince ppl that earth was round→ no one who knew anything about geography or sailing thought the earth was flat at that point Perception of the globe war wrong Thought it was ⅔ as big as it was Ran into West Indies Had vision and took it to Portugal first Monarchy decided they would let him take a shot About ready to leave but then Dias returned and said you could sail around Africa to India So Portugal goes back on it Isabella and Ferdinand were too busy ww/ the Reconquista and taking Granada Once they conquered Granada at the start of 1492, Isabella let him go Sails in September of that year Voyage only paid for/supplied by Isabella (Ferdinand opted out) Meant that only sailors and merchants of Castile could trade w/ New World for a long time b/c he didn't really sail for Spain, but for Castile Not a hugely difficult first voyage Problem fior sailing west is knowing how far it's going to be Lied to crew, told them they hadn't sailed as far as they had Landed in Caribbean Santa Maria= flagship Thought he was in Asia Brought translator along who knew all sorts of languages but ppl couldn't understand any of them Had to figure out a different way to communicate Insisted it was Asia until he died Other ppl started thinking it was a Novus Mundus

religious wars

Mid 1500s-mid 1600s Specifically Protestant and Catholic So much of Western Central Europe was torn apart over this question None of these conflicts were purely about religion Political power, territorial, economical, ethnic Peace of Augsburg held for a century-- >until mid-1600s Fighting in West Europe Massacre of the Innocents→ in the Bible when Herod tries to find Jesus but kills all first-born sons, treating babies as martyrs France Had been single most powerful kingdom in Europe during Middle Ages and start of 1500s Eventually only rival was Habsburgs Henry II= Valois king from 1547-1559 Fairly successful, popular, energetic Treaty of Cambresis Died in a jousting accident Left 4 sons 3 would be kings All sons of Catherine de Medici Formidable woman Lived until 1489 Outlived sons Often queen regent Sons are young and weak-willed Controversial figure Machiavellian Blamed for St Bartholomew's Massacre First son= Francis II Becomes king @ 15 Rules for not even a year 1559-1560 Married Mary Queen of Scots Had no children, so went back to Scotland Second son= Charles IX Comes in as boy king Rules 1560-1574 wife= Elizabeth of Austria These start during the very start of his reign Valois line will come to an end→ 2 main fams jostling for power= Bourbon and Guise, religion intensifies struggle b/t two fams Huguenots= strong minority Assassinations of some major leaders Fighting for about 10 years→ 1562-1572 Catherine de Medici was a Catholic, but wanted stability above all Massacre at the marriage b/t Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois in 1572 Third son and final Valois king= Henry III War of the 3 Henry's→ 1574-1598 b/t Henry III, Henry Duke of Guise (d. 1588) and Henry of Navarre Henry III sometimes leaned against Catholic side (Duke of Guise) toward Henry of Navarre Henry of Navarre becomes Henry IV (1589-1610), first king of Bourbon dynasty Catholic League (1576), started by Henry Duke of Guise, anyone who was sworn to prevent a Protestant from ever becoming King of France Late 1570s and 1580s, no one was controlling France politiques→ a lot of Catholics who said that peace was the goal Henry III and Henry of Navarre united against Henry Duke of Guise for political reasons mid-1589→ Henry III is assassinated 1589→ Henry of Navarre declares he is king 1593→ Henry of Navarre tells everyone he is Catholic and ppl accept him Henry IV (1589-1610) Pretty good king Edict of Nantes (1598) Huguenots will now be tolerated Could have freedom of worship, but only in certain towns Huguenots given control of the towns where they had churches First attempt in Europe for religious toleration People's king→ brought prosperity of the common man

National Covenant (1638)

Mid-17th century, Scotland, under Charles I Prompted revolt in own kingdom of Scotland that woul dnot have happened if he had let it be Wrote this up saying they would resist any attempt to be made like church of England

Denmark

Monarchy had ruled almost all of Scandinavia for a while most populous country in Scandinavia Finland and Sweden were jointly ruled by the Swedish ruling family Vasa family led revolt against the Danes to get out from under their control so by the 1520's you have a separate kingdom of Sweden under the Vasa family that included Finland Religion of this country and Sweden changed from Catholic to Lutheran, pretty much 100% Lutheran, but also toleration

movable type

More accurate to say Johannes Gutenberg invented this in 1455 in Mainz East Asia was ahead on this-- but Asian languages have much more complicated characters, held them up on printing You had to have breakthroughs in metal alloys/metallurgy w/ which you created the stencils, types of inks that wouldn't smear, writing materials you're printing on Once you get those things locked in, if you don't have any mistakes in the letters, you can print all of these off and there won't be variations or textual errors

tories

More conservative ppl voted against exclusion in crisis in late 17th century under Charles II of England Became conservative party

Venice

Most important of great Italian port cities Leading maritime power of the age Until 15th c., less interested in securing landed empire than in dominating a seaborne one European center for glass industry Lasted as a republic the longest (until Napoleon invaded) Really important on the sea Trade routes Roads are canals On the Adriatic Sea (Queen of the Adriatic) The Most Serene Republic of Venice Greatest overseas trading city in Europe Marco Polo-- first European to get to China Stays a republic until end of 1700s Napoleon ends period as independent republic Great center of arts Efficiency Shipyards Columbus born in Genoa Interesting combination of state and private enterprise State promoted and regulated things Merchant ships built partly by state's money, turned into military vessels in case of war Particularly important for long-distance trade Key connection w/ Byzantines Own section of Constantinople Important in defending Constantinople After 1453, Ottomans were much more aggressive, anti-mercantile Not really a commercial people-- nomadic warrior people Mainly about expansion and conquering, not trade Distinctive political system Oligarchy Small group of people ruling Several councils Republic-- no monarch, more than one person has power Remained republic until end of 1700s w/ Napoleon Avoided becoming despotism Central body= Great Council People who had true citizenship in terms of voting Had right to vote for Senators-- chose for themselves About 2500 people Hereditary Wealthy, well-educated men doge= elected for life Not very powerful Main leader Eventually became figurehead ruler Prestigious Was the head of state, instead of head of government Council chose people to be senators 250 people 1/10 size of Great Council Tried to limit despotism thru this Only served one term of one year in the Senate More power, made big decisions Picked doge Smaller councils dealt w/ various things Chosen by secret ballot Chosen by nominators selected by lot Almost random Still choosing from wealthy, well-educated men-- keeps someone from becoming like dictators Very decentralized, diffused Queen of the Adriatic Own tradition of Renaissance art (diff from Florence and Rome) The first to have ambassadors b/c of commercial ties Some of the most important info about 16th century England was from Venetian ambassadors reporting back to Venice

Morisco Revolt (1569)

Muslim minority in Spain revolted in mid-16th century Called on Ottomans for help Holy League= Christian coalition formed b/t kingdom of Spain, republic of Venice, papal states, and a few other Italian principalities Southern European Catholic states To hold off the Ottomans Not France→ in some ways they were willing at some times to ally w/ Ottoman Turks over Spain Put dynasticism over religion 1571→ Lepanto, huge naval battle off the coast of Greece Involved hundreds of ships Last great battle the old-fashioned way Ppl had to row the boats Both sides view this as a holy war Don Juan led Spanish army, ½ brother of Charles V Spanish supplied about ½ the ships Pope sent banner of Virgin Mary as a symbol Ottoman Empire used this as a jihad Ottoman admiral killed in battle, head cut off Ottoman fleet defeated decisively at the end Spanish fleet feel like they practically saved Christian Europe in this battle It did mean that the Western Medit was not going to become a Muslim lake Meant this failed→ Ottomans couldn't help, they were expelled even if suspected of being a Morisco

dissenters/nonconformists

Name for people who were not on board w/ Anglican Church Someone who dissents from the church of England Usually mean Protestants who are not Anglican

Dutch carrying trade

Navigation acts limit this great middlemen of the world in the 17th century you could hire them to ship your products to some other country they are the third party flyboats= breakthrough in trade smaller, less maneuverable but could carry a lot more for cheaper not the fastest or the prettiest developed first for the grain trade in the Baltic could be made fairly cheaply, almost mass produced ship itself didn't cost that much fairly cheap to run didn't require a large crew labor-saving devices very efficient not very fast, but didn't need to be didn't have artillery on the ships (not at all armed) unlike most ships Baltic was pretty safe, but Atlantic and Pacific Dutch military ships would escort them in convoys not a huge innovation, but just smarter technique as opposed to technology b/c of that, everyone used them for decades carry things at cheaper shipping rate also very dependable had twice as many ships as France and England combined tiny country, but probably most economically powerful country in the world in the 17th century

jesuits

Not monks or friars, formed in 1500s Most important ppl founded in the 16th century Not monks or friars St Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) Founded Jesuits Basque (Spanish) From lower Aristocratic fam soldier/warrior, got hurt in battle Decided he wanted to be a warrior for Christ, would fight for the Virgin Mary Very intense life of abstinence and self-denial Had apostles Grew w/ emphasis on education and reading Meets w/ some other guys, including Francis Xavier (1506-1552) Decided they needed to do something Thought about joining an order of friars Decided they wanted to found a whole new religious order Would have free basic vows, work in the world Wanted to be the right hand of teh Pope Big book he wrote: The Spiritual Exercises Symbol: IHS (abbreviation for Jesus in Greek) Quickly becomes devoted to education and missionary work Serve as right hand of pope Not monks, didn't take vow of stability Closer to friars But friars wore habits Jesuits could wear anything they wanted→ under cover, many would be killed if found Even though he became a soldier for God, never ceased to be a type of soldier Had military mindset Fighting for purity of the church Struggle w/o actual violence Go to very dangerous places Go secretly into Protestant areas (how they are really part of the counter-Reformation) Targeted rulers Ministered to ppl Tried to get ppl to convert and to minister to ppl who were secretly Catholic Go to New World, Asia Very dangerous Converted some Native Americans Organized into companies head= inspector general Motto: Ad majorem Dei gloriam To the greater glory of God Implies that man's own efforts can increase Gods glory Loyalty to religion comes above all other loyalty Like Calvinists→ Soli Deo Gloria To the Glory of God alone Very similar though, all about the glory of God, international Francis Xavier Goes to Portuguese Empire→ Africa, East Indies One of the first ppl to set foot in Japan, then wanted to go to China but died in Japan Known as the Apostle of the Indies Now patron saint of all missionaries in the Catholic Church Stressed blind obedience to the Church Famous for trying to learn other ppl's languages, etc In China, tried to argue to the pope to let the Chinese continue venerating their ancestors Doesn't argue w/ worship to God alone Whole new area of the world for ppl to explore, they follow right behind explorers Important in trying to roll back the Reformation→ in some ways successful Czech, Poles, Hungarians all generally brought back to the Catholic Church→ victories for the counter-Reformation All males Take a fourth vow that no one else takes→ direct loyalty to the pope Probably the single most important order Free will→ said it was partly up to you, Protestants renounced this

95 theses

October 31, 1517 Luther's response to Johann Tetzel and indulgences Story is that he posted them on the door of the church Not an unusual thing at the time-- asking for a debate Didn't say we should split the church or bring down the pope, but pretty confrontational Played a nationalist card a little bit Theological question-- making people think they can buy their way into God's favor Wrong-- giving people false sense of assurance based on paying money Thought it was an extremely corrupt practice Start of the Reformation Very quickly started becoming an even bigger critique of the church Question of is there even Purgatory What is the difrerence b/t saints and ordinary Christians What should the authority of the church be Should we even have a pope Also printing press→ reaches large proportions 1520→ Pope Leo X issued a papal bull, an open letter, said Luther needs to shut up, stop making criticism, Leo X is the holy father He will excommunicate Luther if he doesn't stay quiet

abuses

Of the Roman catholic Church (in Luther's eyes) Clerical ignorance Clerical immorality-- sex life, too much wealth Nepotism Pluralism Rampant Each Church office had a certain amount of money that came w/ it→ benefice More offices you had, more benefices you got So often, Church officials worked as gov officials Chancellors in England→ Henry VIII chancellor b4 Thomas More was Cardinal Thomas Wolsey (held SO MANY church positions in addition) Now hardly doing much for Church, doing gov job Led to absenteeism Pope @ top, bishops in middle, parish priests @ bottom Bishops-- supposed to be watching over diocese, making sure priests are doing their jobs, confirming young ppl Simony Buying and selling relics Mainly meant buying and selling church offices A lot of money exchanging hands Popes in this time period were not very good spiritual leaders-- supposed to be the holy father of Rome, not setting good example

monks

Regular clergy Live away from the world Cloistered Deliberately turning your back on the world Take a vow of stability→ you will be in that monastery your whole life Contemplative order→ inner life, meditation, thought

despotism

Signorial rule Strong man ruler Not traditional constitutional monarch or hereditary monarchy Comes into power through military force What we would call a military dictator Now has negative connotation Not necessarily bad rulers, sometimes actually very good Best example= Visconti in Milan Sforza= depots in Milan

Thomas Wentworth (1593-1641)

One of Charles I's two main officials in early to mid-17th century Chancellor, unpopular policies Made first Earl of Stratford Chancellor Conducting these pretty unpopular policies Pretty heavyhanded→ intolerant to opposition to king

nell gwyn

One of Charles II's mistresses (mid to late 17th century) actress at a time when for the first time women were allowed to be on stage morally dubious thing mistress of Charles had two children by him popular w/ common ppl Protestant working class said at a point "It's me, the Protestant *****" why ppl liked her-- didn't put on airs

Earl of Bothwell

One of Darnley's assassins Mary Queen of Scots marries him Protestant/atheist/free-thinker Turned to him for political support Many ppl in Scotland thought she had killed her own husband Revolt in 1567, accused not only of being a Catholic and heretic hoe, but also husband-killer

bourbon

One of the 2 main fams jostling for power to succeed Valois Best blood claim Protestants (Huguenots) More impressive members of fam were women→ Marguerite

district

One of the 3 administrative units of agrarian European society government area some kind of administration (justice of the peace) taxes fell heavily on peasants b/c nobles and even bourgeoisie managed to win tax concessions from the monarchs often tax exempt church lands were tax exempt often would include several parishes

bondage of free will

One of the 3 books Luther said he wished would survive him Book about predestination and free will

catechism

One of the 3 books he wrote that Luther hoped would live on after his death Basically an instruction book Questions and answers Gives a question and an answer you are supposed to give

unruly barons

One of the 3 main obstacles to monarch's power Feudalism-- monarch/lord apportioned power to vassals In return for military service, you held land-- fief You had sovereignty over this land, had own army Nobles often hard to control Thought of king as head noble, first among equals Not paid salary-- once they had land, there's no way to make them obey Decentralization of authority

Parish

One of the three administrative units of agrarian society everyone was in one the area served by a particular church and one or more ministers varied in size--> in a city they could be a neighborhood, in the countryside it could be a wider area tithe--> often obligatory diocese includes many parishes, ruled over by a bishop diocese make up a province ruled by an archbishop

common law

One of the two great legal systems in Western history Uniquely English Now law of Canada, US, Australia, and England Common to all of England Very different tradition Bit more friendly to the people as opposed to the state Decided by a jury, from local people below instead of above In theory, every benefit goes to the defendant Open, public trial Torture was done but against the spirit of it Argued from precedent, make argument based often on past decisions Conservative way to look at case In the time of Henry VII, normal courts used this

consumption

One of the two main things they taxed French taille tax on salt, olive oil, wine, meat Aka sales tax Regressive Takes up a lesser percentage of a higher income than a lower income Tax that falls heavier on poor than it does on rich

Roman Law

One of two great legal systems in Western history many/most countries use this as the basis for their government Easier to prosecute someone Idea that if the state accuses you of something you need to prove you are innocent Often a judge along decides your guilt or innocence Appointed by a ruler Much more likely to do what the state wants Trials not necessarily public Didn't get to see evidence used against you Didn't get to confront or question people accusing you Evidence gained through torture was admissible Argued case in historical vacuum-- purely in terms of the case itself Inquisition Prerogative courts

balance of power

One state doesn't have complete hegemony over others, doesn't have power to politically control Idea will later spread to other European countries

lord fairfax

Other great general in English Civil War besdies Oliver Cromwell

suleiman the magnificent

Ottoman emperor Early 16th to mid 16th century Probably strongest empire in the world under him Religious factors Dispute over who is ruling where Charles found rol as HRE to be an important responsibility Supposed to be ruler of all Christendom Secular counterpart to Pope Viewed himself as protector of Christian Europe in general Ottomans were the biggest threat in that respect Battle of Mohacs (1526) Lost to Ottomans Many died Hungary What's left of Hungary comes under control of Habsburgs Most of Hungary under Ottoman rule for a long time Siege of Vienna By ottomans Lasted for a while Held tough and Ottomans retreated Francis I formed informal alliance w/ Suleiman

racine

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century French playwright

moliere

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century French playwright wrote comedy his plays are done here all the time timeless social satires did not make fun of the king partly patronized also director and actor

fashion

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century Paris as the ultimate fashion destination

language

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century becomes the common language of all upper class educated ppl in Europe

ballet

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century during particularly the middle of the 1600s, all these terminologies came around

social arts

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century etiquette ppl began copying rules at Versailles all across Europe cuisine idea that the French are the great culinary geniuses social dance minuet fashion Paris as the ultimate fashion destination language becomes the common language of all upper class educated ppl in Europe

cuisine

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century idea that the French are the great culinary geniuses

social dance

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century minuet

literature

Part of golden age of art under Louis XIV in France, mid-17th to early 18th century no one ultimate national writer number of great writers esp playwrights Moliere wrote comedy his plays are done here all the time timeless social satires did not make fun of the king partly patronized also director and actor Racine tragedy doesn't translate well usually based on myths elevated French

Christendom

Peace of Westphalia in 1648 sort of brought the end to this any kind of political or social Christian unity accept that Protestants can't completely win, and Catholics can't completely win big turning point in terms of secularization of Western politics pope= furious territorial state was now the highest authority Pope denounced the Peace of Westphalia, utterly condemned it, said they shouldn't do it met w/ polite silence start of a type of toleration born of exhaustion a start to accepting the idea that you can't impose religion on ppl secularization of European society it turns into a conflict about the Habsburg family rather than religion as we go on, wars aren't really based on religion anymore

christendom

People in 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries did not refer to Europe as Europe, but rather as this Where Christianity is the dominant civilizational force civilization/societal term Never one ruler accepted as the total ruler, even if the Pope claimed it

creoles

People living in the New World with pure European heritage, born in New World

peninsulares

People living in the New World with pure European heritage, born in Spain Always had main jobs/at the top

Sistine Chapel

Popes were patrons of the humanists Where pope attends mass on a daily basis Built in late 1400s Started by Pope Sixtus IV Michelangelo painted the ceiling, nudes, people resisted it Commissioned by Pope Julius II Few years before Reformation Eventually fled, got disgusted w/ work, said he would do it if he could paint Genesis Most famous panel= Animation of Adam Not quite touching Shows gap b/t human and divine Getting a soul Barrel vault Had to compensate for curvature-- make it look like it's on a flat surface even though it's curved East End Shows last judgement Represents his despair Momento mori Reminder of death Like he is warning the Pope

Ferdinand Magellan (1519-1522)

Portuguese but sailed for Spain Killed in latter stages of his voyage Only 1 out of 5 of his ships got back (18 men out of 260 survived) Sea travel was so dangerous and disgusting and cramped and dirty and unhygienic Voyage was the first to circumnavigate the globe

Macau (1514-1999)

Portuguese possession in China Smaller than Hong Kong, but like that for Portugal

covenanters

Ppl of Scotland who opposed reform of Presbyterian Church Mid-17th century, under Charles I Drew up army, invaded N England Finally knows he cannot keep not having Parliament meet Needs a lot of money Calls them in 1640, they= furious Complain so much he immediately sent them home (Short Parliament)

frederick III

Prince of Saxony One of the 7 electors The Wise Sympathetic to Luther, partially b/c he was his own subject Went back to Saxony after Diet of Worms, where he feels he can protect Luther

gutenberg bibles

Printed in 1455, 200 printed, 48 still around, printed in Mainz (on the Rhine River, where printing started) In Latin-- not the original (Catholic church defended keeping it in Latin, NOT vernacular) Vulgate bibles-- Saint Jerome

vulgate

Printed in 1455, 200 printed, 48 still around, printed in Mainz (on the Rhine River, where printing started) In Latin-- not the original (Catholic church defended keeping it in Latin, NOT vernacular) Vulgate bibles-- Saint Jerome

Ottoman Empire

Probably strongest empire in the world under Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566) Religious factors Dispute over who is ruling where Charles found rol as HRE to be an important responsibility Supposed to be ruler of all Christendom Secular counterpart to Pope Viewed himself as protector of Christian Europe in general Ottomans were the biggest threat in that respect Battle of Mohacs (1526) Lost to Ottomans Many died Hungary What's left of Hungary comes under control of Habsburgs Most of Hungary under Ottoman rule for a long time Siege of Vienna By ottomans Lasted for a while Held tough and Ottomans retreated Francis I formed informal alliance w/ Suleiman

Diego Velasquez

Probably the greatest Spanish painter ever Painted Olivares (having a hard time controlling the horse) Portrayed many important Spanish ppl

revolts

Purely peasant ones almost never succeed in history Invariably are crushed b/c don't have weapons, training, etc Only succeed when nobles join in Portugal and Catalan had these and they were supported by nobles and posed a real threat

by faith and works

RCC justification, you have to put your money where your mouth is Doing good works in order to earn this as well

monasticism

RCC, you earn your salvation by going the extra mile

parliament

Representative body in England Never withered and blew away Most powerful of European representative bodies Two parts House of Lords Upper house 'Spiritual and temporal' Bishops, archbishops Nobility 'The peerage' All have title of nobility, so all part of second estate Legal category Means you automatically get to sit in the House of Lords Met w/ Kind as Great Council long before there was Parliament House of Commons Lower house New in 1620s Elected from commons Not always poor- rich merchants, bankers, gentrymen Means you dno't have title of nobility Elected, but only wealthy land-owning males voted But still popular input Majority of people in this are in the gentry social class Landowners, important in their areas, but not nobles Often an obstacle to the monarch's power

Cortes

Representative body in Spain strong Like Parliament Legislative Each region of Spain had own, so kind of divided

authoritarian

Result of Peasant revolt German mindset-- there isn't really another huge humanitarian revolt like this in German history Idea that German people just accept authority Luther's doctrine said you don't resist authority w/ violence All you can do as an ordinary person is to pray that God will send you a better ruler

Why the Catholic Church didn't disappear

Role of rulers→ most European monarchs did not turn Protestant, helped suppress Protestantism wherever they could Popular support→ a lot of common ppl were attached to the way Catholicissm was, specifically southern Europe general/ecumenical council→ called to deal with a crisis or big question, conciliarism (belief that general council is superior to Pope's authority), Council of Trent called to address abuses and doctrine (sets nature of the church to this day), Roman Inquisition Religious orders→ secular clergy vs. regular clergy, monks, friars, nuns, mendicant orders, friars, Franciscans, Augustinians, Jesuits, Capuchins, Ursulines, Jesuits

charles the bold

Ruled mid to late 15th century Duke of Burgundy Branch of Valois family Like its own country for most of the 1400s Today a province of France, capital= Dijon Not only Burgundy but also Low Countries (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg) Trying to turn it into a country that could last Made mistake of getting into war w/ Swiss Swiss developed strong military reputation Died w/o a son Killed on battlefield in 1477 daughter = Mary of Burgundy Great heiress to try to marry Ends up marrying a Habsburg Starts long century of Habsburg-Valois Wars Fought over Burgundian inheritance and Naples and Milan (claimed by both families), Kingdom of Navarre Dynastic Wars, not national wars-- ruling families fighting Not ideological or about belief systems

stadtholder

Ruler of Netherlands (only a role when Dutch were at war but they were almost alwaysat war and continually picked from Orange fam) William of Orange= this in Netherlands

lateen

Sail triangular shaped connected to Islam often used in Mediterranean advantage--> more flexible and maneuverable

Charles IX (1560-1574)

Second Valois son of Henry II and Catherine de Medici King of France mid-16th century Comes in as boy king wife= Elizabeth of Austria During the very start of his reign is when you start having French Religious Wars Early 1560s, struggle Weak kings and dominating Italian foreign mother Eventually becomes clear that none of the 4 Valois sons are going to end up having an heir Valois line will come to an end Jostling for power b/t fams that have royal blood but aren't Valois 2 main families: Bourbon Best blood claim Protestants (Huguenots) More impressive members of family were women→ Marguerite of Navarre Guise→ strong Catholics Religion intensifies struggle b/t two fams Huguenots in France were becoming a pretty strong minority→ 10-20% Nobles became Huguenots in higher percentages→ 40% Resisting pwr of king, if you weren't Catholic then king had less pwr to tell you what to do Tended to be more from towns More skilled, more literate Assassinations of some major leaders Fighting on and off for about 10 years→ 1562-1572 Summer of 1572: marriage b/t Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois (his sister) Henry of navarre was male head of Bourbons at this point Protestants and Catholics would have a truce, lay down their arms Doesn't solve the problem St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre at the wedding Protestant leaders come from all over France to celebrate wedding, letting guard down Guise went to Catherine of Medici and said they thought Protestants were going to try to knock Valois off the throne Said she needed to kill Protestants, all here @ her mercy Can get rid of them in one fell swoop Said they needed him to give the go-ahead, he doesn't want to Finally tells her to give order, asks her to kill all of them so there is no one to tell about it afterward Went on for several days, Seine clogged w/ corpses Didn't solve the problem Henry of Navarre had to beg for his life, Margaret begged for his life Henry of Navarre said he would become a Catholic, but then went back on it once he got out Most significant single incident in the Religious Wars He only lived 2 more years, haunted

Naples

South Only city-state governed by a hereditary monarchy Politics mired by conflicts over its succession Not until Spaniard Alfonso I of Aragon secured throne in 1443 that peace was restored Ended half century of civil war

Moriscos

Spain had been under Muslim rule for centuries There were still ppl known as this Ppl who said they converted to Catholicism but remained Muslim technically/nominally converted Inquisition at first targeted Jewish conversos more, but eventually ended up happening to Muslim minority More of a threat b/c they could turn to the Ottomans Ppl feared this b/c the Ottoman Emp was @ its height in the 1500s Revolted in mid-16th century, called on Ottomans for help Holy League= Christian coalition formed b/t kingdom of Spain, republic of Venice, papal states, and a few other Italian principalities to hold off the Ottomans 1571→ Lepanto, huge naval battle off the coast of Greece Involved hundreds of ships Last great battle the old-fashioned way Ottoman fleet defeated decisively in the end Spanish feel like they practically saved Christian Europe in this battle So the revolt failed Ottomans couldn't help them This minority was expelled

Philip II (1556-1598)

Spain, mid to late 16th century Most important political figure in Europe in the last half of the 16th century father= Charles V Abdicates, said they needed to divide all possessions His younger brother gets HRE Rules Spain, Low Countries (wealthiest part of Europe), Philippines, Italy, New World Combined military prowess, dynastic expansion, and religious fervor all in one Fighting for God Fought the Ottoman Turks Demonized by Dutch and English Represents foreign, absolute tyranny, defaming them Terrible treatment of Native Americans We use this history to demonize the Spanish English settlers just wanted Nat Amers to move west Spanish tried to incorporate them, converting them, spanish subjects The Spanish look upon him as one of their greatest Kings Stood out as a particularly strong Catholic Said he would rather lose all his possessions than be a king over heretics Felt strongly that he had to defend the Catholic faith→ most wars were not just dynastic but religious, tried to help French Catholic League 80 Years' War→ tries to hold on to Habsburg possession of the Netherlands, eventually broke away Reigned when Spain was the most powerful country in Europe→ more than just political and military Soft power→ when you have a cultural impact Spanish style Escorial Big palace right outside of Madrid, means a slag heap Built it, seems to embody is personality Orderly, stern, not hugely decorated, imposing, aloof, tough, outside Madrid (away from ordinary realm of life) Right in the middle is a functioning church and monastery Combination palace, monastery, mausoleum Wanted all Habsburg ancestors dug up and brought to this one place Ruling worldwide empire in this austere place, surrounded by bones of ancestors and monks Simply, undecorated bedchamber, opened to the church Would go to mass every morning, meet w/ advisors Nicknamed King of Paper-- >would read and read gov documents Criticized as being intolerant Absolutist king Idea that he ends up ruining Spain's greatness (or laying foundation for ruin) by waging Religious Wars Pursuing an ideal Didn't worry that things might be financially stupid or if he thought it was the right thing to do Kicking out religious minorities, means a loss of money Dios o nada! (God or nothing) El Siglo de Oro Century of gold→ 1550-1650 Spanish expansion, gold coming in Tried to support the Guise in France (hard-line Catholics) Doing what he could to prevent Henry of Navarre from becoming king Spain had been under Muslim rule for centiries There were still many ppl known as the moriscos (moors) Ppl who said they converted to Catholicism but didn't Had technically/nominally converted Inquisition at first targeted Jewish conversos more, but enventually started happening to Muslim minority Muslim minority= threat b/c they could turn to the ottoman Ppl feared that Muslim minority might ally w/ Ottoman Empire, which was at its height in the 1500s Morisco Revolt (1569) Muslim minority revolted, called on Ottomans for help Holy League= CHristian coalition formed b/t kingdom of Spain, republic of Venice, papal states, and a few other Italian principalities Lepanto= huge battle in 1571 off of the coast of Greece Netherlands= Habsburg possession, ruled as a colony Wanted to keep them Catholic, as he had done in Spain Wasn't ever seen, stayed in Spain and never traveled Made his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, regent of the Low Countries More practical, just wanted to keep peace, live and let live Thought of very much asa Spaniard Iconoclasm (1566), destruction of icons, b/c it's a form of idolatry, blasphemy and rebellion in Philip's eyes response= called in a bunch of Jesuits to build schools, trying to convince ppl of Catholicism by persuasion Council of Blood started sentencing a lot of ppl to death 80 Years' War→ responds to Elizabeth helping rebels by really helping Mary, Queen of Scots Spanish Armada (1588)--> plan to attack England for what they had done to help rebels in the Netherlands

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Summer of 1572→ marriage b/t Henry of Navarre and Margaret of Valois Catherine de Medici wanted stability above all Daughter of Catherine de Medici, sister of CHarles IX (king of France) Henry of Navarre= male head of the Bourbons at this point Protestants and Catholics would have a truce, lay down their arms Doesn't solve problem Protestant leaders come from all over France to celebrate wedding, letting guard down Guise went to Catherine de Medici and said they thought Protestants were going to try to knock the Valois off the throne Said you need to kill Protestants All here, at mercy Can get rid of them in one fell swoop Said they needed Charles IX to give the go-ahead b/c he was the king Catherine goes to Charles, but he doesn't want to do it Finally tells her to give order, asks he to kill all of them so there is no one to tell about it afterward Went on for several days Seine= clogged w/ corpses St Bartholomew= most honest apostle (ironic) Didn't solve problem Now just had incredible desire for revenge Henry of Navarre had to beg for his life, Margaret begged for his life He said he would become Catholic, went back on it once he got out Single most significant incident in the Religious Wars Charles IX lived only 2 more years, haunted

Viceroys

System that was in the New World in lieu of the king Generally governors who answer only to Madrid or Lisbon Not elected by anybody in the New World Always someone who had not even been born in the New World Peninsulares (pure Euro heritage, born in Spain) Creoles (pure Euro heritage, born in New World) Peninsulares always had main jobs/at the top British gave colonies a lot of self-government opportunities

regressive

Takes up a lesser percentage of a higher income than a lower income Tax that falls heavier on poor than it does on rich

fiscal immunities

Tax exemption Wealth is largely in the hands of an upper class that is largely landed wealth (nobles, aristocracy, gentry) They were frequently exempt→ unfair and stupid Gov can't tap into the wealth of their own country if they are exempting the ppl who hold the wealth Paying taxes= considered demeaning to nobles, common Part of the point of being a noble was having this Gov often sold tax exemptions that were hereditary Often wealthy bourgeois ppl or town merchants who had enough money would do that Permanent Short-term thinking to a long-term disaster Needed money now Also sold titles of offices Happened a lot, particularly in France Gov position gave them a type of stipend, they were tax exempt too Quick fix, fairly substantial amount of cash that rich person would give gov the cash Revenues never seemed to be enough, particularly b/c they were at war so much Europe almost continually at war

Epiphany

The last day of the 12 Days of Christmas January 6 a revelation the feast that honors when the magi find Jesus and worship him

un roi, une foi, une loi

The French used to say this, but the Edict of Nantes symbolizes the French move away from that, pretty radical, although it only lasted about 70 years

individualism

The Renaissance marked the birth of the individual Idea that your own unique individuality is more important than anything Artists start putting their names on pieces

patronage

The favorite is the conduit of this Royal favors given to ppl Tax exemption Charter to company that will trade w/ East Indies Granting noble titles Giving cushy government jobs Constantly favor seekers at the court In the 1600s, the way to make a lot of money fast was to get a cushy gov position where you were getting a cut of the taxes, or getting a noble title

predestination

The idea that God chooses "the elect"-- certain souls that he gives the gift of faith to, who then accept the gift of salvation and are saved Not a uniquely Calvinist thing Luther believed in it After Luther and Calvin's deaths, Calvinists stuck w/ it and Lutherans kind of drifted away God chooses souls that will be saved from creation Made Calvinists confident-- thought that God controls everything, but they are his agents, he works through them "If God is for us, who can be against us" You are supposed to assume that you are "the elect" Activist group-- believed you were supposed to be out there making a holy commonwealth, a society that glorifies God

the 'favorite

There at court, at the capital Common element→ you are the channel/conduit of patronage Royal favors given to ppl Tax exemption, charters, noble titles, gov jobs Someone that you went to him to get a royal favor The king was sometimes hard to get to But this guy had the ear of the kinga t least in terms of patronage King trusted this guy at least in terms of patronage Gov expanding scope and number of titles, needed someone to help out Sharing task, filtering ppl out If there were unpopular things that the monarchy had to do, you could use this guy as a scapegoat Everyone can freely hate these ppl Transition from gov being purely personal to an impersonal, institutional gov Bridge from medieval personal monarchy to impersonal bureaucracy Count-Duke Olivares (1587-1645) Favorite of Philip IV of Spain Duke of Buckingham (1592-1628) Favorite of James I (1603-1625) and Charles I (1625-1648) Cardinal Richelieu (d. 1642) Favorite of Louis XIII (1610-1643)

privy council

Thomas Cromwell= part of creating this while chancellor Core of administrators who each had a department of state that they were responsible for Organization and specialization-- each person doing a specific job Forerunner of a Cabinet gov Advised king Policy making and implementing body

just price

guilds told members that they had to pay fixed wage, but also had fixed price guild syst intended to cut down on competition so encouraged really high quality b/c you could offer them a lower price maintained quality control guild syst grew up in Europe when Catholic Church was really powerful CC taught this every product had a moral price that a person should charge, but they should not charge higher than that there is an intrinsic, fixed value in a product certain, inherent value to both material and work vs market economy supply and demand determine prices (Adam Smith) CC and guilds came together on this

Spanish stress on aristocratic virtues

had chivalric, aristocratic, medieval mindset to them, the only 3 valid occupations were a churchman, soldier, and work (either farmer or craftsman) had suspicion/disdain/hatred of mercantile activity and financial activity (banking) thought ppl were taking advantage buying low, selling high also condemned interest on loans usury charging loans

master

highest level of Italian work, in a guild

duke

highest noble title royal prince, especially younger son

grammar

how words are used, often in a very sophisticated way

Greek New Testament

To Erasmus, the most important thing he did was this, in 1516 Edited it Extremely important b/c of the textual errors that haad come in through time Northern Renaissance-- back to sources, scholarship Made himself learn Greek at 30 b/c he thought it was so important Wanted to get as close as possible to the original texts Got the ones that he thought were closest to the original, compared and contrasted them Published what he said was as close as we were going to get to the original Annotates it, talked about passages that were difficult, etc Wants it to be turned into vernacular of all nationalities in Europe Great emphasis was on the need for everyone to be able to read the Bible Had this in common with a lot of Protestant reformers, why they thought he would join them, but he didn't Said it's stupid to say that ordinary people can't read the Bible and understand it Did not do a vernacular translation himself But did an improved version of the Vulgate (Latin translation)

Holy League

To fight the Moriscos and the Ottomans in Spain, late 16th century Christian coalition formed b/t kingdom of Spain, republic of Venice, papal states, and a few other Italian principalities Southern European Catholic states To hold off the Ottomans Not France→ in some ways they were willing at some times to ally w/ Ottoman Turks over Spain Put dynasticism over religion

soli deo gloria

To the Glory of God alone Jesuits and Calvinists both believed in this Loyalty to religion comes above all other loyalty Very similar, about glory of God, international

boyars

Traditional Russian nobility Hereditary nobility Powerful landlords of great estates Owed little to the tsar Inherited lands and did not necessarily benefit from expansion and conquest Ivan IV displaced many of them or executed them brutally (impaled) Thought they poisoned his mother Ivan IV tried to replace them with a new nobility that owed its power completely to him

Asiento

Treaty of Utrecht early 18th century Britain wanted to be able to bring over slaves to Spanish colonies, Spanish New World Spain had to concede to allow British slave ships to bring over slaves to Spanish New World

meritocracy

ideally, the ruling class shouldn't be hereditary noble privilege, aristocracy, or wealthy people, but that people of merit should be able to rise to the top and govern Idea pioneered by Baldassare Castiglione in The Courtier

church type vs sect type

Two ways you can view how the Christian community should interact w/ general society Church type→ Catholics and mainstream Protestants Don't try to distinguish committed true believers from insincere ones You baptize all of society Treat general society as being coterminous w/ the church Assuming that everyone is part of the church Baptize infants But also means there's no real separation of church and state-- prince is a Christian prince Sect type→ subgroup, you say the great majority of ppl/general society is not ever going to be Christian The true Christians in the world are always going to be a minority The sign of that is believer's baptism Only ppl who had consciously made a choice Narrow def of Christianity in a community You separate yourself from the world Trying to be apart from "the world" which they think of as simple

caravel

Type of ship that Columbus took across the Atlantic Multiple masts More than one sail on some masts Steerage at the stern Tiny ships by our standards, but they could go around the world Portugal developed them

strong state

Ultimate objective in mercantilism subordination of economics to politics ultimately not trying to achieve an economic goal Strong military leads to this

episcopacy

Under Charles I of England, early to mid-17th century Puritans Wanted to get rid of this and its hierarchy Means having bishops Rulers didn't want to do this b/c it meant ceding pwr Charles I wouldn't agree to abolishing this in Long Parliament

Era of Personal Rule (1629-1640)

Under Charles I of England, mid-17th century Charles is furious Doesn't let Parliament meet for 11 years Able to rely on his own, cut costs, stuff like that Resorted to do the things he promised not to do in Petition of Right Extraparliamentary revenue Brings back old laws from England that everyone had forgetten about Never technically repealed, but not enforced Started using forced loansa gain Big thing= ship money Many house of commons members refused to pay this and it went to courts Every port city had to supply king w/ ships that were outfitted for war→ medieval tradition Only supposed to happen when there was a real threat to England Only coastal cities do it traditionally Now king says he will take money in lieu of ship Uses it to practically run gov Couldn't give real explanation over the crisis that was going on Required even non-coastal cities to pay it Not tradition but not forbidden Comes to an end finally

Henry II (1547-1559)

Valois king mid-16th century Fairly successful, popular, energetic Treaty of Cambresis ceded control of Italy to Spanish Habsburgs Died in jousting accident Married to Catherine de Medici Left 4 sons

VAT

Value added tax Consumption tax, but added at each stage of production

gunpowder plot (1605)

Under King James I of England in early 17th century Conspiracy, plot on the part of extremist Catholics who= furious that they were continually persecuted in england Thought if they could wipe out whole ruling class in one fell swoop Only time when all ruling class= in 1 place= opening of Parliament (late October early November) Happens in House of Lords building Monarch reads address Was going to happen November 5, 1605 Robert Catesby= real leader Guy Fawkes setting fuse when he got caught Rented room across road from Westminster and tunneled into base of cellar and rolled in a bunch of barrels of gunpowder Guy Fawkes (military background) was going to set long fuse and ride off, blow up rulers of England and Scotland in one fell swoop Guy in House of Commons got letter from friend who knew about conspiracy and told guy not to go to ceremony Guy receiving letter went to gov and said something was up Ppl walked in right as he was lighting fuse Guy Fawkes= arrested, tortured horribly, drawn and quartered Guy Fawkes Day- November 5th Now called bonfire day Before very anti-Catholic For a while it was a way of reviving anti-Catholic sentiments Made him even more paranoid than he already was Didn't want to go after Catholics too badly b/c he was trying to make an alliance w/ Spain (unpopular)

nobles at versailles

Under Louis XIV (mid 17th to early 18th century) required to live there half the year also a lot were there year round happening place social center of Europe caught up in pecking order, endless cycle of parties and stuff like that a lot of competition for who got to be closest to the king also encouraged couturiers (fashion designers) to change the fashions frequently they were devoting time, energy, and money to frivolous stuff that wasn't very serious more about not being in the provinces their power was rooted out in provinces they were the head of justice, source of patronage also manipulating lower nobles local connections that were very important esp w/ lower nobles losing that connection which was the root of their power he has cut them off from their power

High Middle Ages Art

Virtually nothing realistic (not a sign of ineptitude) Some was lack of certain techniques and skills Usually trying to convey a timeless, otherworldly truth (eternal truth) Very different realm of reality Not trying to make it look real or natural Elongated bodies, no realistic background Offensive to depict religious saints or people like common people The Visitation The Virgin Mary greeting relative Elizabeth Both pregnant Not realistic Elongated bodies Coloring is off Position is awkward Halos No facial expression, unfocused stare No background No source of light Flat Cartoonish Two types: Fresco (painted directly on a surface that isn't a canvas) and tempura (egg yolk as binding element on parchment) Tended to be overwhelmingly religious (patronage of church) Artists did not have individual style Sculpture often attached to a building or column

John Churchill

War of Spanish Succession Early 18th century British general who fought in this war, British army, kinda conducted British government in general Anne had a very very close relationship w/ his wife, Sarah Churchill

tariffs

Way to achieeve favorable balance of trade in mercantilism mainly lessens the appeal of imports-- not primarily for revenue not only increases price of foreign products but also increases prices for local products b/c it means there is less competition so they can up the prices

soft power

When you have a cultural impact Spain was the most powerful country in Europe in the last half of the 16th century, more than just political and military Spanish style→ tight corset, v-shaped corset, pearls as the most important jewel English copied their style even if they are political enemies

political centralization

When you start to get centralized monarchs at the top, you are able to go from there No German or Italian overseas colonies until they unite

wittenberg

Where Luther taught, posted 95 Theses on church door Relatively new university Luther's hometown and this town were both in the German state of Saxony, modern day Eastern Germany

saxony

Where Wittenberg and Luther's hometown are both located, modern day Eastern Germany Frederick III/the Wise, prince

purgatory

Where you are purged from your remaining sins Fires burning off your sins Painful, you don't want to be there Probably going to be there for a while Heaven and hell are eternal, this isn't Where you go to work off your remaining sins Would do penance to work off sins on earth Sale of indulgences became popular to knock years off your sentence, also to try to get dead relatives out of there

Catherine of Aragon

Wife #1 Late 15th- early 16th c Daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella Intelligent, pious, beautiful Spanish princess Originallly married to Arthur (Henry VII's older son) Way of tying Spain to England in this anti-French alliance Slightly older than him He died young-- 15 or 16 Henry VII wanted to keep the alliance going, decided w/ Ferdinand and Isabella that she would marry Henry VIII Love match for some time, really liked her, English ppl loved her, very popular, married for a long time Problem starts to arise-- Tudor fam has very weak claim to throne Henry VIII is determined to hav ea male heir, can't seem to have it She = queen, got best possible medical care they would've had Many miscarriages, still-borns, kids dying very young Clear she couldn't have any more kids Only one daughter survived= Mary Tudor End of 1520s→ Henry starts looking for other women, has mistresses, is unfaithful Trying to have male heir England had never had a queen regnant Thought if he died w/o a male heir the nation would fall back into dynastic war Pope issued papal dispensation→ said it was ok for Catherine and Henry to get married b/c marriage of Catherine and Arthur wasn't legitimate b/c it wasn't consummated She had to swear on relics that she was a maid still when she married Henry Then Henry came back and said the pope should have never given the dispensation, had sinned by marrying his brother's wife, God was punishing him now by not giving him a male heir So pope should dispense the dispensation Said he was doing it for the good of England Also proud and wanted a son Also looking at younger women Henry wanted an annulment so he could marry Anne Boleyn Would end a marriage that was never legitimate, whereas divorce would end a legitimate marriage Nobles and everyone wanted the pope to grant this annulment Makes the pope look bad-- going back on predecessor, doing whatever the monarch asked for, Catherine's nephew= Charles V Pope probably would've liked to have given this but couldn't and stalled Insists for the whole time that she was a maid when she married Henry Standing up for daughter, saying she= Henry's wife deal w/ it By 1530ish, Henry decides he will break away from the church If the pope can't give him the annulment, he will make himself the head of the church of England 1533→ granted annulment by the archbishop of Canterbury, married Anne Boleyn Thomas More opposed annulment, common people were on her side Sent to an 'unhealthy' family home, hoped she would get sick and die

anne boleyn

Wife #2 Married 1533-1536 Henry went after her after wife #1 She was pregnant when they got married Story was that she said no to sex until he got divorced from Catherine Now there are arguments that Henry didn't want to have sex until they got married so the child could be legitimate Henry had a couple of bastard children, including a bastard son, but could not inherit anything Annulment Would end a marriage that was never legitimate Whereas divorce would end a legitimate marriage Nobles and everyone wanted the pope to grant this-- he couldn't Intelligent, but not a classic beauty Henry wants her first as a mistress, then decides to marry her Catherine insists this whole time she was a maid when she married Henry Standing up for daughter By 1530ish, Henry decides he will break away from the church 1533→ granted annulment by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Henry married her She gave birth to Elizabeth Henry= unhappy, was sure it was going to be a boy Later had another child that was male but stillborn Hated by the common people who sided w/ Catherine Henry finally accuses her of having adultery w/ more than one person in court Including a musician and one of her own brothers Most historians say that she was not guilty, but some say it might not be a complete fabrication (pretty flirtatious) Jury included her own father, found her guilty of treason First of his wives to be beheaded One merciful thing= hired French executioner to come behead her, did so w/ a sword

Witchcraft trials

another way you see that society is going after women a witch= inversion women are supposed to bear life and have babies miscarriages= midwife killing the baby so she could use it for witchcraft cunningmen and cunningwomen--> knowledge of herbs, stuff like that ppl would go to them if they were giving birth, needed help w/ love or sickness occult-- secret, knowledge other ppl didn't have connected it more w/ women (cooking, preparing) idea that women were viewed as having a kind of knowledge that men didn't (intuitive) for a long time, these women were not viewed as being contrary to Christianity supplement, parallel Wicca= the craft, the knowledge (wicca women) in the 16th century when ppl are trying to make Christianity better, they were trying to cleanse what they considered superstitious, non-pagan rituals in their societies women were dealing w/ supernatural occult things that the church felt were contrary to religion both Catholics and Protestants went zealously after witches women accused of Satanism (contrary to Christianity, worshipping the devil) modern wiccas would say they aren't satanists, but pre-Christian... women-centered religion women were doing Wicca thing, but no distinction made b/t who was doing Satanism and who was doing Wicca classic stereotype witch is who they went after over anyone else--> older women living on their own (either spinsters or widows) marginalized, more defenseless fear of an autonomous woman authority figures are almost completely male if you're going after what you would consider to be evil in society, you're going after the Other probably 3/4 of ppl accused of witchery were women not exclusively, but there's an element of misogyny to it they believed that women are more sexually driven than men less likely to be able to restrain themselves women referred to as the 'weaker vessel' start targeting ppl, claiming that they were this diabolical opposing church nun is referred to as the wife of Christ they thought Satan wanted to have his brides (along with the physical stuff) accusing women of at the end of their services they just had one big orgy believed that men and women both would sell their souls to Satan Satan would give you Malleus Maleficarum (1486) mallet to do evil book that popularized idea that there are witches out there sabbat when witches would come together at some point during the year, only way to get back home was to fly so Satan also gave them the power to fly believed that Satan gave you formula for lotion that you could rub on yourself and fly belief that magic only worked best when you were naked went to meet Satan often in the form of a goat, a toad, or a dark mysterious handsome man had a black mass mass said backwards in Latin, crucifix held upside down, ate sliced onions or flesh of your own dead relatives or murdered infants, in England they said witches ate roast beef and ale then they had the big orgy having sex w/ Satan then you all fly home everywhere in Europe you were burnt at the stake for witchery, but England was under common law so they hanged witches (why they were hanged in Salem) psychosexual aspect Malleus Maleficarum (1486) hammer of the evil-doers two Dominican German friars said this was how you could root out witches saying that when talking to a witch, lead them to believe that they will not be put to death if they confess, but they will only 30 years after invention of the printing press one of the first best-sellers in history translated into different language endorsed by the pope at the time ppl began to think there was this vast diabolical conspiracy, alternative religion planting ideas in ppl's minds witch accusations were very rare until the 1400s--> witchcraft persecution didn't really happen in the Middle Ages height= 1550-1650 after everything progressive had happened scientific revolution was going on during that time period and renaissance had already happened and reformation so you had all of these sources of modern ideas yet this still occurred 1500s and late 1500s, there was a significant rise in prices (Price Revolution) inflation they were so convinced that prices would stay the same inflation rate was low by our standards, but everything tended to be fixed back then anxiety, sense that nothing was stable anymore skimmingtons, sense that the times were out of joint discovery of the New World had something to do with it it really rocked ppl's worlds entire hemisphere that ppl didn't know existed not really divided Protestant vs. Catholic Scotland had a high number of witch trials per capita, and it continued for a long time it tends to happen where there is religious war--> where Catholics and Protestants are in conflict if you are already in a situation where there are people who you think are on the side of Satan (heretics) so now there are ppl who are not only worshipping Christ incorrectly but worshipping Satan/someone other than Christ 'swimming a witch' they thought that water would tend to reject a witch (particularly about baptismal vow) thought part of becoming a witch was you had to renounce your baptismal vow would bless water would drag a witch across a body of water if she seemed to float, they said water was rejecting them and they were a witch if they sank, they pulled them out and weren't a witch tormentum insomniae sleep deprivation you don't let ppl fall asleep supposedly would loosen their tongue and they would speak the truth doesn't mean you start speaking the truth but start hallucinating and babbling a lot of accusations were projections of fantasies on ppl or something basically trying to kill your own doubt, own guilt, own anxiety also usual tortures after mid-1600s it starts to die down in England it ended earlier (1682) Salem in 1692 Scotland in 1727 last person killed in German states in 1756 (but different principalities stopped at different times) ppl confessing to things if they aren't guilty notoriety/fame but also for some of these women that was the only time in their lives when ppl were paying attention to them it made them seem special also some ppl could have convinced themselves that they had done it (whether senile or overly religious or mentally challenged) end of trials not a popular decision upper classes often instigated the end and common people resisted it greatly this had a great deal of popular support upper classes are the first ones affected by the Enlightenment difference b/t ppl and public--> public started turning against trials but ppl needed convincing religious wars and 30 Years' War ending corresponded to the end of the witchcraft trials secularization of gov when ppl start questioning whether Satan even exists or not, it means ppl don't conduct as many trials mass hysteria doesn't last forever rise of a more rational, skeptical, secular attitude decline of religious wars

utopia

Written by Thomas More in 1516 Year before Luther One of the greatest books in European history Describes a world in which Christian values reigned true Also attainable-- similar to the world in which they lived, just ideal More coined the word-- in Greek it means "no place" Not a perfect place-- much better than Europe Satire, fantasy-- some people thought it was literal and real, that there was an island in the Atlantic that existed Doesn't mean he thought everyone in Europe should live like this Conditions: worked 6 hr/day, social equality, everyone had roughly same amount of wealth, everyone wears same kind of clothes, everyone pulling own weight, leaves time for intellectualism Some crime, conflicts-- settled quickly, criminals rehabilitated, punished by having to wear heavy gold jewelry Gold used to make chamber pots-- most degrading use you can think of Iron was the precious metal-- practical No Christianity-- even though More was a devout Christian, ended up dying for the Catholic faith More would not say that this is a perfect world They figured out a natural religion where they worshipped one supreme being But it has a much more just, compassionate society than Europe-- Europe should be doing much better This place has reason, Europe has revelation, so should be doing much better

king james bible

Written under King James I of England in early 17th century England Called Authorised Version in England Met many different places to write it, he did not go Shaped English language

poll tax

You pay a tax on your head→ everyone kicking in same amount Often very unpopular→ biggest revolt in English history= in part sparked by an attempt to impose this

Visconti

best examples of despots, in Milan

diamonds

bourgeoisie in deck of cards

pisa

built the tower that started leaning

the hague

capital of Netherlands

mendicant orders

friars→ from Latin word frater (brother) Any person who is part of one of these Move around, don't take vow of stability Usually worked out in the world→ teachers, working w/ poor, working as missionaries Bartolome de las Casas→ great Dominican friar Means beggar in English Different from the monks Monks own collective property, land Say we shouldn't even collectively own lands Go around doing day work Said they were living out in the world, living hand to mouth Wandered countryside, lived by handouts or did work Hard to maintain pretty quickly Franciscans First ones were from St. Francis of Assisi Around since early 1200s Reform movement led to the formation of the Capuchins Augustinians→ order Luther joined Where the vitality of the church was, ppl trying to go the extra mile In the 16th c, it's a sign of the rejuvenation of the Catholic church that a lot of new orders were formed Either reform movements w/in existing orders or an entirely new order Jesuits Not monks or friars Formed in 1500s Capuchins Reform in the Franciscans led to the formation of this Started in 1525 Shows it wasn't in reaction to Luther or any Protestant thing→ Luther was already well into doing his thing Monkeys are named after them Ursulines Women Founded in 1400s At first took a vow to stay and live w/ parents Then they would meet and pray Later ended up going off to convents and such Big thing= education→ run a lot of schools Answers Protestant argument that we aren't educating ppl Jesuits Most important ppl founded in 16th century Not monks or friars St Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) Founded Jesuits Basque (Spanish) From lower Aristocratic fam soldier/warrior, got hurt in battle Decided he wanted to be a warrior for Christ Had apostles Grew w/ emphasis on education and reading Met w/ some other guys, including Francis Xavier Thought about joining an order of friars, but decided they wanted to found a whole new religious order Would have basic free vows, work in the world Wanted to be right hand of the pope Big book he wrote: The Spiritual Exercises Quickly become devoted to education and missionary work Didn't take vow of stability, weren't monks Organized into companies Motto: Ad majorem Dei gloriam (to the greater glory of God) Loyalty to religion comes above all other loyalty (Soli Deo Gloria)--> to the glory of God alone Francis Xavier→ goes to Portuguese Empire Stressed blind obedience to the Church Follow right behind explorers Important in trying to roll back the Reformation→ in some ways successful Czechs, Poles, Hungarians all generally brought back to Catholic Church→ victories for counter-Reformation All males Take 4th vow that no one else takes→ direct loyalty to the pope Probably the single most important order Free will→ said it was partly up to you, Protestants renounced this

divine-right monarchy

monarch answers only to God

Tatar

mongols in Russia, mix of Mongol and Turk, most were Muslim

banalities

monopolies that nobles had on the food processing side of things if you grow grain you don't eat raw grain, you have to mill it--> turn it into flower, run a mill mill and wine press and communal ovens would all be owned by the noble, and had to pay him every time you used them small fee but constant and peasants didn't have much cash also couldn't build their own it was tough to be a peasant

animation of adam

most famous panel of the sistine chapel, painted by michelangelo