AP Euro Final Review

What was the flight to Varennes?

The king tried to escape Paris. This shattered the perception of a king loyal to the cause. The king was thus discredited and unloyal.

What was Japan's role?

They colonized Korea following the Sino-Japanese war.

In what way did the sans-culottes take over the revolution?

They sought revenge through mass-executions of inmates and executions of those disloyal to the popular will.

How did Scandinavian States brave the depression?

They sprinkled in socialism which eventually led to wage increases.

Discuss pre-1870 job opportunities for women?

They were generally prohibited from working which made them easier to exploit when they needed income. The poorest of them worked in the tailoring trades for very cheap prices.

Describe the French Police?

They were initially a small subordinate force to the military established to promote the domestic tranquility of Parisians. They were armed with a white cane by day and a saber by night.

How was the Estates-General split?

Third Estate got double representatives. They delegates argued about whether the count should be by order or by head count. Aristocrats wanted it by order so they could have an aristocratic override. In the Estates-General, the lovers of liberty brought Enlightened ideals for reform. Indeed the Society of Thirty drew most of its members from Parisian salons.

What was the principle of intervention and what effects did it have on intercontinental foreign policy?

This stated that the great powers can, "if need be by arms," establish 'order and stability' in revolutionary countries. Britain backed out of this pledge, only intending to interfere in French affairs which caused a lasting break in the Concert of Europe. Nonetheless, Britain succeeded in stemming continental powers from interfering with revolutions in Latin America. THe continental powers, did however, send troops into Italy and Spain in order to restore Bourbon monarchs to the throne.

Describe the toleration of religious minorities in enlightenment Europe?

This was a sacred principle to the enlightenment and monarchs such as Joseph II of Austria granted religious toleration to everyone contrary to Louis XIV's religious uniformity. In the dutch republic, dissenting groups were tolerated, but freedom of religious expression was limited. By 1796, however with the Declaration of Human Rights, separation of church and state granted all Protestant and Roman Catholic Citizens equality while Jews received civil rights.

Describe the French and Indian War?

This was the conflict of the Seven Years' war in the New World. It started when the French began to build forts along the river threatening to cut off a wide swath of British expansion. The French allied with the natives, yet the British under the leadership of William Pitt the Elder, concentrated forces more heavily in the new world, especially ships which ultimately defeated the French.

Describe the conference at Tehran?

Those at the conference agreed on a final assault on Germany involving the Anglo-American assault through France. The Russians meanwhile, would attack from the east. The issue of partitioning territory was cautiously avoided.

What was the controversy at the Potsdam Conference?

Truman, perhaps more confident not needing USSR help following the development of the atomic bomb, demanded free elections in eastern Europe which Stalin asserted was decidedly 'anti-soviet.' Stalin maintained the importance of a buffer territory between Western Europe and the USSR following two devastating world wars and mistrust of the west.

In what way did medical schools change?

While in the past, medical schools granted people certification for attending a few lectures, new professional societies began to emerge such as the German Doctors' Society, the British medical Association and the American Medical Association which elevated professional standards.

How did cities change?

Wide streets and cheap, modern transportation replaced the old medieval walls.

In what ways did Napoleon's governing style evolve?

With no longer a need to cultivate civilian support, Napoleon soon replaced LIberty with arbitrary despotism. He created his selected aristocracy, strongly protected property rights, and used military conscription amply. He shut down more than 85% of France's press and outlawed dissidents such as Germaine de Stael who was banished to Germany.

How did Hitler handle the Great Depression?

With pump-priming techniques, he claimed full credit for Germany exiting the economic fiasco.

Who were the luddites?

Workers who pursued collective action of destroying machines which they believed threatened their livelihood. They must have had strong support from their local communities as 12,000 troops were unable to find the culprits.

Were there rebellions in this time period?

Yes, absolutism meant a greater tax burden and kings trying to extend their power. THis led to revolts in Portugal, Catalonia, Russia, Sweden, England, Denmark and Sweden.

In what manner did trade develop throughout the Renaissance?

A coalition of North German coastal towns soon formed the Hanseatic League, a trading and political bloc of more than 80 towns, which acquired a monopoly on northern European trading goods such as timber, grain, and fish. It soon eclipsed the great galleys of the Venetian Flanders Fleet yet by the 15th century trading roles reversed as the Hanseatic League couldn't compete with larger states. The Italian Trading enterprise would remain the prominent trading bloc until the discovery of the new world which gave renewed importance to coastal states and facilitated Italian trading decline.

Who was owen?

A cooperative-minded individual who attempted to create a cooperative community called New Harmony in Indiana. Nonetheless, the strong forces of individualism and American exceptionalism crushed owen's impractical and utopian mistake. Another community made by frances wright again failed.

Who was Courbet?

A realist artist who realistically portrayed everyday life. His The Stonebreakers shows two road workers breaking stones to build a road. This human suffering was objected by many critics as a cult of ugliness.

Who was Millet?

A realist who depicted women picking grain in a field. He showed the symbiotic relationship between human and nature.

Describe the Franco-Prussian War?

After Queen Isabella II of Spain abdicated her throne, the Germans put Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern as a candidate to the throne. The French were very upset and demanded a formal apology. Bismarck edited the apology to make it very offensive which resulted in the French declaring war. Consequently, the Prussian forces quickly advanced into France and captured the king. Paris signed an official peace treaty in May giving the Germans Alsace Lorraine. This led to the southern provinces of the German alliance joining the empire. Following the war, a new European balance of power was at hand. German authoritarianism and militarism triumphed over liberal and constitutional sentiments.

Explain the significance of the Treaty of San Stefano?

After Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire, Russia attacked and defeated the Ottomans. This treaty established Bulgaria, essentially a Russian satellite.

How did the Restoration of the Monarchy change politics in England?

Again, religious conflicts emerged between Parliament and the King. For example, the Cavalier Parliament wanted to restore the Anglican Church as the official church of England and persecute Catholic and Puritan dissenters. Charles, however, issued the Declaration of Indulgence which suspended the religiously intolerant laws passed by Parliament. Parliament passed the Test Act in retaliation specifying that only Anglicans could hold military and civil offices. The Whig and Tories emerged from Parliaments conflicts where Whigs supported the Protestant king with toleration of Dissenters while Tories supported the king even though his heir was Catholic because they thought that Parliament should not tamper with the lawful succession to the throne. Charles dismissed Parliament and ruled until his death with French subsidies.

In what way did Russia develop conservative forces?

Alexander exercised strict and arbitrary censorship. This caused backlash from young aristocrats and intellectuals who formed the Northern Union which favored a constitutional monarchy and the abolition serfs. As power transitioned to the next czar, Nicholas I, the Decembrist Revolt challenged his authority. He ruthlessly crushed the revolt and established even stricter control of Russia.

How did the evolving social status of artists affect their works?

As artists works became more highly revered and respected, they began to befriend leading intellectuals of their day. Such interactions influenced the artwork they made, especially the theory of Neoplatonism.

Who were the British Bobbies?

As constables were unable to keep law and order, MP Sir Robert Peel introduced legislation which created this British force. The goal of this force was to prevent crime and they soon developed a sense of professionalism.

What generated Mass Consumption?

As prices for basic food and manufactured goods declined due to lower transportation costs, businesses began to sell consumer goods in one department store which stimulated the desire to own sewing machines, clocks, bicycles, electric lights, and typewriters.

How did Fontenelle facilitate the popularization of science?

As secretary of the French Royal Academy of Science for half a century, he acquired a significant scientific knowledge. He communicated this to the upper class elite in witty ways such as his Plurality of Worlds which was about a discussion between a scientist and his lover about the stars.

Describe the decline in the Ottoman Empire?

As southeastern Europe was liberated by Russia (which had special ties to the Slavs), other European powers wanted to join in on seizing the dying empire's territories. A nationalist revolt in Greece, moreover, resulted in Greece's autonomy.

What was discussed at the Yalta conference?

As the European theatre of the war was nearing its end, the United States sought to solidify Russian support on a future Japanese invasion. All of the Big Three agreed to an unconditional surrender of Germany and Roosevelt sought to establish democracy for newly liberated eastern Europe. The UN was also established and spheres were carved out in Germany.

What caused growing tensions in Germany?

As the conditions for German workers improved, labor became an increasing voice in politics. Labor, represented by the Social Democratic Party called for greater democratization. Emperor William II was unsuccessfully in slowing its growth. Many conservative forces such as heavy industry and the landowning nobility pushed for an activist foreign policy which they believed would divert calls for reform. Conflicts between modernization and traditionalism resulted in a radical right-wing Pan-German League which stressed German nationalism and advocated imperialism.

Why was Serbia such a problem?

Austria was not going to let Serbia establish its own independent Balkan slavic states it had its own Slavic minorities to contend with. Russia, meanwhile, stubbornly supported the tiny country to the point at which it would declare war to back her up.

Who was Alexander Von Bach?

Austrian ruler who unified the country. He declared the Catholic Church the state church, and economic troubles and war soon brought change for Austria. Emperor Francis Joseph tried to establish an imperial parliament-the Reichsrat- which only served to alienate ethnic minorities.

Which philosophes represented the late enlightenment?

Baron Paul d'Holbach was an uncompromising atheist who argued in his System of Nature everything in the universe was simply matter. He believed God was simply a product of the human mind. His atheism shocked his fellow deist philosophes. Condorcet was a French philosophe during the French Revolution who wrote The Progress of the Human Mind which theorized that humans are entering the 10th stage of history where they will realize there is no limit to the perfecting powers of man.

Discuss the role of Hitler in starting World War II?

Because he was a firm believer in Lebensraum (living space), Hitler felt he needed to reconquer traditional German land to provide room for the Aryans. He looked to the East where Bolshevik communists had a weak hold on power and prepared for war with Russia. Hitler found traditional support from the German old guard in the military and Foreign Offices, yet his racial supremacy, slave labor, and mass extermination went beyond the old guard's previous expansionist goals. Fearing for his health, Hitler acted quickly. His impatience would become a major cause of his own undoing.

In what way did Napoleon III benefit from the economic situation in France?

Because of good economic times, Napoleon successfully stimulated economic growth. For example, he fostered the construction of railroads, harbors, roads, and canals. He initiated the growth of hospitals and industrial expansion. He also renovated the city of Paris giving it wide boulevards with gas lights to suppress would be insurrections.

What impact did colonization have on Africa?

Because of the British weaponry, it resulted in massacres of Africans. Furthermore, many tribesmen were scammed with documentation which relinquished mining rights for their empires.

How did World War I become a World War?

Because of the colonies. Many colonizers recruited Africans to fight in the African colonies. The British encouraged Arab princes to rise up against the Ottomans and the British quickly diminished Ottoman might in Africa and Arabia. Australians and New Zealanders joined in. The Japanese attacked German colonies.

In what way did the Schlieffen plan fail?

Because the Germans had moved vital troops from the west ot the east fearing Russian invasion, and because the Brits had mobilized so quickly against the invasion, the allies beat the Germans at the Battle of the Marne. Since then, the western front of the war was a stalemate with both sides engaged in trench warfare.

Describe Romanticism in Music?

Beethoven served as a bridge between classicism and romanticism. He wrote increasingly dramatic pieces infused with emotion. Berlioz was another romanticist composer who created program music which is the telling of a story through music.

How did the UK handle the postwar years and depression?

Before the depression, the Lloyd George coalition fell apart and a Labour-Liberal agreement enabled MacDonald to become the first Labour prime minister. He rejected extreme experimentation. The Conservative's however soon took over under the leadership of Baldwin. Before the depression, the coal industry was struck particularly hard as indicated by the General Strike of 1926. Come the depression, British politicians rejected Keynesian economics and recovered by 1936.

Why were the philosophes so enamored with Newton and Locke?

Both advocated reason which seemed to offer hope for a brave new, reasonable world. Newton's rules of reasoning along with Locke's perception that knowledge is derived from the environment, from reason, not from faith proves this.

In what ways did scientific societies further the spread of scientific knowledge?

Both societies of England and France (France of which had heavy government support) grouped many members together for the common pursuit of scientific knowledge. While at first they emphasized practical applications of science, they came to emphasize astronomy and physics. These societies demonstrated the benefits of science proceeding as a cooperative venture. Likewise, scientific journals created by many members of these societies furthered the dissemination of scientific knowledge.

What shift occurs following 1848?

Bougeois were pacified and proleteriat

What were the Italian wars and how did they begin?

Breakdown of the Italian balance of power started the Italian wars. They were a series of conflicts in Italy where the country of Italy was used as a convenient battle-field location for the rival powers of France and Spain. They ended with the 1527 sack of Rome which secured Spanish domination of the region.

Describe the Seven Years' War conflict in Europe?

Britain and Prussia united and so did Austria, Russia, and France. The conflict in Europe ended when Tsarina Elizabeth of Russia died and Peter III, an admirer of Frederick the Great withdrew prompting the PEace of Hubertusburg.

What about Southeast Asia?

Britain controlled Myanmar (Burma), and the Malay states while France was active in Indochina.

How did Britain thwart the spread of the Industrial Revolution to other countries?

Britain cut of credit, increased land and rent prices, and raised transportation costs on unapproved goods in India. Meanwhile, India purchased many of Britain's imported goods. This exemplified the colonial mercantilist system at work. India served as a colony which would provide the raw material to the UK and import Britain's goods.

Describe the development of the iron industry?

By casting iron using coke which was made by slowly burning coal, one produced iron ore at a faster rate. Cort soon developed 'puddling' which more quickly ridded of impurities in pig iron to produce higher quality wrought iron. This new type of iron was more durable and a boom soon ensued in the British iron industry.

What was Calvinism and what differentiated it from Lutheranism?

Calvinism taught the same as Lutheranism yet emphasized predestination which meant that God had predetermined who was to be saved (the elect) and who was to be damned (the reprobate). His followers rigidly adhered to this and took it upon themselves to do God's work on Earth making Calvinism the international activist form of Protestantism. Calvin kept the same two sacraments: the Lord's Supper and baptism as Luther.

How was the need for transportation remedied in the United States?

Canals, rivers, railroads, and roads were built linking the great states together. Steamboats also turned the Mississippi into a two-way transportation system and soon traveled throughout the Great Lakes.

Describe the religious revival during the Age of Romanticism.

Catholicism revived due to the Romantics' attraction to the Middle ages and emphasis on emotion. Chateaubriand defended Catholicism due to the mystery, awe, and divinity it invoked on people. Protestantism also experienced a revival; Methodism in Britain and Pietism in Germany. People were receptive to the hellfire messages of the awakening.

In what way was the agricultural revolution a precursor to the industrial revolution?

Changes in the methods of farming such as crop rotation and stock breeding produced a food surplus which resulted in cheaper prices. This meant fewer people needed to work in the agricultural sector leading to a greater supply of workers. It also meant more money in ordinary people's hands to invest in and buy manufactured goods. Jethro Tull, Charles Townshend, deep plow, crop rotation, enclosement movement (feudal lords claimed land back which led to exodus of peasants into cities).

Describe the urban living conditions resulting from industrialization?

Cities became unsanitary trash pits. The wealthy lived in the more open suburbs of the city, the artisans in the inner ring, and the factory workers in the center. They lived in apartments, 6 to a bed, where they disposed of all of their refuse in a drain. This caused the city to smell terrible and breed unsantitation and death. The only way the cities were kept alive was from the routine migration of countrymen into the city. Businesses also defrauded consumers, often selling poisonous materials to consumers which they said was bread or pepper. The parliament decided to take inaction and allow the advantages resulting "from the effects of a free competition."

Describe the developments of music throughout the enlightenment?

Classic music and the rise of the opera, concerto, and symphony emerged. Musicians needed a patron and many were found in Italy and Germany. JS Bach was a German who was a director of church music who believed that his purpose was to create music in the honor of god. He composed St. Matthew's Passion. Handel was similar to Bach yet lived a lively international life. He wrote music for large public audiences such as his Messiah. Later on, with the rise of the piano Franz Haydn became an adult musical director where he wrote quartets, concerti, songs, and oratorios. The liberty of performing for public audiences in England caused him to write The Creation and The Seasons. Mozart was a child prodigy who was unable to find a patron. He nonetheless carried on the Italian opera tradition through his Marriage of Figaro and The Magic Flute. This music was performed with grace, precision, and emotion.

Discuss the beginnings of the Cold War?

Discontent over the fate of eastern Europe soured relations between the Grand Alliance. Stalin contended that America's economic imperialism posed a threat to the Soviet ideology, and that the west was not to be trusted. A war of ideologies, consequently, soon engulfed the globe.

What was the relationship between Italian Renaissance humanism and Italian Renaissance art?

During the Renaissance, humanism glorified the human and human potentiality. A popular phrase was man is the measure of all things. Likewise, in Renaissance art, artists glorified the human body. David, a 14ft statue of David from the bible sculpted by Michelangelo depicts the greatness and beauty of the human body.

Describe major European cities?

European cities had large populations compared to the rest of the world and often sustained themselves by relying on the surrounding country. In the cities there were classes of merchants called who became wealthy through trade. A class of the petite bourgeoisie formed which was based on the wealth that they had acquired. This professional class often included doctors and lawyers. Overcrowding of cities proved a problem.

What stimulated the scramble for colonies?

European colonies with increased nationalism desired to compete with one another for colonies. Imperialism seemed a heroic adventure on behalf of one's home country. Social darwinism also played a role.

How did the eastern front of the war begin?

Failed Russian invasions in Germany established the prestige of General Erich Ludendorff. The Russians did, however, beat the Austrians along with the Italians who broke the alliance. Germany came to Austria's aid soon after and eliminated Serbia from the war

What caused the rise and failure of the Russian Revolution of 1905?

Finance minister Sergei Witte was convinced that Russia needed to industrialize to become an important power. He build railroads and subsidized industry which led to the same terrible working conditions and urbanization experienced by western Europe decades prior. With harsh repression, revolutionary movements went underground. Defeats abroad in the Russo-Japanese War lowered morale and resulted in severed transportation lines which caused food shortages. When a massive procession of workers presented a list of grievances to the tsar at Winter Palace, the troops opened fire launching a revolution. Bloody Sunday incited workers around the country to revolt. Nicholas II's October Manifesto granted civil liberties and established a constitutional monarchy with a Duma parliament which appeased middle-class moderates. However, change proved short-lived. Following Peter Stolypin's assassination (Tsar's adviser), many agrarian reforms reverted back to the industrial status quo. The tsar was no friend of reform.

Describe the shift in power of Southeast Asia?

First the Portuguese maintained a monopoly on the trade in Southwest Asia. The introduction of the Dutch East India Company into Southeast Asia slowly closed out the Portuguese from trade. Indeed, non-Portuguese Missions like the Dutch and English were better financed and thus more successful. The Dutch soon attacked and occupied former Portuguese forts and pushed the Portuguese out of the spice trade. Soon, they had driven the English out of the spice trade too with the full occupation of the Malay islands which were less cohesive and more profitable than mainland Asia. Accordingly, European trade had less of an impact on the mainland because these states were more politically unified. Europeans did, nonetheless, become involved in local political disputes.

What gave rise to abstract paintings?

Following Kodak's release of the camera in 1888, some artists sought to not mirror reality, but create it. Picasso developed cubism and Kandinsky developed abstract painting in his Square with White Border.

Discuss the growing impact of radios and movies on pop culture throughout the 1920s?

Following Marconi's discovery of radio waves, countries developed permanent broadcasting facilities as the mass production of radios began. Short films like those developed by the French Lumiere brothers were very realistic and by 1939 between 40-60% of adults in industrialized countries attended the movies. Actors and actresses entered the public life and political parties capitalized on the amplification radios had on their messages. For instance, both Nazi Germany (under the direction of propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels), and Fascist Italy exploited movies and radios for political purposes.

How did Mussolini acquire power in Italy?

Following World War I, many Italians had died and the treasury was in debt. While Italy acquired the small land of South Tyrol, many felt Italy had been cheated of the post-war treasures. As political divisions in Italy between the Socialists, Popolari, and Liberals caused internal chaos, Mussolini realized that he could acquire power from shifting his socialist views to those of despotism. The Fascists formed the squadristi and created more disorder so that the Fascist "party of order" could clean that mess up. Eventually, Mussolini was given the power of Prime Minister.

How did Mussolini solidify control?

Following a rigged election wrought with intimidation, Mussolini's Fascist party won more seats in parliament. Censorship and political dissent was outlawed. Press laws mandated respect for the Catholic Church, the monarchy, and the state. Through propaganda and secondary education, Mussolini attempted to mold Italians into a single-minded community. The Young Fascists indoctrinated young people into Fascist ideals. Militarism was greatly emphasized in these indoctrination camps.

What caused the beginnings of Latin American revolts?

Following the American and French revolutions, enlightened ideals such as equality of people under law, free trade, and a free press proved very attractive to the Creole elite. These elites were joined by a growing class of merchants who resented imperial trade domination, to promote change.

Explain Gandhi's nonviolent resistance?

Following the Amritsar massacre where British troops fired on unarmed citizens in Punjab for religious celebration, Gandhi urged disobedience of British regulations. He boycotted British cotton and western garb, choosing to make his own cotton and dress in the simple dhoti loincloth as a symbol of resistance. Britain devolved some powers to India consequently but it would not be until after WWII where India fully gained independence.

What was the Ausgleich of 1867?

Following the Austrian defeat in the Austro-Prussian war, the Austrians needed to satisfy the fiercely nationalistic Hungarians. Consequently, the established the Ausgleich of 1867 which made Hungary an independent nation still subject to common currency and ultimate authority by the Austrian king. This only served to perpetuate discrimination against ethnic minorities as the Hungarian Magyars and Austrians suppressed the Poles, Czechs, etc.

What were the beginnings of the American Revolution?

Following the Seven Years War, Great Britain had drastically raised taxes for the empire and attempted to levy the stamp act. Britain believed that Parliament would have supreme authority over all of the empire irrespective of the representative assemblies in the Americas. The Revolution started after the continental Congress authorized the formation of the American army and issued the Declaration of Independence.

Explain the significance of the US entering the war?

Following the sinking of ships with American passengers in it by German u-boats, Americans protested. Germany agreed to stop unrestricted submarine warfare yet resumed a year later. The US, consequently, declared war on the Germans. This provided a powerful psychological victory to the allies even though the US troops did not land on the continent until the following year.

What was the significance of the fall of Constantinople?

For centuries Muslims have tried to seize Constantinople and failed time and time again. The fall of Constantinople represented a watershed event for Islam in that they had finally overcome this ostensible obstacle to the spread of Islam. On the night of the battle was a crescent moon and even today that crescent moon serves as a symbol of Islam. The fall of Constantinople also opened up the Eastern European frontier to turkish attacks. Many argue the fall also spurred the Renaissance as many Greek scholars fled the city with manuscripts and migrated to Italy.

Describe European involvement in the West Indies?

France controlled Guadeloupe, Martinique and Saint Dominique while the English controlled Barbados, the Bahamas and Jamaica. Jamaica and Saint Dominique both had large slave populations and produced tons of sugar on sugar plantations. The large amount of slaves in Saint Dominique, however, combined with the tough treatment of slaves on the island would start the subsequent slave revolt.

Assess the effectiveness of the French policy of Coercion?

France's rigid enforcement of German reparations and subsequent occupation of the Ruhr mines when Germany didn't pay led to German rising inflation. France eventually toned down its rigid adherence to reparations, but the damage was done on the psyche of the German people through the German passive resistance and inflation.

Contrast Francis Bacon's work and Descartes work in the development of the scientific method?

Francis Bacon was an Englishman who rejected Copernicus and Kepler and misunderstood Galileo. He believed in empiricism which stressed observations and science to be wrought through inductive principles. He stressed science's need to conquer nature which proved the model of science until the 20th century. Descartes on the other hand believed in deductive reasoning and mathematical order. Isaac Newton synthesized these differing ideologies into a single scientific method.

Discuss the Nazi Empire's organization and development?

Germany administered Aryan areas through civil administration while non-Aryans were administered through military administration. While treated mostly fairly, the Nazi's continued to exploit material goods and workers for Germany's war needs in these countries. After Germany invaded Poland, he ridded of the Poles and encouraged ethnic Germans to colonize to Poland. He similarly evacuated inferior Slavic peoples so that ethnic Germans could colonize former areas of Czechoslovakia. Hitler valued the inferior 'slaves' who were not ethnic Germans. The Germans exploited these countries by seizing food, raw materials, and machines severely damaging Eastern European economies. Shortages of food, clothing, and shelter caused many of these Europeans to perish. Forced labor within Germany and her satellite states help with Germany's war effort.

How did Bismarck react when Russia terminated the Three Emperors' League in 1879?

Germany formed the Triple Alliance which committed Germany, Austria, and Italy to support the existing political order in the case of war. Germany also signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887 to prevent a Russo-French alliance.

Describe efforts of southern unification of Italy?

Giuseppe Garibaldi speared the effort to unify southern Italy. Inspired by prior patriots such as Mazzini, he boldly invaded Sicily and thereafter marched onto the mainland, prepared to take on Rome. Cavour of the North, however, preempted Garibaldi, because that would lead to a war with France. Garibaldi retired to his farm, and the two areas unified in 1861. Venetia and Rome, however, were still under Austrian and French control respectively. As a result of the ensuant Franco-Prussian war, Prussia allied with Italy and defeated Austria and France giving Italy the provinces it needed for final unification.

Compare and contrast how each major power mobilized the home front during WWII?

Great Britain most thoroughly mobilized its homefront. It encouraged women employment, volunteerism in the 'Home Guard,' a "Dig for Victory" campaign to produce more food, and greatly emphasized the production of military industrial products. The Soviet Union likewise emphasized female employment in new industrial areas, yet such a focus on industrial production hindered agricultural production leading to a nationwide food shortage. The government effectively utilized patriotic propaganda to support the war effort and cleverly relocated industry and agriculture to eastern Russia, untouchable to the invading European forces. The United States delayed internal mobilization under no imminent threat of war, yet eventually emphasized military production and encouraged female employment. It dumped billions into military industry and research such as the Manhattan project. Increased government involvement during the war controlled prices and rationed scarce supplies. Unprecedented government involvement became a norm following the war much to the dismay of Congressman Howard Buffett of Nebraska's 7th district. African Americans migrated north and west looking for employment in the Rust Belt and faced with nativist discrimination. The Japanese and other foreigners in American faced similar scrutiny. Unlike the allies, Hitler feared losing citizen support for the war effort and continued the production of consumer goods to keep Germans happy. His neglect of military production seemed not to affect the Germans with their fast blitzkrieg warfare at first, yet by the time they realized they needed to increase such production under the leadership of Albert Speer, it was too late and the Germans had lost the war. The Japanese maintained a high degree of control over the economy yet restricted female employment to traditional spheres of women, namely to breed more children.

How did the Spanish Empire conquer the New World?

Groups of Spanish conquerors called conquistadors were authorized by the Castilian crown and privately financed to conquer the new world. They brought superior weapons and took advantage of rivalries amongst the native Americans to build a resistance to the Aztecs. Before the Spanish had come to the new world civilizations of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca had thrived. The Maya declined around 800 AD and were renowned for their advanced scientific knowledge. The Aztecs were also established by lake Texcoco and had advanced agriculture and infrastructure which was able to support vast cities by some accounts greater than those cities in Europe. They had outstanding warriors and expanded their empire by allowing formerly rival tribes to exist in return for a tribute. This poor organization, however, would allow Cortés to take advantage of the rivalries. The Spanish conquered Tenochtitlan and held its emperor hostage. They were able to do so through the help of rival tribes. The Inca established themselves near present day Chile and Peru and the Inca had a centralized state known for its roads. The great Inca builders constructed wondrous roads and bridges. The Spanish took advantage of the small pox plague which had wiped many natives who didn't have immunity out to conquer the Inca empire just like the Aztecs. Once captured, the Spanish established the encomienda system which would enslave native Americans while the Spanish would convert them to Christianity and look after them. The system exploited natives and the gov. Soon abolished it. The territory was split into two areas, New Spain and Lima and was governed by a viceroy aided by groups of audiencias which functioned as judicial bodies. Religiously, Indians were converted and the Catholic institutions were brought to the New World.

How did Napoleon seek to expand his Grand Empire?

He believed that the liberal laws and traditions of the French empire would force other countries in Europe to join the empire as once they experienced the benefits of a wise liberal administration, they would never want to go back.

What was Darwin's discovery of natural selection?

He discovered that animals on islands untouched by external influence evolved over time in response to their environment. This contradicted the former theory of special creation.

What did Galileo contribute to the new vision of the universe?

He discovered that planets were made of material similar to that of earth and Jupiter's four moons.

In what ways did Louis XIV administer his government?

He eliminated royal princes from his royal council instead keeping them occupied with courtly life. The Palace of Versaille which was also the central location of government allowed the King to oversee what was going on. He managed to obtain domination of his ministers and secretaries which gave him control of important policy making decisions. However, Louis was less successful in controlling local and provincial governments.

How did Sorel seek to transform society?

He envisioned a general strike against capitalist society and wanted to install revolutionary socialism.

In what ways did Nietzsche depart from societal norms?

He glorified the irrational believing an emphasis on emotions, passions, and instincts was the birth of both cultural creativity and and superior intellect. Instead, he said that God was dead and persuaded others to eliminate him.

How did Bismarck, the Prime Minister respond to this rejection?

He made another passionate appeal to Parliament in order to pass the bill. They did nothing. Consequently, he ignored parliament and reorganized the military anyways. As a practitioner of Realpolitik, he was a realist who only declared war when the odds were very much in his favor. He had a strong dislike of those who opposed him.

What contributions did Newton make to science?

He pieced together the theories of those before him by discovering the universal law of gravitation which explained motion on Earth and in space. It discovered gravity.

In what ways did Einstein pioneer the study of modern physics?

He published the relativity theory which held that space and time were relative to the observer interwoven into a 4D continuum. Following a solar eclipse which proved his theories, Einstein's general theory of relativity opened the intellectual world to his ideas.

In what way did Napoleon III respond to criticism?

He reached out to the working class and legalized trade unions. He liberalized the Legislative Corps by giving them more say and representation. Through liberalization, he suppressed the critics.

How did Hitler change tactics after he left jail?

He realized he could not win through force but through Constitutional means. Consequently, he reorganized his party and expanded it to a national party organization. It was a distinctly youth movement with intense passion from its many zealots. After economic difficulties struck, Hitler pursued the middle class and rural areas to garner support. This strategy was a winning won and the Nazis became one of the largest in Germany thereafter.

How did Luther organize his new church?

He rejected most Catholic sacraments expect for baptism and the Lord's Supper. Although he rejected transubstantiation, he insisted that Christ's presence remained in the eucharist. For his Church, Luther emphasized the importance of the Scripture and believed each follower of Lutheranism to be their own priest. Nonetheless, some organizational force was necessary and for that Luther turned to state authority. State officials increasingly regulated church affairs and came to appoint church officials. To replace Mass, Luther conjured a worship service which would focus on Bible reading, preaching the word of God, and song.

What type of government did Napoleon III reign over?

He ruled over an authoritarian despotism. Only he could initiate legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps was only a facade of representation.

How did Freud define a human being's inner life?

He said behavior was strongly determined by the unconscious. He described inner life as a battle between the id, ego, and superego. Id was the pleasure unconscious center. Ego was one's sense of reason. Superego was moral societal values.

How did Napoleon handle the Catholic Church?

He said he was Catholic (although he probably just said so to garner more support). Nonetheless, he understood the political importance of gaining the support of the Catholic Church and opened negotiations with Pius VII to establish the Catholic Church in France. Although Pius VII gained the ability to dispose of French Bishops, the state could appoint them and they also were on state payroll.

In what way did Galileo try to reconcile science and theology?

He said that science coexisted with biblical thought and that science was not subject only to the interpretations of the church.

Describe Calvin's success at Geneva?

He set up a community here ruled by his Ecclesiastical Ordinances which established The Consistory, a special body for enforcing moral discipline. It soon grew to severely enforce doctrine. It used excommunication, banishments, and public whippings to punish members. Calvinism soon replaced Lutheranism as the international form of Protestantism.

In what way did Spinoza reconcile God and Science?

He subscribed to the Cartesian school of thought where he employed rationalism. He also determined that the universe was not created for the sole purpose of man.

What did Kepler contribute to a new vision of the universe?

He used Brahe's records to write his three laws of planetary motion. He concurred with Copernicus in his heliocentric model but discovered that the planets moved in an elliptical orbit, that the speed of a planet's orbit is greater when it is closer to the sun, and that planets with larger orbits travel with a slower average velocity than planets with smaller orbits.

Describe Peter the Great's military pursuits.

He wanted access to the Baltic and therefore attacked Sweden and was defeated decisively by Charles XII despite an alliance of Danes and Poles and Russians. The Great Northern war, however, ended when Russia decisively beat Sweden at the Battle of Poltava. The Peace of Nystadt ended the war and gave Peter what he wanted, a window on the west. Peter also constructed St. Petersburg in these new lands, which would remain Russia's capital for some time. Westernization, however, because it was forced on his citizens, ultimately made the Russian people distrustful of European society.

How did Gladstone try to solve the Irish Question?

He wanted compromise where Ireland would still be part of the UK but have more sovereignty.

What were the Liberal policies of William Gladstone?

He wanted to help the poor. He did so by opening civil service positions to those who could pass competitive exams, introduced the secret ballot for voting, and abolished the practice of purchasing military commissions. His Education Act of 1870 resulted in making schools available to all children. He sought to strengthen the nation and its institutions.

How did Joseph II differ from Maria Theresa?

He was determined to make sweeping reforms, yet these reforms were oftentimes counterintuitive. For example, while he did carry on Theresa's policy of enhancing Habsburg power, he also abolished serfdom which alienated the nobles. He established the principle of equality before the law, supported public education, and created complete religious toleration and put restrictions on the catholic church. This angered the monastic establishment. His imposition of German as the official language alienated non-German nationalities and created a too small bureaucracy.

Distinguish between a high culture and a popular culture and explain the development of English culture?

High culture relates to that of the ruling classes whereas popular culture refers to that of the masses. A trend throughout the 18th century was the increase in readership which was directed not only to the literary elite but also to the middle class. This is especially noticeable in the growth of publishing works which made it possible for authors to circumvent the necessity of a patron. Magazines also became more important along with newspapers which sometimes appealed to women as well.

What qualities enabled the rise of Napoleon?

His ambition and discipline made him a hard worker, learning French and studying in Paris. Through his leadership and ability to understand complex issues, he was promoted in the military where he was known for his kindness to his soldiers who viewed him as "their patron." He understood when to back down and he did so in Egypt before facing a defeat where he would abandon his army and return to Paris to participate in the Coup d'etat.

What served the fall of Napoleon?

His invasion of Russia proved costly as less than 1/6 of the troops who went survived the cold Russian winter. This caused a European war of liberation which culminated in Napoleon's exile to Elba. On Elba, Napoleon soon grew bored and escaped back to France to seize control from Louis XVIII, brother of the executed king. At Waterloo, however, where Napoleon decided to first strike at his enemies, he suffered a humiliating defeat against the duke of Wellington of Prussia and the British.

What failures caused the overthrow of Czar Nicholas II?

His lack of leadership in the time of war. The energetic patriotism embraced at the start of the war gave way to a distrust of the Czar as more and more ill-equipped soldiers died in battle. The influence of Rasputin, a Siberian peasant who the czarina regarded as a holy man, interfered in government affairs. As the war dragged on, military and economic disasters caused the Czar's abdication. The famed International Women's Day march caused the Duma to seize control. As soviets, are councils of workers and soldiers, gained more municipal power, the influence of Marxism became more prominent.

What was Heisenberg's theory?

His uncertainty principle proved that electrons behaved differently when observed under light. This reflected a broader worldview that not everything could be proved precisely.

How did Niccoló Machiavelli's works reflect the political realities of Renaissance Italy?

His works reflected the fact that the Italian states were no match for the monarchical European powers and he therefore believed that rulers should govern pragmatically in order to effectively acquire and expand political power to maintain order.

Describe the development of Sweden?

Historians had trouble understanding Sweden's importance because they had a weak economy and the monarchy was locked in battle with the Swedish nobility. During the reign of Gustavus Adolphus, the king adopted a policy where the nobles formed a First Estate which would occupy the bureaucratic positions the central government. He died in the 30 years war and his daughter Chrstina took over who abdicated the throne because she wanted to become a catholic and was a poor ruler. Consequently, her cousin took power, King Charles X, who diffused a potentially explosive peasant revolt against the nobility. Charles XI, his successor, retook crown lands and their revenues from the nobility and weakened the independent power of the nobles. He subdued the Riksdag or parliament and the church and improved the army and navy. He left a well-organized absolute monarchy. Charles XII was interested in military affairs, yet his involvement in conflicts ultimately proved Sweden's undoing as Sweden lost much lands to Russia.

What was humanism, and what effect did it have on philosophy, education, attitudes towards politics, and the writing of history?

Humanism was an intellectual and literary movement based on the reverence of man which revived classical antiquities. It reconciled classical philosophy with Christianity through neoplatonism. Educationally, humanism inspired schools to focus on liberal arts creating the "renaissance man." Politically, humanism partly inspired Machiavelli's The Prince, in that it strives to show rulers the possibility of human greatness. Historically, humanist thought wrote history through a more secular and evidence-based lense rather than religiously.

What impact did Humanism have on the recording of history?

Humanists portrayed the Middle Ages as dark barbaric ages sandwiched between the classical times of the Greeks and Romans and the their own age with its rebirth of the study of classics. Humanists also deemphasized the role of God in history choosing to examine historical events through an objective and pragmatic lense rather than through a spiritual one. Indeed, historical works relied heavily on personal examples and documentary sources.

Describe the growth of the US in the 19th century?

Industrialization in steel and petroleum gave impetus to the US growing economy and burgeoning population. However, wealth inequality remained. State reforms proved ineffective so the Progressive Era launched in the 20th century which solved nationwide problems. The federal income tax under Wilson shows that like Europe, the US also slowly adopted policies which extended the power of the state.

How did the Assembly administratively restructure France?

It abolished old local and provincial divisions and divided france into 83 departments which were further divided. Few nobles were elected for new positions leaving government in the hands of the bourgeoisie.

Describe the effects of Tsar Alexander's emancipation edict of 1861?

It allowed serfs to own property, marry,and bring suits into law courts. The government also gave land to peasants by purchasing it from landowners. The land was not arable and resulted in a worsened situation for the peasant population. The peasants, moreover, were expected to pay back Russia for giving it land in installments. The mir, or village commune was the institution responsible for land payments to the government. The peasants, therefore, did not really own the land, the village commune did. Emancipation ultimately led to an unhappy, land-starved peasantry that still followed the old ways of farming.

What is the significance of the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854?

It allowed slavery in Kansas and Nebraska to be determined by popular sovereignty which led to the creation of the Republican Party. Compromise became less feasible with the intensification of the issue.

What was Lenin's war communism?

It allowed the gov. To nationalize industries and the means of production. The government requisitioned food from peasants who resisted. Hunger and drought plagued the country.

What were the effects of the Crimean War?

It broke the power relationships and effectively destroyed the Concert of Europe. Austria was left without a friendly superpower, Russia was defeated and humiliated, and the war laid the groundwork for the unification of Italy and Germany without a united Concert of Europe.

How did social organization develop during the eighteenth century?

It continued to align with class stratification.

Describe continuities and changes in the Austria-Hungarian empire.

It continued to corule, with ethnic minorities having difficulties. When Taafe served as prime ministers, he conceded to the minorities by allowing Slavic languages and German to be used in the empire. This brought German nationalistic opposition. The imperial bureaucracy helped to unify the empire. Hungary had a working parliamentary system, but it was controlled by the Magyars. They were very nationalistic.

In what ways did the Protestant Reformation revolutionize education in Europe?

It created a need for a widely educated populace as each person was his own preacher. The populace, therefore, needed to be literate and the Protestants established many schools to achieve this ends. Rather than schools before it, these schools focused on a wider audience.

What effects did European Expansion have on the conquerors?

It created a new opportunity for 'poor young men' and women to become something in the New World. The New World offered Europeans, land, riches, and social advancement. Spanish mining of precious metals significantly increased Spain's economy and facilitated the rise of capitalism. The Columbian Exchange, or the reciprocal importation and exportation of plants and animals between Europe and the Americas also had significant effects. Crops such as corn, potatoes, and chocolate were introduced into European economies and these foods facilitated a growth in population. European expansion, however deepened existing Intra-European rivalries. State-sponsored piracy became an especially tense topic. New map-making techniques and exploration increased European confidence in global navigation such as the Mercator projection technique of map-making. Conquering faraway peoples also contributed to an increased Eurocentric concept of inherent European supremacy.

What was the Redistribution Act?

It eliminated historic boroughs and counties and established constituencies.

What were the characteristics of romanticism?

It emphasized emotion and individualism. They were like the hippies of the 1800s who rejected societal norms and experimented with drugs. Short stories gave rise to Gothic literature such as Mary Shelly's Frankenstein and the chilling short stories of Edgar Allan Poe.

What did the German SPD advocate for?

It espoused Marxist rhetoric and worked to improve the condition of the working class. It grew and received the most seats in 1912. Other EU socialist parties emerged such as in France under the leadership of Jean Jaures. Agitation for international organization strengthened their position as capitalism also grew yet failed due to revisionism and nationalism.

What was the New Constitution?

It established a limited Constitutional monarchy whose powers were subject to rigorous review by the new Legislative Assembly. To elect the assembly, the Constitution set up a indirect system of electors who were high tax-paying citizens.This preserved aristocratic power in affluent France.

Explain the significance of the Reform Act of 1867?

It expanded suffrage along with its subsequent Reform Act of 1884. The latter gave the vote to all men who paid regular rents and taxes which enfranchised agricultural workers.

Describe Prussia's political system?

It had a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral legislature with the lower house elected by universal male suffrage. This lower house soon fell to the power of the middle class which happily accepted taxation powers. Liberals looked to Prussia for perhaps bringing about German unification.

How did Europe manage to dominate the world economy by the end of the 19th century?

It had invested in emerging markets in Latin America and was interconnected with other countries for trade. Investing in banks, railways, mines, and infrastructure had good rates of return. This dollar diplomacy ensured European domination of the economy.

What was the effect of calling the Estates General?

It had not been summoned since 1614, yet it demonstrated that the government needed the consent of the nation to manage financial reform. While the summoning of the Estates General did not cause the French Revolution directly disputates from the start signaled an increasingly divided nation.

What hurdles did continental industrialization face?

It had worse infrastructure to transport goods, less of an entrepreneurial spirit, toll stations which increased costs of goods, and feudal guild restrictions.

How was marriage affected?

It increased as women needed men to provide stability in a society where women could no longer join conevents or even make a living.

Why was slavery such a contentious issue in the United States?

It increasingly threatened national unity as the South relied on them for 93% of produced cotton, yet the north did not need them.

What was the new Civil Constitution's effect on the church?

It mandated that church officials swear loyalty to the new regime. Only 54% of clergy did this because it was forbidden by the pope. This is viewed as a blunder by the national assembly because it gave the counterrevolution a popular base from which to operate.

How did the government regulate the bad effects of industrialization?

It passed a series of factory acts between 1802-1819 which limited child labor from 9-16 to 12 hours a day. It also required children these ages to be educated. The Factory Act of 1833 also was passed which strengthened earlier labor legislation to include textile factories. It limited children between 9-13 to 8 hours a day. Factory inspectors also found those who broke the law. The Ten Hours Act reduced the workday for children between 13-18 to 10 hours, allowed for more employment. The Coal Mines Act eliminated employment of boys under 10 and women in the mines. The Public Health act of 1848 was in response to cholera and was designed to allow the government to do infrastructure such as sewage.

In what way did he internal combustion engine revolutionize the world?

It permitted the development of the automobile (engine invented by Gottlieb Daimler) car developed by Henry Ford, as well as the Airplane. Indeed Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first plane flight.

In what way did electricity affect the world?

It proved to be of great value because of its easy conversion to other forms of energy. The light-bulb was soon invented by Edison and Swan and Graham Bell invented the telephone in 1876. Electric railways and subways began opening up. Furthermore, the factory could now use machines, conveyer belts, and electrical machine tools which allowed countries lacking coal as an energy source to enter the industrial age.

What does Hermeticism reveal about the Renaissance?

It reveals, through the works of Ficino and Pico, that Italian Renaissance Humanism was not solely a secular movement but also deeply rooted in spiritual components. Indeed Ficino and Pico's works portray humans as divinely inspired beings.

What were the effects of the king's acception that royal troops were unreliable?

It signaled the collapse of royal authority. Indeed revolutions were sparking up all throughout the countryside and cities such as Nantes.

Describe the Catholic Church during the enlightenment?

It still exercised power in Catholic European states, yet there was an inequality between the clergy: the upper class clergy and the lower class. The lower class got paid considerably less than the upper class. Moreover, the Jesuits society began to exercise more and more success which ultimately proved unsuccessful when the Portuguese monarch expelled the Jesuits from Portugal and confiscated their property. Other states soon followed suit and pressured Pope Clement XIV to repeal the order. Some argue that Catholicism remained more superstition than devout.

What was the significance in repealing the Corn Laws?

It took steps towards economic liberals which helped free trade. Peel, the leader of the tories persuaded some of his allies to support the repeal. Cobden and Bright formed the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838.

What effect did the French Revolution have on the Germanic States?

It triggered Germanic upheavals and cries for independence. King Frederick William IV made concessions, agreeing to abolish censorship, establish a new constitution, work for a united germany, and implement universal male suffrage. They called the Frankfurt Assembly which debated over whether to create a big or small German state. Eventually it disbanded and failed.

How did the United States fare?

It was hit hardest by the Great Depression and Roosevelt's intense government activism hardly slowed unemployment and economic turmoil. Indeed, Roosevelt's New and Second New Deal established many government organizations to try to handle the economic disaster yet it would not be government involvement but the military-industrial complex come World War II which ultimately pulled Americans out of the Great Depression.

Describe the growth of the Institution of Slavery in Europe during the Renaissance?

Italian cities were the epicenter of the institution of slavery. Slaves imported from Eastern Europe, Africa, and the Middle East served as household helpers, artisans, and agricultural workers. Citizens seemed to treat slaves well and freed many "for humanitarian reasons." When the Turks conquered the Byzantine empire, slaves all but disappeared from Europe. Portuguese importation of slaves, however, beginning in 1444 revitalized the institution.

Describe the relationship between Parliament and King James I?

James I became the first king of the Stuart dynasty, and unlike the Tudors, he espoused the divine right of kings. Parliament preferred a more balanced approach to ruling where both the King and the Parliament would corule, and Parliament exercised its power of the purse voicing its displeasure at James. James's religious policy of keeping the episcopal system of church organization was disliked by the Puritans who preferred a more democratic Presbyterian model. England's gentry, therefore, were mostly Puritans who wielded significant clout in the House of Commons and also held significant local positions.

Describe the development of the steam engine and briefly explain its significance on the cotton industry.

James Watt developed the first steam engine in 1760 to aid in mining coal. Soonafter, he developed a rotary steam engine which could drive machinery. The cotton industry applied this steam engine to create the steam loom in the 1820s which revolutionized the efficiency of the cotton industry. Cotton clothing was cheap, durable, and easily washable which served only to grow Britain's profit margins.

Describe the New Order in Asia?

Japan sought to create an Asia for Asians and was brutal in its establishment of "governments" run by the military. The Rape of Nanjing in China was simply brutal. Korean women, moreover, served as 'comfort' to the soldiers and as many as 800,000 were sent to Japan to work. POWs and native peoples worked tirelessly on railroads, many of whom suffered starvation from malnutrition.

How did war intensify in the Pacific?

Japan was a growing empire whose territories included Manchuria, Korea, and many pacific islands. As Japan's economy was hurting due to the western tariffs following WWI, right wing patriotic groups gained more power. They sought an expansionist policy which would support Japan's growing population. After the Germans signed the non aggression pact with the USSR, Japanese leaders looked towards Indonesia and the other pacific islands before trying to destroy the US naval fleet at Pearl Harbor.

What was the Revolt of the Netherlands?

King Philip II was determined to expand his power over the Spanish Netherlands. He attempted to enforce Catholicism and crush Calvinism. Netherlands nobles, however, opposed such change understanding that they would lose power. Spain, therefore sent in 10,000 troops to impose order. In doing so, he also levied additional taxes which caused merchants and commoners to join the nobles and Calvinists in opposition to Spanish rule. William of Orange unified all 17 provinces in opposition to Spanish rule. The next Spanish leader, however, played on the varied religious differences amongst these provinces and split them along religious, geographic and political lines. The northernmost of these provinces came to form the Dutch Republic.

How did communist Russia handle the death of Lenin?

Lenin had guided the country politically and his death led to a power vacuum and a struggle for power among the members of the Politburo. Following his death, the left led by Trotsky sought to pursue world revolution while the Right rejected that cause and wanted to concentrate on constructing one socialist state. Stalin as the Party Secretary appointed trusted followers to some 10000 positions. He used his post as general secretary to gain control of the COmmunist Party and expel Trotsky.

Describe the nature of warfare?

Less destructive as generals began to make creative maneuvers which avoided the total destruction of their army.

In what ways did realism emerge in literature?

Less flowery language with an increased interest in everyday life became the norm. Flaubert's Madame Bovary depicted an ordinary French town and the mundane problems of the bourgeoisie. Meanwhile, William Thackeray's Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero intended to invoke a sentiment of reality. Charles Dickens' classic realistic novels also expertly depicted the urban poor and the brutalization of human life in the early industrial age.

Describe Louis Napoleon's rise to power?

Louis Napoleon was a clever politician who carefully bided his time in winning the support for the French people. When the National Assembly rejected his wish to run for reelection, he used military troops to seize control of the government. A year later in 1852, Napoleon put out a referendum which named him emperor.

Who was Louis XI and what was his significance?

Louis XI was a king of France who was known for increasing monarchical power and building a strong foundation (through the acquisition of more lands) for subsequent development of monarchical power. When the Estates-General granted the king the right to levy a perpetual tax on property, an important check (the power of the purse) on monarchical power dissolved.

How did the Wars of Louis XIV progress?

Louis XIV became involved in too many wars. COuntries began to from coalitions against France which created many defeats for the French. The most deadly war was the War of Spanish Succession where England was the big ruler. It was a war fought by other countries in Europe to prevent a Bourbon unity of the Spanish and French thrones. France lost and thus gave up many of its New World possessions and England became the dominant power.

What happened following Cardinal Mazarin's death?

Louis XIV took over powr and requested that everybody run everything past him. Louis XIV was a great ruler who many other in Europe imitated. However, provinces still had significant regional authority.

Examine the transition of European countries to total war?

Many countries soon made the realization that the war would last more than a couple months and concluded the importance of economic success to supply the war effort. All citizens were essentially part of the army; keeping troops supplied. Some governments experimented with economic planning and nationalization of industry. German was an authoritarian government which turned to Walter Rathenau, head of the German GE to allocate strategic raw materials to produce goods that were most needed. They had a severe food problem and many civilians died of starvation. The military assumed control of the German war government and effectively mobilized for the war. Great Britain attempted limited interference at first, yet eventually played a more active role in government. David Lloyd George pioneered the Ministry of Munitions which supplied troops and war goods. The government rationed food supplies and imposed price controls. The French, being occupied by the Germans, had difficulty with troop supplies. Georges Clemenceau became a strong leader who established firm civilian control of the total war government. Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy had backwards economies and difficulty achieving internal cohesion and supplies needed to sustain war. Italy lacked public enthusiasm for the war effort. Russia could not supply troops with rifles.

Explain the development of medicine during the enlightenment?

Many of the universities still taught the works of Galen during the enlightenment. Few doctors were licensed with only 100 graduating per year and charging very high prices. Surgeons still performed medieval era surgeries which only began to undergo changes in the 1740s where they broke from the barber job. Apothecaries, midwives, and faith healers were those who served the common people. Pharmacists and apothecaries circumvented licensed physician authority by diagnosing illnesses themselves. Hospitals, most hauntingly, remained areas which spread not healed diseases.

Describe the development of the lower class?

Many worked in agriculture and the others were skilled artisans. The unskilled laborers worked for low wages and had the worst jobs. Urban workers, nonetheless, received a betterment in the material conditions of their lives after 1871.

Who began to question the Newtonian view of atoms?

Marie Curie and her husband Pierre uncovered evidence suggesting subatomic particles. Furthermore, Max Planck believed that energy radiated in quanta or irregular amounts. This disrupted the Newtonian view of atoms being building blocks of the material world.

Describe the role of the family in Renaissance Italy?

Marriages were paid special attention to and the amount of one's dowry correlated with the status of one's family. There was a high child mortality rate and many mothers often died during childbirth. The husband was the absolute ruler of the household. Extramarital sex was accepted by men in noble positions and in cities such as Florence where brothels were established.

Analyze the costs of WWII?

Millions of lives were lost, especially in China and the USSR. Many more millions were malnourished and depended on the United States' generous food relief. 30 million people also became displaced and found it difficult to return home. Both German and Japanese settlers of formerly conquered territory returned home while Korean slaves likewise returned back to Korea. The total monetary cost of the war was about 4 trillion.

Why do historians sometimes refer to the monarchies of the late fifteenth century as "New monarchies" or Renaissance states"?

Monarchies during the Renaissance centralized power and stabilized European states. With former checks on monarchical power waning, monarchs throughout Europe laid the foundation for future rulers to govern.

Why was Charles I beheaded?

Oliver Cromwell, leader of the New Model Army was determined to have a victory from the army's point of view. While some less radical scots in parliament preferred to release Charles and establish a Presbyterian state church, Cromwell and the army opposed such an action and purged scottish members of Parliament. The new Parliament, composed of allies to Cromwell, convicted Charles I to death.

Describe early calls for reform?

Orders such as the Franciscans, Dominicans and Augustinians were the first to call for reform. A popular preacher, Johannes Geiler denounced the corruption of the clergy while others emphasized preaching to laypeople. The Oratory of Divine Love was an informal group of clergy and laymen who worked to foster reform by embracing Christian Humanist ideas such as acts of charity and personal spiritual development. This group included a notable Spanish archbishop, Cardinal Ximenes was an active Christian Humanist. He spread Thomas a Kempis' The Imitation of Christ to foster piety.

Why were there peasant rebellions?

PEasant rebellions, where peasants demanded their lords to renounce dues and tithes and burned charters listing the peasants' obligations were fueled by a rumor that the Estates-General was going to abolish tithes and that the King agreed on the condition that the peasants would revolt.

To what degree did the liberation movements mark a continuity and change in the status quo.

Political instability marked a change in Latin America. With newfound independence, large South American states split up and engaged in a number of domestic wars, notably the Paraguayan War which decimated Paraguay's population. While Spain and Portugal no longer dominated trade, Great Britain, France, and the United States became de facto imperial powers which caused the latin American nations to continue in a similar cycle of economic domination. Consequently, industrialization in those countries diminished and exports of raw materials increased.

Where was power concentrated in 18th century England?

Power was shared between king and Parliament and the United Kingdom came to be with the unification of Scotland and England. The king chose ministers and Parliament was split into the HOuse of Lords and the House of Commons both of which had the power to tax and to make laws. Wealthy landowners gained support by patronage which resulted in many MP's controlled by a single person. In 1714 a new dynasty, the Hanoverian dynasty was established when Parliament invited Protestant rulers of the German state of Hanover. Both George I and George II had little familiarity with the British system and allowed their ministers to handle governing. Robert Walpole served as Prime Minister from 1721 to 1742 and pursued a peaceful foreign policy and avoided new land taxes. George III took power and dismissed William Pitt the Elder which caused Parliament to worry about the Monarchy's growing power. He appointed Lord Bute and then appointed William Pitt the Younger to ease intergovernmental tensions.

How did the church respond to anticlericalism and emerging science?

Protestant sects maintained a literal interpretation of the bible whereas Pope Pius IX condemned nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, and freedom of speech and press. Modernists, meanwhile, viewed the Bible as a book of moral values and encouraged social reform. Compromise was evident, however, during the pontificate of Leo XIII who permitted the teaching of evolution as a hypothesis in Catholic schools and upheld property rights. Protestant evangelicals established the Salvation Army which worked to "rescue homes."

What were the chief characteristics of Renaissance art and how did it differ in Northern Europe and Italy?

Renaissance art strove to emulate the beauty of the human form and to imitate nature. Humanistic elements are evident throughout. Renaissance art differed in Northern Europe from Italy as it was more religious in nature and focused on detail. Many criticize Northern European artists for trying to accomplish too much in their paintings and for not mastering the mathematics of perspectives.

How was Queen Mary's rule counterintuitive?

She married Charles V's son, successor of the Spanish throne which aroused intense hatred amongst the English. She also burned hundreds of Protestant heretics which earned her the nickname Bloody Mary. By the end of her rule, she had succeeded in making a bad name for Catholicism, associating it with the Spanish throne.

In what ways was Catherine the Great similar to Peter the Great?

She was intelligent familiar with the works of European Philosophers. She too wanted to reform Russia expect on the lines of Enlightenment ideals. In her pamphlet, Instruction, written as a guide to the deliberations, Catherine questioned the institutions of serfdom, torture, and capital punishment and advocated the equality of all people in the eyes of the law. Yet in reality, she did little to reform Russia. In fact, Catherine's policies had the effect of strengthening the landholding class at the expense of the lower classes. She divided Russia into many provinces and subdistricts so that the nobility would become responsible for the day-to-day governing of Russia. kGentry were granted special legal privileges such as trial by peers and exemption from personal taxation and corporal punishment. Her favoring of the nobility alienated the peasantry who rebelled.

What were the impacts of Darwin's theories?

Social Darwinism as advocated by Herbert Spencer determined that progress came from society's struggle for survival and that stronger society's prevailed for the better. Racism also emerged as advocated by Friedrich von Bernhardi. Chamberlain, an Englishman who became a German citizen, portrayed Aryans as the original creators of Western creators and propagated volkish thought, or beliefs that the German race was superior.

What is a political liberal?

Someone who believes in equal rights under the law and generally enlightened qualities. Many believed in universal suffrage. John Stuart Mill published his On Liberty which argued for absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects.

Explain two developments of mass leisure in western Europe?

Sports became an important spectator sport. The World Cup and Olympics were of particular importance. Tourism through air travel and day trips to the beaches proved quite popular.

Analyze the beginnings of the Stalinist Era?

Stalin initiated his first 5 year plan which emphasized industrialization to transform Russia from an agricultural to an industrial superpower. Through propaganda, Stalin encouraged people to sacrifice and work very hard for the state. He collectivized agriculture at the same time, eliminating kulaks or wealthy farmers, and replacing them with peasant communes, thus creating an artificially created famine. Stalin strengthened the party bureaucracy and sent dissenters to Siberia. As the birth rate declined, Stalin outlawed abortion, homosexuality, and emphasized the patriotic role of the woman to reproduce. Perhaps the one positive change was the growth of education where ordinary peasants could rise to be more "than an insect."

Why did the industrial revolution begin in Great Britain?

Supply of capital (advanced use of paper money, flexibility in credit. Spirit of entrepeneurialship). Early industrial entrepreneurs. Mineral resources (Britain had supplies of iron and coal which were easily transported on the small island which had advanced infrastructure). Business friendly parliament and spirit of freedom. Markets (Britain had a growing domestic market and a vast colonial empire to buy its manufactured products).

Describe the development of Sweden.

Sweden became a dominant power in the 17th century but declined following the Battle of Poltava. After the death of Charles XII, moreover, the Swedish nobility reduced the monarch to a puppet-like entity which exuberated weakness. When Gustavus III came to power, however, he reestablished monarchical authority and proved to be a very enlightened monarch by establishing freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and laissez-faire policies. The nobles assassinated him. Denmark also saw an attempt at enlightened reforms under Christian VII, however aristocratic opposition undermined these efforts.

What was the NEP?

THe New Economic Policy fused a little bit of capitalism into the soviet system. It saved the country from an economic collapse and allowed the party to strengthen their one-party state which increased the number of bureaucrats (the new bourgeoisie).

What did the country house reveal about French Society?

THe country houses were the houses the aristocracy owned. THey were usually private and in the coutnry side with plenty of rooms; they were mansions. Country houses reflect the landed aristocracy's dominance in the country and while some might have had houses in the capital, they lived at ehri country houses for near the whole year. Many desired privacy and kept their servants at bay.

Describe the emergence of Prussia?

The Brandenberg state was a powerful small state in Germany which continued to expand and absorb other lands. Frederick William was an elector who came to power in the Thirty Years War and who increased the power of the Prussian state. He built an army composed of 40,000 men and levied taxes for the army. In order to curry favor with the nobles, he appointed them highest rank in the army, exempted them from taxes, and gave them complete authority over their lands in turn for no more power of the estates general. To build the economy, Frederick William pursued mercantilist policies. His son Frederick III helped the HRE and was thus granted the title of king-in Prussia.

How did the conflict in India develop?

The British under Robert Clive won the conflict of India because of their persistence.

What new balance of power was established by the Congress of Vienna?

The Congress balanced Russian gains by enlarging Prussia and Austria. In order to prevent future French expansion, Prussia, Austria, a larger Netherlands led by King William I of Orange, and the kingdom of Sardinia were strengthened. This new balance of power avoided major European conflicts for the next century.

What French document was very similar to the American Declaration of Independence?

The Declaration of the Rights of Man.

How did British North America develop?

The Dutch first established settlements in North America after the explorations of Henry Hudson, but years of warfare with their French and British rivals eventually caused their collapse. England took over Dutch settlements and the Dutch West India Company collapsed soonafter. Although colonies in North America were not quick profiteering expeditions, people began to migrate to North America to practice their own religion along with economic interests such as the successful MA Bay Colony. The English, however, imposed strict mercantilist policies on North America such as the navigation acts which strictly regulated colonial trade.

How did French North America develop?

The French, unlike the British, had a difficult time getting people to migrate to the New World. Only 15,000 frenchmen lived in the New World by 1750, most of whom were missionaries, explorers, or coureur de bois. Nonetheless, France laid claim to Canadian lands which were seized following the Treaty of Paris as a result of the Seven Years' War. Both the British and French also attempted to become involved Latin American trade. The British cornered Brazilian trade and were eventually granted the privilege called the asiento of transporting slaves later on. The French were the first to break into the lucrative Latin American trading market when the French Bourbons became royalty in Spain.

Describe the backdrop to the war?

The German kingdoms had come to accept Calvinism which wasn't mentioned in the treaty. Soon, the northern Germans under Palatine Frederick IV created the Protestant Union while Duke Maximilian of the south created the Catholic League. The Habsburgs wanted to consolidate authority and looked to Spain while the princes looked to Spain's enemy: France.

What were the two factions the National Convention split into?

The Girondins and the Mountain. They split over the fate of the king.

Why wasn't Britain challenged by Revolution?

The Great Reform Act of 1832 opened the door for political representation and the Parliament demonstrated its ability to make social and political reforms that enabled political and economic stability. Economic growth largely resulted in political stability. Wages went up for the British worker during the Victorian Age.

In what way did the Greek revolt contrast with the revolts in Italy and Spain?

The Greek revolt was supported by the conservative Concert of Europe in order to establish more European stability by ridding of the Ottoman Empire. Consequently, it was successful.

Who were the Huguenots and politiques?

The Huguenots were French Calvinists which comprised of 50% of France's nobility making them a powerful political minority. They were greatly outnumbered, however, by the Ultra-Catholics led by the Guise family who favored rigid opposition to the Huguenots. The politiques though put politics above religion hoping for French unity.

What was the significance of the Inquisition?

The Inquisition ensured a uniform Christian society in that it cruelly guaranteed orthodoxy of Christian converts. The Spanish Kingdom would remain a bastion of Catholicism and soon spread it throughout the world.

Explain the rise and fall of the Medici family?

The Medici family expanded into banking and held branches of banks all throughout Europe. The family controlled industrial and papal interests allowing the family to sometimes have significant influence. The Medici empire, due to poor leadership and poor loans hit its decline and when in 1494 the French expelled and confiscated Medici assets from Florence, the "financial edifice" collapsed.

Describe the Ming and Qing dynasties?

The Ming dynasty ushered in a new era of greatness in Chinese history. However, a revolt led by Li Zicheng resulted in the overthrow of the dynasty. This overthrow created an opportunity for the Manchus who lived in Manchuria to conquer Beijing and rulers Kangxi and Qian-long ruled China under the Qing dynasty and were responsible for great prosperity.

Briefly describe the rise and fall of the Mughal empire. What was the significance of its fall?

The Mughal empire began as a foreigner asserted control over the Indian region. Akbar solidified the empire and created one as great as the Mauryan empire years before. However, wars of succession and declining revenue led Mughal nobles to assert control over their respective territories. This created a power vacuum of which the Europeans soon filled.

What caused the decline of the Committee of Public Safety and why is this significant?

The National Convention soon turned against the Commune of Paris and executed its members. This signaled a betrayal of the Revolution's most radical supporters. Secondly, military successes decreased the influence and importance of the Terror which Robespierre insisted on continuing. His insistence in continuing the Terror led to his undoing as an anti-Robespierre coalition in the National Convention condemned him to the guillotine. This signaled an end to the radical stage of the revolution.

How did Cromwell rule?

The Parliament abolished the monarchy and house of lords and proclaimed England a republic. Cromwell as commander and chief was busy ruthlessly crushing the Irish with brutality, and also crushing dissenting beliefs at home such as the enlightened LEvellers who advocated for free speech and gender equality. Cromwell soon dispersed the Rump Parliament by force and drew up the Instrument of Government, England's first and only written constitution. The Constitution failed to work and Cromwell broke England up into military governed areas and levied a 10% tax on royalists. He ruled with more arbitrary power than even Charles I.

Describe the outcomes of the Thirty Years War?

The Peace of Westphalia expanded the Peace of Augsburg to include Calvinists too. The French gained more territory and so did Sweden. The princes that made up the HRE were recognized as independent while the Habsburg emperor was reduced to a figurehead. Religion and politics would remain two separate entities and the pope was ignored in policy making matters. The Thirty Years' War remained the most destructive conflict Europeans had yet experienced.

What does Poland's decline reveal?

The Polish nobility put significant restrictions on the power of the king which invited other countries to meddle in Poland's affairs. Austria, Prussia, and Russia ended up dividing Poland and seizing their territory and population. This reveals the precarious condition states faced in the absence of an absolute monarch.

Describe the power struggle in India.

The Portuguese began colonies in India yet soon abandoned them with the arrival of the English. The English soon caused the Dutch to abandon India as well and eventually the French as well. Due to the command of Robert Clive, the British East India Company subdued rival European and Native powers. Soon, the East India Company had control of the entire Indian subcontinent.

Describe the development of the Portuguese empire?

The Portuguese gradually expanded down the African coast and began profiting in gold and slave trade. They soon expanded to India and explorer Da Gama pioneered this expedition returning with a load of cinnamon and ginger. Portuguese fleets returned to India and ridded of Arab monopolies on spices and created their own spice monopolies. In doing so they were sometimes ruthless to the Arabs. It was through Portuguese guns and seamanship that they were able to first defend and then intimidate and defeat rivals in the area.

In what way was the New World discovered?

The Spanish monarchy financed Columbus' expedition to 'Asia' convinced that by sailing west he could also reach Asia. He ended up reaching the New World and reported to Isabella and Ferdinand that the population was ripe for conversion and that he would likely find gold. Columbus landed on Caribbean islands rather than Asia. New voyages soon relayed this news to the Europeans. Voyages by Cabot for England, Cabral, Vespucci, and Balboa soon revealed that they had stumbled upon a new world. Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe (even though he had died in the Philippines) brought new scientific knowledge to Europeans. Although the Spanish realized they hadn't discovered a new passage to Asia, they were nonetheless pleased because the Treaty of Tordesillas divided the new lands into Spanish v. Portuguese spheres of influence and much of South America fell within the Spanish realm. With a larger population and motive to colonize, Spain soon took advantage of this opportunity.

How was the new government structured following the end of the radical phase of the FR?

The Thermidorian Reaction opened up the markets to laissez faire policy while allowing for greater political participation in the government. Indeed, now all males over 21 who were taxpayers could vote for electors who would then choose a Council of 500 and a Council of Elders.

What was the National Assembly?

The Third Estate in response to the First Estate's voting by order declared itself a National Assembly and agreed to create a constitution. Wanted Constitutoinal Monarchy

What about US Imperialism?

The US was active in the Pacific. They subjugated Hawaiians and annexed the colony while the refused to grant the Philippine Islands independence because they needed to educate them.

Discuss the last years of the war?

The allies opened up two fronts on Europe. The Italian front was relatively unsuccessful thanks to the German lines of defense established on the hills of South Rome. The assault on Normandy, however, was very effective. The allies had moved more than 2 million men and 1/2 million vehicles to western Europe which broke German defensive lines. The German counteroffensive at the Battle of the Bulge yielded no success. Meanwhile, easter German counter offensives were likewise unsuccessful. At the Battle of Kursk, the Germans lost 18 of their best panzer divisions despite newly developed heavy tanks. This enabled the Soviets to reconquer lost territory. In April 1945 Mussolini was killed and Hitler committed suicide. Following the Japanese defeat at the Battle of Leyte Gulf in the Philippines (largest naval battle of WWII), and Truman's decision to drop the atomic bomb, Japan surrendered.

In what way did education in the Renaissance embody the movement's values?

The approach to education in the Renaissance reflected the movement's value of generalism in which citizens are well-rounded (renaissance-man) and are interested and active in many fields.

What held Germany from greater democratization?

The army and Bismarck. The Army viewed itself as the protectorate of conservative interests. Bismark, on the other hand, first supported liberals, then persecuted them, especially the socialists. By enacting social welfare legislation, he wooed workers away from the appeal of socialism.

Identify new technologies created during the war?

The atomic bomb, the computer to break German code, and better radio and radar detection systems.

Describe economic liberalism?

The belief that government should not interfere at all in the economy. Malthus argued that poverty was a natural result and check on overpopulation. Ricardo furthered this idea in that as people died, wages and therefore quality of life of workers goes up.

In what way did Impressionism differ from previous art forms?

The bright, dynamic brush strokes indicated that the Impressionists sought originality and distinction from past artworks. The painted everyday scenes in nature and of people and reflected the pastimes of the upper middle class. Pissarro Monet's Impression, Sunrise, he used loose brush strokes to depict what they observed and felt to capture his first impression of something. Women such as Morisot also became more than amateur artists as illustrated by her Girl by the Window.

Describe the progression of the French Wars of Religion?

The conflict began before the marriage of a prominent Catholic to Henry of Navarre, a Calvinist. The Guise family, however, convinced the ruling Valois king that the Huguenots posed a threat to the security of the empire. The king, consequently, decided to wipe out the Huguenots while they were in Paris rather than on a battlefield in what has become known as the Saint Bartholomew Day Massacre where over 3,000 Huguenots died. The massacre, however, accomplished only a tarnished name on the Valois family and the Calvinists rebuilt their strength and resolve. The war of Three Henries marked a turning point in the conflict where Henry Guise seized power from Henry III who assassinated Henry Guise who was then assassinated by a monk. Henry of Navarre thus became the king.The religious problem in France, however, persisted until the Edict of Nantes which acknowledged Catholicism as France's official religion but allowed Huguenots to worship in specified places and to retain fortified towns and political privileges. The Edict of Nantes, however, was an act of necessity, not of conviction.

What explains the failures of 1848?

The divisions between the radicals and the moderate liberals. Liberals pulled back as radicals pushed forward. Fears of working social revolutions created fear and reestablished conservative governments. This is exemplified in the Hungary Austria rebellion. Austrian control was reestablished when they began to play against the Hungarian rebellious minorities with the normal Hungarians.

What was the outcome of the English Civil War of the 1450s?

The domestic turmoil between the house of Lancaster and house of York resulted in a defeat of the last York king, King Richard III. A Tudor dynasty was thus established with Henry VII as its first king. Henry VII ended the practice of wealthy nobles holding private armies and imposed a harsh Court of Star Chamber to deal with dissent. Henry VII brought financial stability and security to England and avoided major wars which, like the Louis XI, left England with a stable and prosperous government with an enhanced status of the monarchy.

What powers did the creation of the new republic following the coup d'etat vest in the first consul?(Napoleon)

The first consul had power over the other consuls and was able to appoint the bureaucracy, control the army, and conduct foreign affairs. As consul for life, he crowned himself Emperor Napoleon I. Subsequently, his regime became more dictatorial.

What is social darwinism?

The fit nations are those who are destined to survive. The inferior races are ripe for slaughtering.

Why do historians feel overseas trade and colonies were a movement towards globalization?

The global economies were interlinked. Although overseas trade accounted for only a fraction of trade volume, the value of overseas trade was important and its effects soon trickled down.

What created an opportunity for the Third Estate to push its demands for voting by head?

The government's failure to assume leadership at the opening of the Estates-General.

What was the Grand Tour and why was it significant?

The grand tour was a journey undergone by many Englishmen as a commencement of their education. They would travel all throughout Europe in order to become more worldly and also to learn some stuff about adventures. Many young men were quite wild in their overseas journey and mingled with prostitutes along with enjoying the excesses of wine.

Why was Ireland the only European nation with a population deficit?

The great hunger struck Ireland. Much of Ireland was dependent on only one crop, the potato. When a disease struck the island which turned potatoes black, 1 million Irishmen died while an additional 2 million moved to the United States. While the Irish were having children earlier, more often, and faster, the Great Hunger resulted in a growing population experiencing poverty.

What caused the expansion of markets on the Continent?

The growth of continental railroads, iron industries, and free trade. Governments encouraged joint-stock investment banks which mobilized enormous capital for investments.

Why did women come to be employed in white collar positions?

The growth of industry and government meant a greater demand for women as telephone operators, secretaries, and clerks. Furthermore, compulsory education and a growth in health and social services provided more jobs to women.

In what ways did European society experience an economic recovery following the depression of the 14th century?

The growth of new trading empires revived intereuropean cooperation and generated wealth from European goods. The birth of new industries spurred entrepeneurialship while the recovery of the woolen industry contributed to economic prosperity. Meanwhile, banking provided a more fluid asset which encouraged the growth of new industries.

Explain the "Success of the Habsburgs" and its effects?

The house of Habsburg became the wealthiest landowner in the holy Roman empire and played an important role in European affairs. Through King Maximilian's success in marrying his children to other important leaders, he expanded his territory increasing the Habsburg dynasty to one of international significance. The French monarchy felt threatened and feared they might be surrounded by the Habsburg dynasty.

Discuss the effects that the defeat had on Germany and Austria-Hungary?

The moderate Social Democrats managed to seize control of the army and win to crush the rebels. The Free Corps crushed any revolutionary sentiment of Luxembourg and Liebknecht. Because the Social Democrats managed to bring about peace, they avoided revolution. The Austrian empire soon disintegrated into many independent parts which was encouraged by the allies.

What were the effects of European expansion on the conquered?

The native Americans' way of life and population was destroyed from European diseases, and native culture was replaced with European institutions. In Africa, estimates say that the slave trade negated population growth (although new foods from the Columbian Exchange greatly increased worldwide populations). Europeans had little direct effect on Asia expect for Dutch control of the Indonesian Spice Islands. In Latin America, the Spanish colonists intermingled with natives and blacks creating a distinct mulatto and mestizo Latin American culture. European introduction of cattle and livestock disrupted the ecosystem of the new world as these new animals thrived with little predators.

What was the significance of the new calendar?

The new calendar which ridded of Saturdays and Sundays in exchange for 10-day weeks was clearly meant to disrupt religious worship and practices. Its intent was to diminish Christian celebrations and put the importance of the French Revolution above Jesus' birth itself. Ultimately, the French policies such as dechristianization proved the undoing of the French Revolution as such policies were met by much backlash by religious and Catholic France.

What was the Second Estate?

The nobility. Population: 350,000. Owned 25-30% of the land. They held important offices in military, political, and clerical institutions. They also controlled heavy industry such as mining enterprises. Nobility of the sword were descendents of the original medieval nobility. The nobility while divided, sought to expand their influence in these positions. Segur Law attempted to limit the sale of military officer ships to fourth gen nobles monopolizing the nobility of the sword. They married within their own ranks and were exempt from all taxes.

Analyze the African response to the peace settlement?

The peace settlement simply gave Germany's old colonies to Britain and France as mandates. For African soldiers who had fought on the side of Great Britain and France, they felt they deserved more autonomy. They had fought in the war and learned western ideals about freedom and called for reform. Women in Nigeria protested, while other Africans created trade unions to gain benefits for workers. A generation of young African leaders pushed for education in African culture and heritage and cautioned against British rule of Africa.

In what manner did the third estate develop during the Renaissance?

The peasants and townspeople continue to encompass a large proportion of European population, however the institutions of serfdom and the manorial system continued their slow decline. Hired workers replaced serfs and many serfs were able to buy freedom and most by the Renaissance were legally free. Due to capitalistic enterprises in developing industries, rich patricians formed the top of society and dominated urban communities. The positions of artisans and propertyless workers remained much unchanged throughout the Renaissance.

What was carnival?

The period leading up to Lent where people committed acts not normally acceptable. For instance, Lent was a period where people were expected to abstain from meat, sex, and other recreations. Carnival, therefore, had heavy food and alcohol consumption, intense sexual activity, and aggressive and seductive behaviors.

Describe one way that the Revolution became more radical?

The pressure that the Commune, a radical local Parisian government, put on the National Convention was significant. They always pushed the Convention to do more radical things. Indeed, the Commune one time organized a demonstration and after invading the National Convention arrested the less radical Girondins leaving the more radical Mountain in power.

What was organic evolution?

The principle that all animals had evolved over long periods of time from simpler organisms. He developed Malthus' population theory of "struggle for existence" into survival of the fittest.

What was the significance of the printing press during the Renaissance?

The printing press, developed with movable metal type thanks to Johannes Gutenberg quickly spread throughout Europe and published 8-10 million books. It became a very large European industry, encouraged scholarly research, accelerated the new religious ideas of the Reformation, and expanded reading to the general public.

Describe the birth of the English reformation?

The reformation started when king Henry VIII needed a divorce from Queen Catherine. Normally, such an annulment would have been granted by the Pope, but the papacy was loyal to the HRE headed by Charles V who was the nephew of Queen Catherine. He urged Clement VII not to issue an annulment. King Henry VIII took matters into his own hands and he annulled the marriage in England's courts. In doing so, he declared that he was the supreme leader of England. Thomas More and other critics took issue with this defiance of papal authority and therefore were executed.

What class system emerged under Frederick William I?

The rigid class stratification which emerged in 17th century Brandenburg Prussia continued. For instance, the nobility, or the Junkers maintained a monopoly over the officer corpos which William intended to expand. Frederick ensured a close bond between the Junkers and the army and the nobility became intensely oyal to the king. Remaining classes in Prussia were considerably less important. They were born on lords' estates and either lived their lives there or in the army. They needed Junker's permission to marry. The middle class could serve in the civil service and in other important administrative posts.

What is New Imperialism?

The scramble for colonies after 1880.

In what ways did Symbolists react against Realism?

The symbolists believed that the external world was not real and was a collection of symbols which reflected the true reality of one's mind.

Describe the limits of absolutism?

The term is misleading because while absolutists determined general guidelines for the country, it was the local institutions which actually affected citizens' lives. The most successful rulers were not those who completely demolished the old system, but rather those who incorporated it.

WHy did society gradually come to accept science?

The upper elite were attracted to the profits of the science of mechanics. Galileo appealed to this class by arguing that science was for the minds of the wise and how he stressed the importance of mechanics in building bridges. Likewise, scholars also argue that political interests spurred the development of science. For example, following the English Civil War, Puritan reformers wanted to radically reform society and use science to do so. Princes and rulers also stressed the importance of science. THey recognized the military applications of science especially with the advent of gunpowder and artillery.

In what way did the development of the factory represent a continuity and change in the lives of workers?

The workplace shifted from the artisan's shop to the factory where workers still did get paid wages. They were, however, subject to rigid and regular hours unlike the haphazard hours of agricultural work dependent on the weather. Workers were also subject to rigid discipline subject to dismissal where children would often be beaten. Moral values taught by the Methodists aligned with those values of the factory owners in that it "instilled laborers with values of hard work, discipline, and thrift."

What were utopian socialists?

Theorists who wanted social and economic equality. They wanted to punish those who made profit by redistributing wealth.

Why would one argue that the odds were against the colonists?

There were divisions within the American colonies (loyalists) about how to fight the war. The British, moreover, had better financial resources and a much better military.

Briefly describe the varied responses to imperialism?

There were traditionalists who sought to preserve their old customs and modernizers who wished to go along with Western ways.

Why did Socialists find difficulty working together?

There were two camps: the Marxists and the evolutionary socialists. The Marxists believed unwaveringly in Marx's revolution and were the most radical. The evolutionary socialists on the other hand were led by Eduard Bernstein and advocated slow change. He argued that Marx's predictions had turned out to be wrong and that in light of increasing conditions for workers, workers needed to continue to organize, but push for reform through democratic means. Secondly, despite Marx's assertion that working men have no country, national differences and nationalism proved a remarkably strong force. Many socialists supported the war efforts come world war one.

How did the Japanese end up playing a white man's game?

They adopted western European policies. A British navy, German Army, French bureaucracy, and US economy and industry. They soon began colonizing and establishing their own spheres of influence determined in their racial superiority.

Why did females support socialism?

They believed only with reordering of society would women find social equality.

What ideas did the anabaptists share?

They believed that the CHristian church was a voluntary association of believers who favored adult rather than infant baptism. They didn't believe in forcing people to be baptized. They chose their own ministers democratically and boycotted human government refusing to politically participate because it was subordinate to god's law. Both protestants and catholics agreed on stamping out the anabaptists.

How did nobles compare to peasants?

They constituted only 2-3% of the population but possesed much power. For example, they enjoyed many legal privileges such as trial by peers, exemption from tax, and immunity from severe peasants. Many dominated the lives of their serfs. They ate the most high class meals. Many nobles served as militar officers as tradition held that they were most suited to lead. People could buy into the nobility if they controlled the right land.

How did the public react as they continued to trust scientific achievement?

They decreasingly trusted religion and became more secularized and materialized.

What did the Girondins believe?

They feared the radical mobs in Paris (example of importance of mobs in affecting opinions of others), and they also desired to keep the king alive.

Describe the development of the Ottoman Empire?

They first expanded into the Balkans under the Leadership of Suleiman the Magnificent. THey tried to expand power into the Mediterranean but were repulsed at the Battle of LEpantos. While Europeans spoke of another crusade against the infidel, many negotiated with and treated the Ottoman Empire as any other European power. It possessed an effective government system composed of strong sultans and grand viziers. It's bureaucracy administered state affairs outstandingly. It had a well-organized military and had Janissaries which were Christian boys who were forcibly converted to Islam and personally loyal the Sultan. In 1683, the Ottoman Empire was forever repulsed from Europe when it's attempted siege on Vienna was met with a coalition of Austrians, Poles, Bavarians and Saxons to defeat it.

What was the Russian involvement in Asia?

They had moved and colonized Siberia and moved south towards the old territory of the Ottoman Empire. Russia and Britain agreed to establish Afghanistan as a buffer territory between Russian Turkestan and British India. Persia was also divided into spheres of influence. As the Russians attempted to move into Manchuria, they were defeated by the Japanese in the Russo-Japanese War.

What stood as an obstacle for late medieval scholars in the advancement of knowledge?

They heavily relied on the works of Aristotle and Galen which limited their pursuit of knowledge.

How did this new age react against the free market?

They imposed tariffs to reduce foreign competition and foster domestic markets for their own industries. Furthermore, cartels began to form which decreased internal competition by agreeing on control prices and fix production quotas.

What was the status of peasants in the 18th century?

They made up 85% of Europe's population, yet were strikingly poor. Tithe taxes squeezed any surplus harvest of the peasants, requiring 1/3 of the crops. Serfdom continued to be prevalent in Eastern Europe.

How did the allies react to the Ottomans declaring war?

They opened up a front at Gallipoli to conquer the Ottoman Empire which was unfortunately bloody and disastrous for the British.

Who was the Mountain?

They primarily represented the interest of Paris and wanted to execute the king.

How did the Nazis react to such new art?

They rejected it as arrogance and lack of skill.

How did France respond to an increasingly hostile Europe?

They ridiculed such unenlightened 'monarchies' and added fuel to the fire, ultimately stimulating invasion. The National Convention soon adopted a policy of curbing domestic counterrevolution while also attempting a vigorous mobilization of the people. They established the Committee of Public Safety, a quick and efficient executive institution, which was dominated by initially Danton and of which Robespierre was a part. They also mobilized the "nation in arms" after issuing a conscription.

In what way did the Committee of public safety invoke Enlightened ideals to justify the Reign of Terror?

They said that Rousseau's concept of the general will allowed the COPS to rid of anything opposed to it. Revolutionary armies, consequently, executed upwards of 250,000 people.

What steps did the COPS take to build a new republican order?

They sent 'representatives on a mission' to various administrative departments to explain war emergency measures and implement new wartime emergency laws. The COPS also established economic controls and requested food from the countryside for the army.

What religious practices did reformers seek to rid of?

They sought and successfully ridded of customary practices such as indulgences, veneration of relics and saints, clerical celibacy, monasticism, and pilgrimages. They also sought to impose moral reform on society by banning taverns and discouraging giving children presents on Christmas yet these last two important traditions remained.

How did philosophers seek to ensure an enlightened kingdom?

They thought that only through the ruling of strong monarchs vested in the interests of reforming society through freedom of religion etc. could enlightenment be obtained.

What misconceptions did people hold at the start of World War I?

They thought the war would be very quick and that the excitement of the war yielded glory. Others thought that it would rid the nation of selfishness and spark a national rebirth based on self-sacrifice and nobility. Each side believed that their nation's side was just.

What was the role of women in France during the French Revolution?

They were continually active, often chastising the National Convention's inaction. They formed the Society for Revolutionary Republican Women which men condemned as it was not the woman's place to leave her domestic sphere.

What was China's involvement in imperialism?

They were dominated and divided into spheres of influence by the European powers. John Hay of the United States asked for an open door policy which one country would not restrict the commerce of the other countries in its sphere of influence.

How did Africans generally respond to colonial rule?

They were educated in the western tradition and while they admitted the superiority of western culture, they also sought to preserve some of their traditions and disliked the arrogant ways that the masters treated the indigenous. The stirrings of ta new African nationalism were occurring throughout the continent.

What activities did the British pursue in Asia?

They were involved in Australia and New Zealand and India. After a Sepoy revolt in India, the private ownership of the British East India Company was transferred to that of Queen Victoria.

Describe everyday life for peasants?

They would live in a village, where there was a church and taxes. Many of such villages were dominated by the the wealthiest peasants reluctant to change their way of life. They ate mostly dark bread and drank beer and water. Corn was added to the diet.

What was the Reform Act of 1832?

This Act recognized the changes wrought by the Industrial Revolution. It established new voter districts which enfranchised about 300,000 people. Like Louis-Philippe's rule, this act largely benefited the upper middle class. This step, however, was largely symbolic in inaugurating the enfranchisement of other classes.

What was the significance of the Florentine Platonic Academy?

This academy represented the renewed interest of classical antiquities. Indeed, one of the academy's leaders explored a new philosophy known as Neoplatonism reconciling Plato's works with Christianity. His philosophy was based off of a hierarchy of substances and a theory of spiritual love.

What were the effects of the Zollverein?

This customs union eliminated tolls throughout Germany among member states. This stimulated trade and added to the members' prosperity.

Contrast the theories of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke?

Thomas Hobbes believed that in the state of nature, society was in a state of war and they thus needed an absolute ruler who possessed unlimited power to save themselves from destroying each other. He viewed the GLorious Revolution unfavorably. Conversely, Locke believed that the state of nature was one of equality and freedom and that each man possessed certain natural rights such as life, liberty, and property. Locke believed people formed a social contract to mutually establish a government which ensure the protections of their rights. When this government failed to protect such rights, Locke argued it was the obligation of the people to overthrow it. He thus supported the Glorious Revolution.

What was the Women's March to Versailles and what were its effects?

Thousands of women marched to the king's palace crying that they had no bread for their children. Their action forced the Paris National Guard to follow their lead. The crowd demanded that the king move back to Paris. This is significant because the king by complying signaled that he accepted the National Assembly's decrees. This shows the significance of insurrectionary politics.

How did Hitler begin his offensive in the West?

Through Blitzkrieg he rapidly seized Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark,and Belgium. He waged war on France through Luxembourg which was unexpected. France soon surrendered, yet the British actions at Dunkirk saved 350,000 well trained forces to fight another day. In France, meanwhile, Henri Petain a WWI French war hero established Vichy France which was essentially a Nazi puppet state. The British, however, were not yet defeated and served as a refuge for remaining Nazi leaders.

Describe Harvey's contributions to science?

Through his meticulous observations, Harvey published ON the MOtion of the Heart and Blood which demolished ancient Galilean theories. He wrote that the heart, not the liver was the starting point of blood vessels. He argued that the same blood flows in both veins and arteries. He demonstrated that the blood made a complete circuit. His theories of circulation laid the foundation for modern physiology.

What was the first act of the National Assembly?

To destroy relics of feudalism and aristocratic privilege such as feudalism and seigneurial rights as well as fiscal privileges.

What was the concept of 18th century diplomacy?

To ensure a balance of power so that not one state dominated. Diplomacy also involved reason of state where rulers looked beyond dynastic interests to the long-term future of their states. However, increased and the development of large standing armies created conflict.

What explains the failure of democratic republics in Eastern Europe?

Under a tradition of authoritarianism, many of these countries found it easy to revert back to their monarchical ways. These fledgling democracies feared agrarian Communist land reform and their people supported a return to the antebellum status quo.

Why did Lutheranism spread to Scandinavia?

Under the leadership of Frederick I and Christian III, state-run churches spreading Lutheranism were established.

In what way did Turkey develop as a fledgling country?

Under the leadership of General Mustafa Kemal, Turkey became modernized. Kemal westernized Turkish culture through the imposition of democratic systems, a Latin alphabet, popular education, abolition of Turkish aristocratic titles, and a new secular republic which gave women more equality than under Islam.

How did Hitler tackle the problem of Britain?

Under the new stubborn leadership of Churchill, the British would not appease nor find peace for the Nazis any longer. Hitler was forced to use his air force to bomb British military targets and later cities. The British fought back and were supported by an effective radar system which had broken German military codes so that the British had advanced information about air raids. Britain, consequently, rebuilt her air forces as Hitler concentrated on civilian not military targets. After he had lost the battle of Britain, Hitler decided to attack Egypt to cut of British oil. His commitment, however, was not resolute.

Explain the social impact of WWI?

Unemployment became nonexistent. Trade unions became more accepted as "collective bargaining" was legitimized. This attracted new workers to the trade unions. Women also acquired new roles in the workforce as a part of the total war effort. Males, however, resisted women taking over their jobs and doing a good deal better. After the war, however, many women went home. Following the war, nonetheless, women acquired voting rights and fought for wage equality. Women also began to embrace more promiscuous looks and boyish hairstyles. Classes hit the hardest were the junior officers who led charges into enemy machine gun fire, or the aristocrats. Also, the unskilled workers not exempt from conscription fared poorly. Large industries benefited from the war. Middle class people were hit hard by post-war inflation.

Identify the social repercussions of the Depression?

Unemployment was rampant. Job roles reversed as men were unemployed while women secured low-cost domestic work. Men resented not being able to provide for their family and joined gangs causing crime to increase.

What problems created social tensions which came to a boil in the witchcraft craze?

War, famine, and plague affected population levels. Meanwhile the little ice age affected temperatures.

How did Austria use the assassination of Ferdinand politically?

Warmongers in Austria loved Ferdinand's assassination. It gave them the opportunity to pin their hated enemy Serbia for assassinating a foreign leader even though they couldn't prove a connection between the Black Hand and Serbia. Germany, meanwhile, assured its full military support in the event of war. Consequently, Austria issued an impossible ultimatum to Serbia which Serbia had little choice but to reject in order to preserve its sovereignty.

What else did Columbus bring to the New World?

What were its effects? He brought disease such as smallpox, influenza, measles and cholera. Smallpox was highly deadly and spread through the Indian population killing the natives and making possible the Spanish conquest of Tenochtitlan and The Inca empire. It also created a shortage of workers which led to the importation of slaves for mining. Even greater than guns, were the effects of disease on the indigenous.

Identify and explain two causes of the Great Depression?

1) A faster-than-expected European economic recovery offset the delicate supply and demand of agricultural products. During the war, for example, many European farmers went off to war leaving (Latin) America to amp up crop production to feed the soldiers. When Europe quickly recovered agriculture production to prewar levels coupled with the increased western food production, crop prices fell 30%. 2) Much of Europe's prosperity was built on American loans. This means that when come the American stock market crash, American bankers withdrew their loans from Europe causing a worldwide panic.

Who was Disraeli?

A conservative who sought to win over newly enfranchised groups to the COnservative Party. He helped to pass the Reform Act of 1867 which lowered monetary requirements for voting, and enfranchised male urban workers. It doubled the enfranchised to 2 million. Paradoxically, Disraeli's Reform Act benefited the workers as they captured more of the working class vote. Party rivalry increased as these parties began competing for new votes.

What is French Classicism?

A continuation of the High Renaissance which kept traits such as balance and simplicity.

What was the Declaration of the Rights of Man?

A declaration issued by the National Assembly which declared basic liberties for all men reflective of the ideas of the major philosophes. It echoed the American Declaration but also affirmed the destruction of aristocratic privilege and equal participation in politics. Some questioned whether women achieved equality also. The common response was that they did as long as they did not aspire to exercise political rights and functions. Olympe de Gouges didn't accept this and penned her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in response.

What facilitated the decline of the Dutch Republic?

A decline in economic prosperity hurt the Dutch Republic. Furthermore, internal strife between the regents and the house of Orange. The regents wanted to reduce the power of the House of Orange but became divided when Dutch burghers called Patriots agitated democratic reforms. Prussia, however, sent in troops to crush the Patriot rebellion and to protect his sister, the wife of the Orangist stadholder. This is a powerful reminder of the increased power Prussia gained.

Discuss the effects prostitution had on European society?

A result of urbanization and a lack of moral instruction and a religious community, women turned to prostitution. It led to the spread of STDs which the Contagious Diseases Act attempted to correct. If women were found to be infected with such diseases, they were confined to lock hospitals where they were given moral instruction. Josephine Butler was a feminist, a "shrieking sister" who opposed such methods.

Who was William Wordsworth?

A romantic poet who criticized the industrial revolution. Many other reformers including factory owners campaigned against "the evils of the industrial factory" especially child labor.

How did art develop throughout the enlightenment?

A style called Rococo emerged which was defined by its highly secular wandering lines and rejection of strict geometric patterns. Antoine Watteau became an influential Rococo artist who portrayed aristocratic life and relied upon his use of color to highlight his subjects. Rococo easily complimented Baroque architecture. Balthasar Neumann pioneered Baroque-Rococo architectural style exemplified by his nonlinear buildings creating a "fluidity of motion." Neoclassicism, nonetheless, remained a strong movement in France revitalized by the excavations of the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Jacques-Louis David told the Roman history of the three Horatius brothers.

How does the Council of Trent mark a turning point in history?

When the moderate Catholic reformers and hardline conservatives met at the Council of Trent, the conservatives won. This meant that all the seven sacraments were upheld and that Scripture and Tradition were equal authorities in religious matters. Only the church they said could interpret Scripture. Following the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church possessed a clear and unified church under the acknowledged supremacy of Popes.

In what ways did the Papacies of Paul III and Paul IV mark a turning point?

While Pope Paul III continued with the Renaissance Papcy's practice of nepotism, he recognized the need for reform. He created a reform commission which blamed the church's problems on corrupt clerical practices. In 1541, the Pope called a colloquy to be held in Regensburg where moderate Catholics and Protestants made doctrinal concessions. Hardliners back in Rome deemed these moderate Catholics heretics marking the end of possible concessions with Protestants. Paul IV continued this mindset and increased the power of the INquisition so that liberal cardinals too were silenced. He also created an Index of Forbidden Books.

How was Lutheranism spread and what problems did its spread face?

While at Wartburg, Luther translated the New Testament into German which sold 200,000 copies. As many people were illiterate, however, sermons, propaganda pamphlets illustrated with vivid woodcuts and songs helped spread Luther's ideas. Urban elites who could read were the first to take to Luther's ideas. Lazarus Spengler, an active city secretary helped to convert Nuremberg to Lutheranism. Albrecht Durer likewise supported Lutheran ideals. Dissent within his own ranks, however, threatened to destabilize the movement. Andreas Carlstadt, for example, wished to initiate more radical reforms while Christian humanists such as Erasmus favored moderate reforms and Christian unity.

How did the world react to Darwin's ideas?

While at first highly controversial, scientists gradually accepted the theory. It seemed to indicate a meaningless of moral values and religion.

How did the French handle the depression?

While desperately trying to rebuild the north and eastern parts of their country, the Great Depression struck. Amidst political instability, the French Popular Front (a coalition of Socialists and Radicals), joined to institute the French new Deal which mandated a 40 hour work week, paid vacation, and minimum wages. Still, the country failed to deal with populist nationalism and the rising aggressive Nazi enemy in the east.

What was Newton's involvement with the Occult?

While he left behind hundreds of alchemical manuscripts, he chose for both political and psychological reasons to repress that part of his being.

What contributions did Paracelus add to science?

While his microcosm macrocosm view of the world: that the sun and moon are found in man, he had valuable insight when it came to medicine. He rejected Galen's four humors and instead argued that chemical imbalances in specific organs were the causes of infection. Additionally, Paracelus encountered new drugs and used these drugs in small quantities believing that like drugs cure like infections.

How did the German invasion of the Soviet Union fare?

While initially successful, Operation Barbarossa met unexpected Soviet resistance and an early winter. Consequently, morale plunged as the Germans still had not wiped out the Soviet army.

Was the Spirit of Locarno effective?

While it led to a reassurance of the western border and good relations, it's mission to outlaw war (along with the Kellogg-Briand pact) was unenforceable. Furthermore, France was unwilling to disarm and Germany did not agree to an eastern border change with Poland. During this time,better relations with Soviet Russia also occurred throughout the world.

What does the independence of Haiti reveal about Revolutionary France?

While it ostensibly argued for equality, Napoleon reinstated slavery and seized Toussaint L'Ouverture. Ultimately, slave forces overtook Napoleon and Haiti became independent. This reveals the hypocrisy of the revolution along with the stretched military resources of France.

What characterized A New Skepticism?

While leading scientists such as Kepler, Newton, and Galileo pursued their works exalting god, other figures such as Fontenelle downplayed religious backgrounds. Pierre Bayle of France condemned Louis XIV's system of conformity and attacked superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism. He argued for complete religious toleration.

How did industrialization upset traditional employment?

While many people continued to work as artisans, industrialization led to poorer working conditions and replaced higher-paid and more quality shops leading to lower wages for craftsmen.

What was women's role in the enlightenment?

While many philosophe's argued that natural biological differences confirmed female inferiority, Diderot, and Voltaire argued that men and women were not all that different. WOmen thinkers like Mary Astell argued for equality of sexes in marriage and better education for women. Meanwhile, Wollstonecraft rejected beliefs that women must obey men for it was contrary to enlightenment arguments about absolute monarchy and slavery. She also argued that if women have reason, they are entitled to the same economic and political rights as men.

In what condition was the economy following the 2nd industrial revolution?

While prices for agricultural products fell and slumps in the business cycle resulted in periodic recessions, it was overall a golden age in European civilization.

In what way did anticlericalism undermine the Catholic Church's power?

While some governments following the Revolutions of 1848 sought to relax state controls over church, many ultimately worked to undermine Church authority. In France, for instance, the state took it upon itself to educate which undermined the Church's control of education. Soon after, church and state were completely separated. As the church sought to suppress intellectual works such as Darwin's theory of evolution, the churches caused more educated people to turn away from religion. Meanwhile, intellectuals such as Ernst Renan questioned biblical history and contended in his Life of Jesus that Jesus was not the son of God.

Describe the status of the women's rights movement in the 19th century?

While some women worked to reform prejudices against females, family and marriage laws still put men as the legal superior to women. Divorce was difficult to attain in Catholic countries. New professions such as teaching and nursing provided a conduit through which women could meaningfully contribute to society. The British women's movement was the most active in Europe. Millicent Fawcett organized a moderate group which sought political representation. Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women's Social and Political union which performed unusual stunts to gain public attention. These suffragettes were violent and behaved as terrorists. Other women such as Bertha von Suttner took on movements for peace as illustrated in her nobel prize winning book Lay Down your Arms. Maria Montessori exemplified the "new woman." As an educated Italian, she devised methods to teach the mentally ill. She soon applied these teaching materials to "normal" kids and established the Montessori system of education throughout the world.

How did technological innovations and Mathematics lay the framework for the Scientific Revolution?

While technological innovations did not always go hand in hand with the scientific revolution, the development of the microscope, telescope, and printing press furthered the pursuit of knowledge. Furthermore, rediscovery of Plato's works stimulated a thirst for mathematic knowledge which governed the philosophies of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, and Newton.

What effects did British colonization have on India?

While the British did establish schools for the middle class, bring efficient and honest government, and brought Western technology, as well establish equality under law (for women and banning outdated practices), they failed to bring a better life for Indians. For example, their establishment of industry took away local Indian practices and increased population growth led to famine. Governing through paternalism and racial superiority, moreover, led to nationalist movements in India.

How did foreign intervention complicate the Spanish Civil War?

While the major powers signed a non intervention agreement, Germany and Italy quickly rejected the agreement and sent troops, weapons, and military advisors to assist Franco. The British and French adhered to their non intervention agreement so the Popular Front enlisted the help of the Soviet union for aid. The USSR sent troops, while the USA sent volunteers to assist the Popular Front. Ultimately, the Popular Front just did not receive as much foreign help than Franco's forces. The war ended with 400,000 deaths as Franco eventually wore down the Popular Front.

What were the ideas of the philosophes?

While they didn't advocate revolution, their ideas were certainly influential.

How did birth control develop?

While vulcanized rubber in the 1840s made the production of condoms possible, it was a shift in the public attitude which eventually made family planning something more mainstream (primarily by the middle class by the way).

Describe the spread and decline of witchcraft in Europe?

While witchcraft had always been illegal and persecuted, the number of trials and executions during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries distinguishes this time period from others. Religious uncertainties and social turmoil led many to want to blame society's problems on someone or something and witches especially older women were easy scapegoats. Society accepted that the devil prey on the naturally inferior sex. Witchcraft declined by the eighteenth century as governments became more stable and people understood the destabilizing and divisive effects of witch trials.

Why was trench warfare problematic?

With the invention of machine guns, it become nearly impossible to overtake the other's trench. Poison gas made the warfare even more difficult. Many men also carried on for months with los ones or remains nearby. Rats grew fat feeding on the bloody remains. Many soldiers became bored or even worked out arrangements with the other side such as not shelling the latrines or attacking during breakfast.

What was the role of women within these independent city-states?

Women played an important role in smaller Renaissance courts. Elite women were well-educated and many women married to male rulers would take over governing in their absence. Such governance was well-respected. Elite women also played an important role in promoting culture and attracting intellects ultimately helping birth the Renaissance.

In what way did working conditions following the industrial revolution mark a continuity and change in the status quo?

Working conditions in factories were unsafe and overbearing. Workers continued to work long hours but now worked past dark on the time clock. The family continued to be an important working unit. Many women and children worked in the factories just like they had on farms. However, children were valued for their delicate touch and small size where they were exploited. In the pottery works children would run errands totaling 7 miles a day which caused conditions such as asthma. Employment of women in the factories, moreover, did not dramatically change their employment as domestic servants and agricultural workers.

What problems developed with the French monarchy?

After Louis XIV died, he left France with many territories, an enlarged debt, and an unhappy populace. The drunken rulings of the Duke of Orleans governed France for a while until Cardinal Fleury took over and expanded trade and promoted the growth of industry. When Fleury died, however, Louis XV took over and wreaked havoc on the French monarchy. His poor decisions under the influence of his famous mistress Madame de Pompadour caused the loss of New World territory and burdensome taxes making people more angry. The new king Louis XVI was naive and had a spoiled wife Marie Antoinette. As the financial crisis worsened, the discontent led to the violent French Revolution.

How did Hitler find allies?

After Italy invaded Ethiopia, Hitler supported Mussolini. Mussolini recognized the Rome-Berlin Axis and Japan soon became an ally too in the Anti-Comintern Pact. By taking advantage of the European powers' burning desire for peace after the catastrophes of World War I, Hitler was able to slowly rebuild his forces and embark on a more daring foreign policy after the Treaty of Versailles was in shambles.

What caused the US entry into the war?

After Japan was continuously growing their Pacific empire, desperate to preserve the influx of oil and other natural resources which western tariffs had denied to Japan, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. Rather than cause the US to submit to Japanese domination in the Pacific, this incident galvanized public support for the war and after Hitler declared war on the US, caused the US to enter the EU theatre of the war as well.

In what ways did America's labor force lead to a different type of industrialization than Britain's?

America had a large unskilled labor workforce. Unskilled women, children, and immigrants were recruited in American factories. This led factory owners to make industrialization into a capital-intensive pattern. In Britain, meanwhile, industrialization was primarily focused on the pursuit of a labor-intensive economy.

Describe seventeenth century Amsterdam?

Amsterdam was the financial capital of Europe. Buoyed by incoming refugees from the Spanish Netherlands and elsewhere the population soon rapidly expanded. The Dutch were known for their development of canals which facilitated trade. The importation of raw materials aboard the Dutch fluyt ship, a shallow ship for large capacity, were soon manufactured into refined finished goods such as woolen cloth, tobacco products, glass, beer, paper, books etc. Amsterdam was also an arms-dealer. The wealthy Burghers lived a simple lifestyle yet eventually rejected their Calvinist heritage in their development of brighter more elaborate clothes.

Who was Shakespeare?

An English thespian who is known for his mastery and addition to the English language and for his remarkably understanding of the human condition.

Who was Thomas More?

An Englishman who served King Henry VIII. He wrote Utopia which told of an ideal society where power and corruption were replaced by cooperation and reason. He was a very pious man who could not tolerate heresy and gave up his life in opposition to England's break with the church.

Who was Cardinal Mazarin?

An Italian cardinal who who was Richelieu's trained successor and carried on Richelieu's policies when Louis XIV was just a boy. The Fronde broke out amongst the nobles because Mazrin was greatly disliked by all elements of the French population, especially the nobles. They opposed new taxes levied to pay the cost of the 30 years war and secured important allies in Parlement. Composed of nobles who ruled over half the kingdom, these nobles led the first fronde and then the second fronde both of which were unsuccessful at usurping Louis XIV's rule. Rather, nobles fought each other which ensured the fronde's failure.

What was the Poor Law?

An act which established miserable safety net shelters which intended to force the poor to want to work.

Identify and explain shifts in public opinion regarding the war effort?

As patriotism waned, strikes became more commonplace. 50 thousand German workers protested the arrest of a socialist leader. Meanwhile, in Britain the Irish Republican Brotherhood and Citizens Army carried out the Easter Rebellion for which the leaders were condemned to death. Liberals in Britain and Socialists in Germany and Austria called for negotiated settlements. In 1917, the 50,000 workers who went on strike increased to 200,000 to protest bread. In Austria, the Czechs called for an independent state. The Britons passed the Defense of the REalm Act which allowed public authorities to arrest dissenters as traitors and censor newspapers. In France, civil liberties were suppressed.

Identify and explain the impact new technology had on the war?

Beside machine guns which enabled the mass slaughter of citizens, airplanes became used for reconnaissance and fights soon emerged over control of the air. Tanks also appeared on the battlefields in Europe but would not have much of an impact except pushing German troops further back in their retreat. Come WWII, however, tanks would be critical to the German blitzkrieg strategy.

What were German possessions?

Bismarck established colonies in South-west Africa like in Cameroon, Togoland, and Tanganyika. He understood colonizing was a sham but he said that he needed it for elections.

Describe the Austro-Prussian War?

Bismarck secured Russia and France's agreement to remain neutral in the event of war with Austria. He secured an alliance with the Italians which granted them Venetia in the event of an Austrian defeat. Finally, he utilized Prussian military reform of the 1860s and railroads to successfully mass troops and defeat the Austrians. He won the war and established the North German Confederation. He proved Napoleon III's dictum that nationalism and liberalism could be combined as evidenced by the overwhelming support of liberals in Parliament following Bismarck's military victory.

Why did the Three Emperors' League fail to work out?

Bismarck's Three Emperors' League between Germany, Russia, and Hungary failed because of the Austro-Russian rivalry in the Balkans. Following the influence of the Ottoman empire, Austria wanted the Balkans for expansion whereas Russia wanted the Balkans as a direct route to Constantinople.

How did Hitler hope to avoid the trench warfare which had caused World War I to be a stalemate?

Blitzkrieg or lightning war was the method of warfare he hoped to use. Each panzer division consisted of 300 tanks and accompanying forces and planes which would rapidly annihilate the enemy army.

Describe the Impact of the American Revolution on Europe?

Books, Newspapers, and magazines informed the Europeans of the American Revolution. Some believed that America would soon become a formidable power. Many observed happily that the Enlightenment had actually become enacted in real life. Other information came from the returning soldiers home, especially the French soldiers who returned home with ideas of liberty. These soldiers and 'lovers of liberty' would become influential come the French Revolution.

How did the problem of nationalities develop in 19th century Austria?

Calls for autonomy in Parliament led prime ministers to increasingly ignore ethnic groups and rule by decree. The Social Democrats also supported the Austrian government, knowing that different nationalities would hinder industrial development. In Hungary, calls for independent armies led Emperor Francis Joseph to respond promptly by threatening to impose universal male suffrage on the Hungarians which would have threatened Magyar dominance.

Describe the Franco-Swedish phase of the war?

Catholic France entered the war on the side of Protestant Sweden . The French decisively beat the Spanish bringing an end to Spanish military greatness and conquered southern Germany. All parties were ready for peace and the Peace of Westphalia officially ended the war in Germany. The PEace of Pyrenees would end the conflict between France and Spain some years later.

How did Catholic Missionaries spread Christianity?

Catholic Missionaries spread Christianity by converting Native Americans. They would bring the natives together in villages and build schools, hospitals and orphanages. These missions, however, more often than not benefited the Europeans rather than the indians as it provided buffer districts from invasion. Nunneries provided an outlet for Christian women to live and work rather than marriage. Missionaries who went to China, meanwhile, were initially highly educated men who impressed local officials. They infused Confucian ideals into their conversion attempts to gain more converts. This did, however, create cleavages within the Catholic church, as more devout Christians condemned Chinese Christians' practices of ancestor worship. In Japan, missionaries had initial success. The destruction of ancient shrines and temples, however, and Jesuit interference in politics caused Tokugawa to persecute and expel foreign missions.

How did efforts at northern unification under Cavour's leadership go?

Cavour was a capable leader who recognized that he would need to bolster Italy's economy and infrastructure and ally with the French in order to take on the Austrians. After bolstering banking, railroads, canals, and shipping, he agreed with Louis Napoleon to fight the Austrians if Cavour gave Napoleon Nice and Savoy. Napoleon agreed and defeated the Austrians twice. However, he quickly sued for peace as the Germans began mobilizing. Cavour was furious, yet recent nationalistic efforts in central Italy would soon rally and unify with Louis Napoleon's consent.

Describe the development of Protestantism in the face of deism?

Churches settled down into control by the states. Many wanted a more rational Christianity. Pietism emerged which was Germany's response to a desire for a deeper personal devotion for god. Zinzendorf and Moravian preached the importance of the personal experience of God in one's life opposed to rationalism.

Describe some examples of opposition from within?

Clerics angered by the new constitution, lower classes hurt by inflation, and peasants who still had not saw dues abolished. Political clubs increasingly grew which was a source of instability during the revolution. They were informal gatherings at coffeehouses. One of the most famous were the Jacobins.

Define civic humanism.

Commitment to active political life under the influence of classical models. Often tied with civic pride and spirit, Movement uses Cicero as a model .

WHy does the text state that the common people saved the Third Estate?

Common people were mobilized to support the revolution. Many had their own interests and used the name of the Third Estate to wage war on the rich. The fall of Bastille is one of the most famous of the peasant uprisings. In this uprising, peasants seized an armory in Paris following the king's attempt to increase the number of troops in Paris. The peasants won, which was mostly a symbolic victory giving impetus to the growing revolution.

How did militarism lead to war?

Conscription in many countries was a regular practice which doubled the size of European military machines. Furthermore, many military leaders drew up complex and inflexible plans. Because of the generals' inflexibility, many European political leaders made decisions for military rather than political reasons.

What were the 1864 legal reforms?

Created a new court system which accepted equality before law. This unleashed reformers who wanted more rapid and more radical change. Alexander Herzen was one of such radicals who was a Russian exile living in London to argue that the peasants needed to have more power in social reform. Intellectuals and students created a movement called populism based on his work. The goal was to create a new revolutionary society through the role of the peasants. THe peasants were not interested which led to violence. Vera Zasulich endorsed the use of violence. She successfully used violence by creating an underground populist organization which led to another group called the People's Will which assassinated Alexander II.

Who was Michael Faraday?

Created a primitive generator after discovering electromagnetic induction.

Who was Dmitri Mendeleev?

Created the foundation for the periodic table and periodic law.

Describe the working class family?

Daughters were expected to work hard until they were married and after marriage still supported the family. Many children became apprentices. As new jobs and cheaper food increased quality of life, some mothers could afford to stay at home rather than working. Also limited family size as children were viewed as dependents rather than wage earners. Infant mortality rates lowered which naturally led to contraception. Less working time as mandated by law allowed these families to devote more time to child-rearing.

Why did factories become larger?

Demand for more products increased factory size. The assembly line made factories remarkably efficient.

Describe the development of Denmark in this period?

Denmark seemed like it shyould expand but didn't because of its system of electing monarchs. This system forced kings to share their power with the Danish nobility who exercised strict control over the peasants. The losses of Denmark during the 30 years war and later the Northern War with Sweden prevented any more expansion. A constitutional crisis soon occurred where the Denmark's Estates passed a bloodless revolution establishing the hereditary Monarch Christian V.

How were the secrets of industrialization spread?

Despite the UK legislatures best attempts to isolate industrialization to Britain only, British mechanics traveled to other countries where they shared their secrets. By the 1840s, new mechanics from Belgium and France further spread their knowledge.

What did German scientist Koch discover?

Developed bacteriology further by staining microscope slides for examination. He discovered TB bacteria and artificially reproduced bacteria in animals, removed them, and reinfected guinea pigs demonstrating that TB bacteria was the cause of the disease. Consequently, surgery and public health experienced a Renaissance.

What obstacles did Canada face in achieving national unity?

Distrust between the French-Canadian and English speaking populations. Eventually Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier who was the 1st French Canadian prime minister reconciled the two groups and worked to achieve industrialization in textiles, furniture, and railway equipment. Overseas migrants helped populate Canada's vast territories.

How did internal dissent lead to war?

Each country had their own internal strife. By engaging in war, any internal strife would be viewed as against the war efforts and stifled.

Describe the situation of the Dutch Republic?

Each province had an official known as a stadholder who led the army and maintained order. The States General, however, opposed the ambitions to create a centralized government and wanted a republican form of government. Following the death of William III, republican forces once more gained control. Underlying Dutch prominence, was its economic prosperity fueled by Danish merchants.

How did Eastern European states differ from Western European states?

Eastern Europeans rulers failed to achieve centralization of territorial states largely do to various obstacles including religious differences.

What other problems were facing the monarchy close to the revolution?

Economic discontent such as poverty, bad harvests, and non access to even shoes and socks.

Describe the beginnings of the ideology of conservatism in Europe?

Edmund Burke in his Reflections on the Revolution in France first revealed his disdain for sudden change. Other conservatives preferred the status quo and favored obedience to political authority. They also valued obedience to organized religion and a reluctance to give in to liberal demands for civil liberties. They believed in prioritizing the community over individual rights.

How did modernism in Music intertwine with nationalism?

Edvard Grieg composed Scandinavian folk tunes which developed a uniquely Norwegian musical identity. The impressionist music movement pioneered by Claude Debussy recreated the feelings of a poem. Stravinsky's folk tunes also emphasized nationalism.

What policies reflect Napoleon's "overhaul of the administrative system?"

Efficient tax collection which prohibited tax exemption due to birth or special privilege. Napoleon in 1802 proclaimed a balanced budget. Napoleon valued experts irrespective of loyalty and created a meritocracy based on achievement which also had the effect of creating an 'meristocracy' where Napoleon proclaimed certain individuals nobles (kind of like Louis XIV).

How did Queen Elizabeth deal with religious differences in England?

Elizabeth's religious policy was one of moderation and compromise. She restored England to Protestantism but made sure to avoid overly subtle distinctions and extremes. Her policy smothered religious differences in England but the Catholics and Puritans continued to oppose her. THe Puritans were more dangerous to Anglicanism in the long run because they wanted to remove all traces of Catholicism in the Anglican Church. Her cousin Mary of Scots was a Catholic who orchestrated numerous failed assassination attempts. She was beheaded.

What does the advent of Methodism reveal?

Established by Wesley who preached to the lower classes through mysticism in open fields, the establishment of Methodism reveals that 18th century Anglicanism did not meet the need for spiritual experience and was an important revival for the religion.

What was the Poor Law Act of 1834?

Established poor houses with deplorable conditions intended to get people to work.

What was the impact of travel literature in culminating the Enlightenment?

Europeans discovered new lands and new cultures. Cook's Travels (James Cook=discoverer of Australia and Pacific Islands), showed Europeans a 'natural man' who was happier than Europeans. This 'noble savage' became an important enlightening ideal. Travel literature, especially regarding the complexity of Chinese civilization gave rise to cultural relativism which made Europeans understand their religion and culture as just one of many throughout the world and caused them to evaluate their culture compared to others.

How did warfare develop following the Middle Ages?

Firearms were an important addition which made cavalry less effective. Gustavus Adolphus pioneered an army where musketeers would fire and the pikemen and haldebier would then charge at the infantry. Lighter artillery also was necessary. New tactics required discipline and many rulers moved away from undisciplined mercenary forces and imitated Adolphus' tactics. Ships also became bigger and able to carry more guns. Larger navies and armies required additional tax revenue making warfare an even greater economic burden and increasing the bureaucracies who supervised military resources.

What is the significance of old and new industries during the Renaissance?

Following the economic depression of the 14th century, the woolen industry began to recuperate at the same time that other Florentine industries profited from luxurious goods such as silk and glassware. Other industries such as printing and mining eclipsed the importance of the former woolen industry and generated new wealth and entrepeneurialship. This increased wealth spurred the elite to explore worldly interests becoming important in the Renaissance.

How did governments use propaganda?

Following the invasion of Belgium, the Brits exaggerated German atrocities on Belgian citizens. This had an important effect on both British and US public opinion because the Brits controlled telegraph lines overseas. Propaganda posters for recruitment were also effective.

Describe European interactions with Japan

Following the rise of Tokugawa Ieyasu to the throne, a period of Japanese isolation began. Europeans had initially come to trade with Japan yet had brought missionaries with them who had success in converting the local populations. Although nobles were interested in European arms and trinkets, the Shogun soon expelled all Europeans but the Dutch due to missionarial interference in politics and the reaction against Catholicism.

Analyze the effectiveness of bombing throughout WWII?

German bombings on London were relatively ineffective. The citizens' morale was astonishing. More targeted attacks on smaller communities, however, caused greater loss of morale. In Germany, bombings did not have a significant effect on industrial production, yet the United States' targeted bombing of transportation systems and fuel supplies made it extremely difficult to move supplies. The most effective bombing was the US dropping of the atomic bomb on Japan. This devastated morale.

How did diplomacy differ during the Renaissance with that of the Middle Ages?

In the middle ages, ambassadors existed, yet they functioned as ambassadors of all of Christendom. During the warfare in Italy, however, states began to send resident diplomats to other small states in order to share information. This practice soon spread throughout Europe birthing the modern system of diplomacy whereby ambassadors first and foremost serve their state and act as other government agents.

What are natural rights?

Inalienable privileges thought to be given to every individual.

Identify the political repercussions of the Depression?

Increase of tariffs which led to increased government activity.There was also a renewed interest in Marxism. Communism become more popular along with fascism.

What marked the shift to High Renaissance?

Increasing importance of Rome as a new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance.

What were independent City-States during the Renaissance and what was their significance?

Independent City-States were located within the major states but controlled by affluent families. Many of such states became the epicenter for Renaissance culture.

How did industrialization give rise to an entirely new social class?

Industrial entrepreneurs worked hard, and it paid off. Many times, it resulted in bankruptcy, but when business ventures were successful the industrial entrepreneurs earned much money and of course sought political power, soon merging with old elites. These entrepreneurs came from a variety of backgrounds, especially those from religious minorities who drew from the financial support system of their religious community such as the quakers.

Describe the economic conditions in 16th century Europe?

Inflation, due to the influx of precious metals and a rise in European population, created a problem with inflation called the price-revolution. Real wages didn't increase at the same rate as inflation so wage earners benefited least from the price revolution while aristocrats and entrepreneurs benefited most. This growth was a stimulus for the growth of capitalism.

How did writers deal with unconscious?

Irish exile James Joyce told the story of a day in the life of ordinary people in Dublin through a flow of inner dialogue. Virginia Woolf and Hermann Hesse likewise dealt with the unconscious.

Analyze the effects that mechanization of agriculture had on Europe?

It made many agrarian based countries insignificant and less worthy as supply increased at a much slower rate than demand. It also emphasized the divide in Europe where southern Italy, Spain, and eastern Europe was still in the Feudal age producing mostly agrarian products. Meanwhile, western Europe's manufacturing sector was importing much of the lower priced agriculture products. Low grain prices had a negative impact on farmers, but working and middle class families benefited greatly from the decline.

What was the significance in such a large number of people composing France's army?

It made wars people's wars ushering in the total war of the modern world.

Discuss the positives and negatives of the Code Napoleon?

It reflected Revolutionary principles such as equal rights before the law, religious toleration and the abolition of serfdom. It reassured the rights of citizens to choose their job and carefully protected individual property rights. On the flip side, revolutionary gains in women's rights and children's rights were erased in favor of more socially conservative policies. For example, women could not as easily divorce men and if accused of adultery could go to prison.

What was the composition of European armies?

It reflected the hierarchical structure of European society and separated the upper and lower classes. Officers were from the aristocracy while middle class might enter the middle ranks of the officer corps. Rank-and-file soldiers came from the lower classes. Some states recognized this was counterproductive because farmers were valuable. This caused England to turn towards recruiting mercenaries from Germany and Switzerland for their armies.

How did the axis of power change in Europe?

It shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Seaboard.

What effects did the Boxer rebellion have on China?

It was a Chinese nationalist uprising by the Boxers involved in a secret nationalist organization. They murdered foreigners and the response to the killings was immediate. An allied army of imperialists attacked Beijing and restored order. They demanded even greater concessions from the Chinese.

Describe the Boer War?

It was a bloody conflict in which the British needed to use 450,000 to subdue the Boers. Atrocities against Boer women and children caused outcry at home. After the Boer defeat, British policy was remarkably conciliatory. They allowed self-government.

What problems faced the Weimar Republic?

It was a loose coalition of various parties with no outstanding political leader, proved to be unstable. Hindenburg emerged as a WWI military hero and a monarchist not in favor of the republic. Within the public, judges; teachers; and bureaucrats used their power positions to undermine the fledgling democracy. Simultaneously, aristocrats and business cartels remained hostile to the republic. The Great Depression only made matters worse.

What was the Great Fear?

It was a vast panic in France that there would be foreign invasion and that there was an aristocratic plot. This fear instigated the formation of citizen militias and permanent armies.

Describe the demographic structure of France?

It was a young country and had increased 44% during the eighteenth century.

Characterize the enlightenment movement?

It was an international movement composed of an international community of philsophes: writers, professors, journalists, economists, etc. France was the capital of the enlightenment which enhanced the dominant role of French culture. Indeed, many of the enlightenment's leaders were French. In an era of censorship, philosophes called for freedom of expression while conceiving various ways to circumvent the state's censors. In this "family circle" which bound together intellectuals, many disagreed, but most believed that a spirit of rational criticism was to be applied to everything from religion to politics.

Describe Romantic Poetry?

It was focused on nature and many were polytheist nature gods. They criticized humans trying to control mother nature.

Discuss Franco's Regime?

It was not a fascist government but a dictatorship where political opposition was suppressed and the government favored Catholic clergy and censorship. In Portugal, meanwhile, Antonio Salazar seized control of the country and ruled as dictator for the next forty years.

What was the First Estate?

It was the clergy. Population:130,000. Exempt from the taille tax, but did agree to voluntarily contribute every five years. The church was very wealthy and largely shared the interests of the state.

Describe court life at Versaille?

It was very complex. The King ensured that those related to him were very occupied with courtly entertainments in order to prevent them from vying for any power. There were many demeaning traditions that nobles adhered to in order to be promoted by the king. The court was envied by rulers throughout Europe.

Broadly, what effects did the execution of the king have?

It won France new enemies domestically and abroad, while strengthening the resistance of prior enemies.

Describe revolts in the Italian States?

Italian nationalists of Italy's resurgence or risorgimento, formed Young Italy which sought to create a united Italian republic. Mazzini, a leader, urged people to come together. Cristina Belgioioso was a woman who urged Italian unification and fled to Paris to start her own newspaper. Rebellions soon spread which decentralized the movement and enabled Austrians to reestablish control.

What was the pattern of political development in Renaissance Italy? What new political practices did the Italians contribute to Europe, and how were these new political practices reflected in the work of Machiavelli?

Italy developed with major states which signed the Peace of Lodi to prevent the aggrandization of any one state above the others. The Italians contributed politically to the rest of Europe through the concept of the ambassador where Italian states during war would send diplomats to share useful information. These ambassadors differed from medieval ambassadors in that rather than being ambassadors of Christendom they held the interests of their state first. The practice of political self-interest is vividly portrayed throughout Machiavelli's work.

Why was Imperial Russia lagging behind?

Its absolutism and economic system of serfdom created uneducated poorer classes who could not compete with foreign agriculture, nor sufficiently adjust to changing military technologies.

Describe Ivan the Great and Western Society?

Ivan the Great was the first tsar and expanded Russia eastward by and increased autocracy by crushing the Russian nobility called the boyars. The Time of Troubles was a resurgence of aristocratic power following Ivan's rule and ended when the national assembly also called the Zemsky Sobor chose Michael Romanov to be the new Tsar. Russian society was stratified and there was an abundance of land and a shortage of merchants. Russia, however, was largely outside the framework of westward discoveries and advancement.

Describe religious toleration towards Jews during the enlightenment?

Jews were the despised religion which was easy to blame everything on. Aside from relatively tolerant Poland, Jews were largely discriminated against throughout Europe. They formed pogroms dependent on the favor of territorial rulers. Joseph II established limited toleration for Jews while Philosophes denounced Jews' persecution but still enunciated their dislike of the religion. Jews went on to serve as bankers in several tolerant cities.

Compare and contrast two heretics?

John Wyclif argued that the bible was the sole authority over Christians and condemned papal authority. He urged the availability of the bible in vernacular so that every Christian could read it. He condemned medieval church traditions and attracted followers who were called Lollards. Similarly, John Hus was influenced by Lollards where he likewise condemned papal power particularly corruption of the clergy and excessive papal power.

What new surgical practices emerged?

Joseph Lister developed an antiseptic which stopped the spread of infection in surgical equipment and in surgeries. Sulfuric ether also acted as an anesthetic agent which made surgeries easier.

Which artists are associated with Dutch realism?

Judith Leyster who painted everyday life and Rembrandt who was known for his quite colorful scenes and painting biblical tales.

Explain the development of enlightenment education and literacy?

LIteracy largely increased and spread to the lower class. Peddlers, for instance, would usually sell easy reading material to the lower classes. This spread in literacy was closely connected to an increase in primary education. For example, the establishment of schools by Protestant Reformers increased the literacy rate. Other schools, however, carefully ensured only to train the poor servant-related material for that was the object of the lower classes.

What was wrong with the Catholic Church?

Lack of spiritual leadership, papacy's temporal and material preoccupation, corruption through practices of pluralism where church officeholders held more than one position and delegated much of their duties to underlings without proper qualifications.

How did the Bolsheviks seize control?

Lenin believed that under the weak Duma and in the midst of war, the time was ripe for the Bolshevik revolution. In his April Theses he argued that he should bypass the bourgeois revolution and move straight to socialism. Subsequently, the soviets issued Army Order 1 which called for the collapse of all discipline in the military. As Bolshevik power increased, Lenin with the help of Leon Trotsky (revolutionary chairman of Petrograd soviet), Lenin took over Petrograd and power in the name of the soviets. THe soviet congress ratified his decision. Even though the Bolsheviks had lost in the universal suffrage election, Lenin defied the democratic Constituent Assembly. The bolsheviks ratified the seizure of land and recognized the need for fast action to gain public legitimacy. Alexandra Kollontai was a supporter of revolutionary socialism who provided healthcare for women and children by establishing palaces for the protection of maternity and children. The communist government soon declared the equality of men and women, permitted abortion, legalized divorce and made marriage a civil (not a religious) act. This departed from traditional conservatism of the church. Members of the women's bureau or Zhenotdel traveled throughout Russia to explain the new social order. Some were brutally murdered, and the communist government eventually revoked such social equality in the face of public opinion.

In what ways did the 19th century represent a golden age of Russian literature?

Leo Tolstoy wrote War and Peace which vividly described Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Dostoevsky argued that the problem with society was a loss of spiritual belief and excessive materialism.

Describe the emergence of Austria.

Leopold I encouraged eastward movement of the Austrian Empire and they picked up significant territory from the Ottomans. Austria gained formal recognition of the Spanish Netherlands and occupation of SPanish possessions in Italy. However, the Austrian monarchy never became highly centralized. Following the War of Spanish Succession, Austria benefited most.

What was the controversy over indulgences?

Luther was upset that the church sold so-called indulgences which ostensibly saved people from purgatory. A famous slogan was 'as soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs.' Luther took issue with such schemes which spurred him to write his 95 theses which Pope Leo X dismissed as written from a drunk German.

Describe the effects of the search for salvation?

More and more people became very pious in order to be saved. The 15th century witnessed a rigid adherence to orthodox beliefs and practices of the Catholic Church. Paradoxically, it was this very piety which increased parishioners' expectations of the clergy which the clergy simply could not deliver.

Did industrialization bring an improved standard of living?

Most historians agree that in the long run, industrialization resulted in an increased standard of living. However, the first generation of industrial workers experienced oftentimes a decline in their standard of living; a significant departure from the comforts of their old farmhouse. Historians widely agree that household income rose as multiple family members worked, yet employment remained highly volatile. The wage gap between rich and poor widened.

Identify and explain each of the major post-WWI art forms?

German expressionism focused on the suffering and shattered lives from WWI. George Grosz and Otto Dix graphically depicted the devastating effects of the Great War. The Dad movement led by Tristan Tzara attempted to illustrate the purposelessness of life. Revolted by the senseless mass destruction of WWI, Dadaists gave absurdity an expression through this "anti-art." Hannah Hoch used this moment to comment on women's roles in the new mass culture. Surrealism sought reality beyond the material world and emphasized the world of the unconscious through the portrayal of fantasies, dreams, and nightmares. Salvador Dali headed the movement and portrayed recognizable objects divorced from their normal context. The movement was inspired by Freudian theory.

In what way did Conservative forces repress liberal ones in central Europe?

German nationalistic organizations such as Burschenschaften organized in order to promote the regeneration of German youth. After one of its members assassinated a liberal playwright, Metternich closed the organization and created censorship of press, and placed universities under tight control.

How did the role of government in continental Europe further the process of industrialization?

Government in continental Europe was much more involved in economic affairs. As such, governments paid for technical education, awarded grants to inventors and foreign entrepreneurs, and exempted foreign industrial equipment from import duties. Sometimes they financed factories. German writer Friedrich List argued that the only way to protect infant industries was through the use of protective tariffs.

Why were women often teachers?

Governments encouraged this in establishing female teaching schools such as Queen's and Bedford in Britain. Moreover, men viewed a teacher as a natural extension of the nurturer of children role played by women. Mass education increased literacy and many more became plugged into newspapers, oftentimes the yellow press sensationalism was tailored towards this newly literate demographic.

In what ways did the chemical industry change?

Great Britain fell behind Germany and France in producing alkaline used in textile soap and paper industries. German laboratories soon overtook English ones especially for dye-stuffs.

In what ways did women face setbacks in the medical fields?

Harriet Hunt was denied entry to Harvard Medical School while Elizabeth Blackwell was admitted to Geneva College of Medicine by mistake in 1849. Nonetheless, medical schools remained stubborn in keeping doors closed to women. Not until 1876 did Britain finally give women the right to take medical qualifying examinations. Not until 1915 were women given the full rights in the AMA.

In what way did Bergson understand reality?

He accepted scientific rationality, but felt the only way to experience ultimate reality was to grasp and directly experience it rather than simply analyze and describe it.

Discuss Diderot's contribution to the enlightenment?

He advocated a materialistic conception of the world that it is simply "a mass of molecules." He hated christianity. He created the encyclopedia which he sought to change the general way of thinking. Philosophes contributed to this encyclopedia where they challenged religious superstition and advocated for toleration and social, legal, and political improvements that would create a more cosmopolitan society. When it was reduced, the ideas of the Enlightenment were spread even further as it was now accessible to clergy, doctors, lawyers, teachers, and military officers.

In what ways did Comte play an important role in the growing popularity of science and materialism?

He applied science to society by creating a hierarchical scientific pyramid which reinforced the Enlightenment's optimism. Math was the foundation of the pyramid which layered on top were the physical sciences, earth sciences, and biological sciences. At the top was sociology. He believed sociology was a difficult task based on a collection of data on humans and their social environment.

Describe Zwingli's rise?

He became an academic and preacher who began the Reformation in Switzerland. His preaching caused unrest so a disputation or debate was called. He won and the resolution declared that the Zwingli was free to proclaim the Gospel and pure sacred scripture. He sparked reforms in Zurich such as removing paintings and decorations from churches, ridding of music, and removing old papal traditions.

How did Jung depart from Freud's theories?

He believed that Freud's theories were too narrow and biased. Jung believed that the unconscious was twofold, consisting of a personal unconscious and a collective unconscious shared by all human beings.

What was Bossuet's theory of divine-right monarchy?

He believed that God would hold kings responsible for their actions. This he believed was a limitation of their authority.

Who was Voltaire?

He came from a young middle-class family and studied law, going on to become a playwright. In his Philosophic Letters on the English, he commended England's freedom of press, political freedom, and religious toleration and juxtaposed England's republic with France's absolute monarchy. His criticism of absolute monarchy helped lead to future revolutionary upheavals in France. His mistress marquise du Chatelet and him collaborated on a book on the natural philosophy of Newton. Now wealthy, Voltaire continued to write criticizing traditional religion and advocating for religious toleration citing successes in Holland and England. He was a deist who didn't believe god answered prayers and who rejected the divinity of Jesus Christ.

How did Hitler win the support of children?

He created youth organizations such as the Hitler Jugend and the Bund Deutscher Madel where the children were indoctrinated and needed to take a loyalty oath.

What contributions did Galileo make to the problem of motion?

He demonstrated that if uniform force was applied to an object, it would move at an accelerated rather than constant speed. He also discovered inertia which meant that a body in motion continues in motion for ever unless acted upon by an external force.

What steps did Hitler take to further women's rights?

He didn't. Rather he embraced the cult of domesticity and exalted Motherhood. As such, the Nazis prevented women from working in jobs which might "hinder them from bearing healthy children." After many men were conscripted, however, the government later encouraged women to supplant the male labor shortage.

Describe Vesalius' contributions to science?

He published his masterpiece, ON the Fabric of the Human Body which illustrated the anatomy of the human body through his own observations in perfect detail. This book would not have been possible without the advances in Renaissance painting techniques along with the advances of the printing press. Valius discovered that the heart not the liver was where blood vessels originated.

How did Emperor Wilhelm II depart from Bismarck's foreign policy?

He terminated the Reinsurance Treaty which caused Britain, France, and Russia to formed the Triple Entente.

Who was Erasmus?

He was a Christian humanist who emphasized reform from within the Catholic Church. He believed that one should focus on inner-piety rather than external rituals that the medieval church stressed. He wrote The Praise of Folly criticizing the church. Despite his hard work, however, the passions of the enlightenment soon overwhelmed his moderate beliefs of church reform from within.

Who was Ignatius Loyola?

He was a former soldier who after injuries in battle devoted the rest of his life to be a soldier of God. He established the Society of Jesus which was recognized as a papal order. This society was unique in that all adherents swore an absolute loyalty oath towards the papacy.

In what way did Louis XIV conduct financial policy?

He was a lavish spender who spent on wars and the building of Versailles. His finance minister Jean Baptiste Colbert pursued a mercantilist policy which created new luxury industries in France and invited others, domestic and foreign, to start their own industries. He built roads and canals and created a navy to carry French goods. Many question whether Colbert's policies were in fact beneficial because some say that they weren't followed, resulted in retaliatory tariffs, and gave Louis XIV more money to wage war with.

Who was Rousseau?

He was a philosophe who believed that government and other institutions were evil, albeit necessary ones as outlined in his Discourse on the Origin of Inequality of Man. He also believed in a Social Contract which was an agreement by individuals to be governed by general will for the best of the individual which equated to liberty. Consequently, Rousseau believed the responsibility for framing the general will could not be delegated to a parliamentary institution. Rousseau was an early romanticist as evidenced by hid Emile where the main character's wife, Sophie, was educated for her role as wife and mother.

In what ways did Richelieu influence French politics?

He was the chief minister who successfully suppressed the huguenots as a threat by granting them religious rights while simultaneously ensuring they didn't possess military or political rights. He created a network of spies who uncovered plots by ambitious nobles to sieze more power and had these nobles executed. In order to centralize government, he sent out intendants to the provinces to carry through the central government's orders. Financially, however, he failed. He did create an annual direct tax levied on property called the taille but through excessive military expenditures, any increased revenue was soon negated by such expenditures creating a upward spiral of debt.

Describe the New Order?

Henry VIII broke with the papacy but little changed in matters of doctrine. Henry only chose to rid of monasteries which he seized and resold to boost the treasury's profits. Henry remarried multiple times until he died when the throne was passed on to nine year old Edward VI. Archbishop Cranmer and others during this period pushed the church in a more Protestant direction.

How did Renaissance Magic stimulate the Scientific Revolution?

Hermetic magic became fused with alchemical thought which captured the attention of the great minds of the day. Hermetic thought stimulated genuine science. Great minds of the Renaissance- Kepler, Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton- all had an interest in Hermetic thoughts in the fields of astrology and alchemy. The Scientific Revolution was one which stemmed largely from a handful of great intellectuals.

Following King Frederick William IV's death, what did his brother (William I) seek to do?

His brother sought to expand the army and create compulsory military service. Middle class parliament rejected this.

Describe the development in the Enlightenment era writings of history?

History was written not solely on political history but also economic, cultural, social, and intellectual history. Voltaire played a large part in describing social history. Philosophes became the ones who wrote history which did have a weakness: their preoccupations with classics caused them to want to both inform and entertain. They also were very secular with Edward Gibbon blaming Christianity for the decline of the Roman empire and their dismissal of the Middle Ages as the Dark Ages.

How did the Diplomatic Revolution begin?

Hitler attempted to convince the world his actions were in peace. He withdrew from the League of Nations and rebuilt the military. Germany simply got a slap on the hand for rebuilding its military to 550,000 troops with a new air force and navy. The Anglo-German naval treaty, indeed, permitted the expansion of the German navy beginning the policy of appeasement by the western powers.

What is reflected in Early Renaissance art?

Human individuality.

What effect did the French Revolution have on the Austrian Empire?

Hungary uprose and was granted near independence with control over its own military and foreign policy. This caused Austrian empire Metternich to be dismissed. Conservatives thereafter played on the divisions between radical and moderate reform groups to invoke fears of a worker revolution. General Windischgratz suppressed Czech rebels in Prague, and new king Francis Joseph I of Austria worked to reestablish imperial control in Hungary.

Describe opposition from abroad.

Most nobles had fled and the Assembly wanted them back. The king vetoed this raising doubts about his loyalty. European monarchs feared similar revolutions in their countries. They increasingly supported French noble emigrants. The assembly declared war on Austria when the HRE didn't expel the emigrants. France initially fared badly. National Guardsmen turned out and defended Paris. Radical Parisian political groups orchestrated a mob attack at the Legislative Assembly and took the king captive. They called for a national convention. It took a radical turn and the new Paris COmmune composed of sans-culottes were ordinary patriots who did not like the elite.

What was the social composition of the National Convention?

Most were young lawyers who had previous political experience due to the revolution. It also included some artisans for the first time.

How did Napoleon militarily lead the empire his first few years?

Napoleon recognized the importance of a peace with Europe because the whole of Europe was against him. He achieved the Peace of Amiens which oly lasted a year as Britain soon created the third coalition against him. Napoleon crushed the Third Coalition which included Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain.

What long range forces beyond the assassination of Franz Ferdinand propelled Europe into WWI?

Nationalism,Internal Dissent, and Militarism.

Explain the force which threatened to upset the European balance of powers?

Nationalism. This arose following the French Revolution as people in German and Italian areas realized their commonalities and wanted national unity.

In what ways did naturalism differ from realism?

Naturalism had a more pessimistic tone about Europe's future. The novels of Emile ZOla describe urban slums, alcoholism, and other miserable parts of society.

Discuss the territorial effects of other peace treaties?

New eastern European countries were established and strengthened as a French buffer to Germany and Russia. The Ottoman Empire finally fell as French and British mandates replaced the former territories. The lack of enforcement in the League of Nations led to a second world war as the US isolationist mentality increased causing Britain to pull back and leave France alone on the continent to deal with the next war.

What sparked a new conciliatory era in the interwar years?

New governments in France, Germany, and Britain. In Germany, Stresemann's government ended passive resistance and issued a new currency to combat inflation. The US Dawes Plan also granted a loan for German recovery.

What facilitated these journeys?

New monarchies and the centralized state allowed countries to turn their attentions towards expansion. Meanwhile, Ptolemy's World map translated into Latin in 1477 described both wind patterns and fairly accurately depicted much of the known world. Portolani were charts made by medieval navigators which were also useful. Advances in ships and sailing also made possible overseas voyages. The use of the axial rudder and the combined use of the lateen sails with a square rig made ships more mobile in that they could sail against the wind and carry more goods. Other navigational aids such as the compass and the astrolabe along with increased knowledge of wind patterns gave explorers more confidence in exploring the unknown.

What led to the Whigs initiating reforms?

New parliamentary elections brought the Whigs to power. Coupled with increasingly deplorable working conditions, the July Revolution led to an infectious air of reform.

Describe the development of the middle class?

New professionals and old professionals merged into the middle class which was religious and determined to succeed through hard work. White collar workers such as bank tellers were also committed to this way of life.

Why was Italy socially disunited?

Northerners treated southerners with contempt, the Catholic Church refused to acknowledge the new state, and socio-economic turmoil undermined the social fabric. Furthermore, only 2.5 and later 10% of the population could vote.

What is the significance of the occupation of the Rhineland?

Occupying the Rhineland was a violation of the Versailles treaty, but again appeased by the western powers.

How did the King respond?

Parlements refused to assist fearing it would involve higher taxes so the Charles de Calonne, controller of general finance convened an assembly of notables in 1787. This refused to cooperate. The government on the verge of collapse called an Estates-General, the French parliamentary body that hadn't met since 1614. This meant the government admitted that the consent of the nation was required to raise taxes.

What were the Combination Acts?

Parliament passed this to prevent the organization of workers fearing the radicalism of French revolutionary working classes.

Who was Liszt?

Part of the New German School, he was a great pianist who created the symphonic poem which emphasized emotional content.

What was the Third Estate?

Peasants alone composed 75-80% of the population but owned 35-40% of the liand. Landless peasants were day laborers who congregated at Paris. While Serfdom did not exist, peasants still had obligations to local landlords. These 'relics of feudalism' included paying fees for use of village facilities. The skilled artisans and shopkeepers composed a second section of the third estate. Rapid inflation often existed in their industries. This rapid inflation, especially of bread, led to economic discontent. The bourgeoisie or middle class owned 20-25% of the land. They were professional people such as lawyers and doctors as well as industrialists. They were angry because they had been exempt from many from noble positions just because they didn't have noble heritage. All groups had internal divisions. At extreme upward levels, the extremely wealthy bourgeoisie entered the ranks of the nobility. Members of all groups shared a common view of liberal thought. Many elites were opposed to the old order.

What was the peasants' war?

Peasants throughout Germany rebelled as the populace demanded a return to the good old days. Accordingly, the peasants anticipated Luther would support him, but it wasn't Luther but Thomas Muntzer who would support the peasants. In contrast, Luther supported the German princes against the 'stupid and stubborn peasantry.' Luther knew that the princes were the key to the spread of his ideals, but many blame Luther for his betrayal of the peasants.

Describe the growth in emigration?

People routinely left Europe for the United States, Canada, or Latin America for economic reasons. They also migrated to prevent persecution.

What is the importance of Petrarch?

Petrarch was known as the father of the Italian Renaissance humanism. He promoted the fallacy of the Middle Ages as an age of darkness, ignorant of classical antiquity, and pursued classic manuscripts. He befriended "some of the greatest kings" probably sharing humanistic belief with his new friends.

Describe the developments of Spain?

Philip V marked the transition to Bourbon rule which facilitated a centralization of laws, administrative institutions and language which increased the power of Castile. They imitated French-style ministries which replaced the old conciliar system of government with French intendant like rulers. Without the Spanish Netherlands and Italian territories, Spain was more geographically stable and had fewer administrative problems and less drain on the overtaxed economy. Charles III brought the Catholic church under royal control with the banishment of the Jesuits and the diminished role of the inquisition. He economically reform the nation by establishing roads, canals, textile mills, and banks. He reduced aristocratic authority by curbin the privileges of the sheep ranchers.

Give the context for Italy's unification?

Piedmont under the royal house of Savoy revolted against the Austrians. While defeated, the leadership of King Cavour would greatly benefit the cause.

Who were the Jacobins?

Radical deputies discussed radical ideas. They created an elaborate correspondence network and were seeking allies such as the Parisian club.

Why did democracy not persist in eastern Europe?

Political systems were not accustomed to such rule after a history of authoritarianism. Fascist and socialist forces, moreover, contributed to such great polarization that a democracy proved difficult.

What were other approaches to crime?

Poor laws. Others argued that education would help. Organized religion also attempted to educate and improve the morals of working children.

What were the major changes which culminated in the intellectual movement of the Enlightenment?

Popularization of science, new skepticism, impact of travel literature, and the legacy of Locke and Newton.

What demographic changes resulted from the industrial revolution?

Population grew exponentially because of a declining death rate. This is a result of less diseases during that time period and a greater number of food. Manufacturing sectors of the population rose to 48% in Britain yet remained concentrated in isolated 'islands in an agricultural sea.' Many workers, moreover, emigrated to the United States as a result of bad harvests and a declining importance of agriculture.

What were the origins of the slave trade?

Portuguese originally just replaced European slaves with African ones who ended up serving as household helpers, however the development of cane sugar plantations in European colonies required more labor which wasn't the natives who new the land and had been decimated by disease but the Africans.

How did post-impressionism differ from impressionism?

Post-Impressionist emphasis on light and color was similar to impressionist art. However, post-impressionism further emphasized structure and form and sought to express inner feelings to produce a personal statement of reality. Paul Cezanne's Mont Sainte-Victoire, for instance, expressed his inner feelings of a mountain near his home. Vincent van Gogh, moreover, painted what he felt and influenced later artists.

What did Brahe contribute to a new vision of the universe?

Precise data compiled regarding astronomical observations.

How did the Nazis acquire power?

President Hindenburg recognized the growing power of the Nazis and invited Hitler to rule with him as chancellor, believing that he could control him. As Hindenburg was aging, the industrialists and business cartels of the time turned to Adolf Hitler as their next ruler who would protect their interests and protect from a Communist takeover. Soon, Hitler purged the government of non-Nazis and suspended basic rights of citizens after appointing Hermann Goring to the head of the police. The Enabling Act called for the suspension of Constitutional government for four years which permitted the Nazi takeover. With their new source of power, the Nazis enforced Gleichschaltung to coordinate all institutions under Nazi control. The success of the Nazis lies on the country's economic depression and the image of a national awakening to the German people after years of humiliating reparations.

How was peace officially achieved?

President Wilson spelled out steps for a just, democratic, and lasting peace based on morals rather than pragmatism. Clemenceau and Lloyd, however, wanted Germans to pay at the Paris Peace Conference. The Big Three eventually compromised around a League of Nations along with a defensive alliance between the Big Three.

How did dealing with crime and punishment evolve throughout Europe?

Previously one could earn the death penalty for upwards of 200 possible crimes to be committed. The death penalty was often used in atrocious manners. Other times, countries such as England which were more liberal in their punishments sent criminals to work in the navy or shipped them to the new world or Australia. Cesare Beccaria, however, detested the use of the death penalty and argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents. He was perplexed by the death penalty which, as punishment for homicide, would commit public homicide on the offender. His book On Crimes and Punishments facilitated a growing sentiment against executions and torture.

What did Maria Theresa, ruler of Austria do to reform her empire in preparation for the next conflict with Prussia?

She curtailed the role of the diets and provincial assemblies in taxation and local administration, clergy and nobles were thereafter forced to pay property and income taxes to the government rather than the diets. The Austrian lands were divided into ten provinces and subdivided into districts which were administered by royal officials, again taking power away from the diets. Maria Theresa was Catholic and Conservative who strengthened the power of the Habsburg state.

Describe Elizabeth's foreign policy?

She emphasized moderation. She provided clandestine aid to French and Dutch Protestants in order to undermine France and Spain. She also encouraged pirates such as Francis Drake to plunder Spanish fleets arriving home from the New World. Spain eventually attempted to invade England during the Spanish Armada where English ships repelled the Spanish invasion. This strengthened the English superpower.

What territorial gains did Catherine make on behalf of Russia?

She expanded westward into Poland and Southward towards the Black Sea through the defeat of the Ottoman Turks in the Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji. Russia gained 50% of Poland's territory.

What was the significance of the Peace of Lodi?

Signed by the Italian states, this peace promoted a balance of power. It's intent was to promote peace and to prevent the expansion of one state at the expense of another. It successfully fostered a forty-year era of peace in Italy, yet failed to establish a lasting peace.

What was mannerism?

So named by its critic ias second rate artists imitating or painting "in the manner of Michelangelo's late style" it was a deliberate attempt to break from the High Renaissance principles of balance and harmony and conveyed a confused, turbulent atmosphere to reflect a world of intense emotion. Perhaps the best known mannerist artist was El Greco.

Briefly explain the significance of the railroad industry.

Railroads soon overtook canals and turnpikes for efficient transportation. Following early manpower rails in the mining industries, Richard Trevithick pioneered the first steam powered railroad in 1804. Soonafter, George Stephenson developed a superior model. This created new jobs (especially from the old dying farm industry) in creating the rail cars and significantly aided the development of the industrial revolution in supply greater demand for coal and iron. Middle class men soon developed joint-stock companies to invest in these new phenomenons. The railroad carts efficient transportation costs led to cheaper consumer costs for products which allowed entrepreneurs to reinvest capital into greater innovation.

How did urban living conditions improve?

Reformers such as Edwin Chadwick in Britain, and Rudolf Virchow and Solomon Neumann of Germany linked filthy living conditions to epidemic disease and urged sanitary reforms. New building regulations prevented shoddy housing. The Public Health Act of 1875 prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water. Clean water in and dirty water out of the city was addressed with dams and reservoirs and sewers. More parks were created to enjoy fresh air.

How did society address such unsanitary conditions?

Reformers such as James Kay-Shuttleworth and Edwin Chadwick advocated change. Chadwick published his Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain and concluded that society must establish modern sanitation practices such as access to clean water and sewers. The middle class largely supported such efforts due to their fears of cholera.

Describe French Drama?

Revolved around the French court life and satirized the religious and social world of the time. Included nobles like Jean Baptiste Moliere. Used to attract attention to his monarchy.

Describe the birth of chemistry?

Robert Boyle was one of the first scientists to conduct controlled experiments. His pioneering work on the properties of gases led to Boyle's law which says that the volume of gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. He also developed the theory of atoms which were smaller particles of all shapes and sizes. Antoine Lavoisier, moreover, invented a system of naming chemical elements and demonstrated rules of chemical combination. Many call Lavoisier the Father of Modern Chemistry.

What was the chartism movement?

Rooted in the London Workingmen's Association People's Charter chartists called for universal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, elimination of property requirements for parliament, and annual parliament sessions. The movement attempted to encourage change through peaceful means yet were willing to use force "peacefully if we can, forcibly if we must" was their motto. Members of Parliament, however, were not ready for political democracy. The movements significance was in its ability to organize millions of working-class men and women and politically educate working people. This ultimately resulted in the acceptance of all the points in the charter in the future. This Chartism movement caused the aristocrats and bourgeois to work together.

How did the war in Crimea begin?

Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, for the empire's refusal to allow Russian troops to protect Christians in Palestine, something the French were already doing. After war erupted, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia, fearing its growing influence in Eastern Europe. The Crimean war was a long and bloody war for both sides with casualties nearing 250,000. It was also the first newspaper war where the newspapers because of the telegraphs, would keep the public up to date regularly about the war's latest happenings. Thanks to the efforts of Florence Nightingale in her healing efforts at field hospitals, she spread sanitation and care to the wounded.

How were the ideals of the enlightenment spread?

Salons run by women served as social hubs for philosophes. Marie de Geoffrin and marquise de Deffand ran salons where their ornate drawing rooms attracted the philosophes to speak and communicate in private. Reading clubs, libraries, coffee houses, and societies both secret and open were also conduits for spreading enlightenment thought.

What does the development of the novel during the enlightenment reveal?

Samuel Richardson's stories such as Pamela: or, Virtue Rewarded, described a servant girl who was ultimately married by her master. The text describes the novel as appealing to the "growing cult of sensibility in the eighteenth century. Johnson, another English writer spoke highly of Richardson's sentiments. Fielding, on the other hand, reacting against Richardson, wrote adventure novels about a young scoundrel who survived through his use of reason. The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling is an example of this.

How did industrialization first develop in the United States?

Samuel Slater, an immigrant developed the first textile mill in Rhode Island. Thereafter, the American system of interchangeable parts saved labor and promoted efficiency.

Who was San Martin?

San Martin was a Spanish army officer who abandoned his Spanish military career in favor of supporting the liberation movement in South America. He successfully ousted Spanish forces at the Battle of Chacabuco in Chile and moved on to Peru which with the help of Bolivar eliminated Spanish control.

Explain the development of European education throughout the enlightenment?

Secondary schools originated all over Europe, yet many universities concentrated heavily on the humanities and not enough on STEM fields. Complaints led to more practical schools such as Realschule which offered some mathematical fields. Another complaint was that schools focused too much on Aristotelian philosophy. Criticism led to reforms which introduced new math/science fields. Nonetheless, few important scientific discoveries occurred in universities.

Define pantheism.

Seeing divinity embodied in all aspects of nature and in the heavenly bodies and earthly objects.

Describe the outcome of the Glorious Revolution?

Seven important English nobles invited William of Orange, the husband of James' Protestant daughter Mary to invade England causing James and his family to flee to France. William and Mary thus became the monarchs of England by the grace of Parliament not by divine right setting England on the course of constitutional monarchy. The Bill of Rights was established in 1689 which affirmed Parliament's right to make laws and levy taxes and made it impossible for kings to raise an army without Parliament's consent. Out of the Glorious Revolution came the Toleration Act which marked the end of religious persecution in England as it granted Puritans religious freedom.

In what ways did the Protestant Reformation impact the family?

Sex was more a celebrated act although men did nonetheless remain the rulers of society. Women were expected to remain obedient to their husband rulers. The Protestant Reformation did, however, increase the female education for religious purposes.

What was the situation in South Africa prior to the Boer War?

The British despised the Boers, the Dutch descendants of colonists. Hostilities intensified when Britain seized Transvaal,and then was forced to give it back. Despite inter-racial hostilities, both the English and the Boers subjugated the Africans.

How did mercantilism shape European economic policies during 17th century Europe?

States implemented protectionist trade policies, promoted colonial development, hoarded precious metals, imposed high tariffs on foreign competition, subsidized exports, supported trading industries, and granted trading monopolies. The view at the time was that state intervention in the economy was necessary for the sake of the the national good.

What musical changes occurred?

Stravinsky began the music revolution while Viennese composer Arnold Schoenberg created an atonal composition which was largely unpopular.

In what way did advances in industrial technology feed scientific research?

Such technological advances were coupled with an increase in basic scientific discoveries which in the 1830s funneled its way into everyday life utility. The invention of the steam engine for instance, paved the way for the laws of thermodynamics between heat and mechanical energy.

Describe the Swedish phase of the war?

Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus entered the war on the side of his fellow protestants. He was a military genius who easily recovered much of northern Germany. Ferdinand recalled Wallenstein who although was defeated, managed to kill the Swedish king. The army, consequently, proved much less effective. Ferdinand defeated the Swedes and used this victory to annul the Edict of Restitution and make peace, yet the Swedes wished to continue while the French entered the war which ushered in the final phase, the Franco-Swedish phase of the war.

In what ways did continental industrialization differ from British industrialization?

Technology was about a generation behind in continental Europe. Many traditional hand weavers continued to produce at the same time as the more developed factories. Manufacturing in continental Europe was more scattered than that in Britain. The steam engine, moreover, was used most in mining industry rather than textiles in continental Europe. Industry in continental Europe remained a mix between old and new.

What conclusion did Luther arrive at through his study of the bible?

That one is saved through faith alone. He arrived at this conclusion through his study of the bible thus the bible became for Luther and all other Protestants the sole source of religious authority.

Describe the growth of European capitalism?

The Atlantic seaboard became the hub of trading in Europe. The Dutch , with their cheap and fast ships pioneered the trading industry. Joint-stock companies facilitated profiteering ventures which would sometimes greatly award investors with high returns. Family banks began to decline as government banks like the City of Amsterdam emerged more prosperous. Amsterdam soon emerged as the financial epicenter of Europe where trading of stocks replaced trading of goods. Jacob Fugger was a family banker who loaned large loans to Charles V of the Habsburg dynasty only for the dynasty to default. The agricultural system and life for the peasants, however, remained unchanged.

How did the steel industry evolve?

The Bessemer process to producing steel soon replaced iron with steel. Britain fell behind German which fell behind the US in terms of steel production.

Why did the Americans ultimately win?

The French assistance greatly helped the Americans such as at the Battle of Yorktown.

Who were prefects?

The Central government's agents responsible for supervising all aspects of the local government. They were not local but agents of the central government.

Describe the Indo-European reactions during the Qing dynasty?

The Chinese king permitted Europeans to trade with China, however European traders were confined to a small island in just one city. England wanted to expand trade with China, yet the empire would not permit it. Politically, however, at just the same time England was expanding, Chinese leadership was decreasing, and economic constraints on the treasury due to military demands made the empire more vulnerable to European intrusion.

Describe Spain's development.

The Conservatives and Liberals remained deeply divided especially after losses abroad such as the Spanish-American War. The Generation of 1898 called for political and social reform which led to more competition between the liberals and conservatives over the newly expanded electorate.

What was Kristallnacht?

The Night of Shattered Glass. When a Polish Jew ostensibly assassinated a German leader, the Nazis took revenge to the extreme. This was the excuse to kill 30,000 Jewish males and also the excuse to shut down synagogues. It is reminiscent of how Austria used Franz Ferdinand's assassination for political purposes.

Describe the US Civil War?

The North mobilized its superior economy and eventually wore the south down. The war radicalized public opinion in the North and led to Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation which freed the slaves. The blockade of the south led to a shortage of fighting men and finally Grant's defeat of Lee led to Lee's surrender at Appomattox court house.

Describe Charles' problem with the Ottoman Empire?

The Ottomans following the sacking of Constantinople had begun to expand into Christian Europe. Under the leadership of Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman forces defeated the King of Hungary, Charles' brother in law, and moved into Austria where they were finally repelled.

What factions emerged in the French legislature?

The Party Movement which favored even more liberal reforms like ministerial responsibility and limited expansion of the franchise. The Party of Resistance dominated and was led by Francois Guizot. It resisted ministerial responsibility and pursued a policy favoring wealthier interests. It cooperated with the king.

In what way did the upper classes evolve?

The big business elite produced plutocrats whereas the old aristocrats whose income came from landed estates declined. Greatest fortune shifted to upper middle class, and upper middle class and plutocrats merged in marriage.

In what way did the ideals of the Physiocrats and Adam Smith represent a departure from mercantilist thought?

The Physiocrats, under the leadership of Quesnay, a court physician, claimed that land was the only source of wealth rather than bullion. They also emphasized the importance of natural economic forces such as supply and demand. They thus condemned state interference in the economy and believed they should just laissez-faire or leave it alone. Smith's Wealth of Nations also repudiated the mercantilist use of tariffs. He believed that 'labor' not land or bullion represented value. He also believed in laissez faire and a limited state government. The Physiocrats and Smith laid the foundation for economic liberalism.

Why was the Peace Treaty a failure?

The US failed to ratify the treaty which diminished the effectiveness of the League of Nations.Furthermore, abnormal borders in eastern Europe remained a source of conflict for years. France felt isolated in Europe against possible German expansion.

Discuss the effect that the US entry in the war caused?

The US helped create a Grand Alliance, a large coalition against the war. The powers agreed to the principle of unconditional surrender whereby the allies agreed to fight the war until the Axis powers surrendered unconditionally. This made it difficult for Germany to divide the allies. Nonetheless, immediately following the US entry into the war, Germany was winning. Japan had extended its empire in the Pacific, Hitler began to win the North African theatre of the war under General Rommel, and German submarines were annihilating carrier ships to Britain. The tide of the war, however, began to turn.

Analyze the deteriorating relations among the Grand Alliance?

The US stopped the lend-lease policy to Russia and disagreed to a 6 billion loan to Russia. Meanwhile, tensions in eastern Europe tarnished the deteriorating alliance.

What was Louis XIV's religious policy?

"One king, one law, one faith" He rejected the Edict of Nantes and wanted to suppress the Huguenots. He did this by issuing the Edict of Fontainebleau which allowed of the destruction of Huguenot churches and the closing of Protestant schools. Moreover, it prompted a large exodus of Huguenots to surrounding countries.

Describe the three activities of the Jesuits?

1. Education. Jesuits soon became renowned educators throughout Europe . They saw education as a necessity to fight Protestant beliefs. 2. The propagation of the Catholic faith among non-Christians. They sent missionaries all throughout the world to gain and spread Christendom. 3. To fight Protestantism domestically. They restored Polish Catholicism through their conversion efforts.

Who was Robert Owen?

A 'cooperative-minded' guy who believed in cooperative communities such as New Harmony and who pushed for an 8 hour working day.

Who was Philip II?

A Militant Catholic who ruled Spain. He aggressively used the Spanish Inquisition to impose a rigid adherence to Catholicism. He poorly delegated work, however, and attempted to wholly supervise his empire. He aimed to make Spain a dominant power in Europe, yet war expenses, regardless of new bouillon importations put Spain in a bad economic position. He saw his rule as a protectorate of Catholicism, yet his greatest failures were in his tortured relations with Queen Elizabeth and failed attempt to crush the Netherlands revolt.

What was the Calas Incident?

A Protestant father was accused of murdering his son to prevent his son's conversion to Catholicism. He was tortured to confess his guilt and soonafter died. Voltaire was angry and published scathing criticisms of the incident forcing a retrial where Calas was exonerated when it was proven that his son had committed suicide.

Who was blanc?

A frenchman who wanted to establish a better society as outlined in The Organization of Work where products would be manufactured for public sale.

Why did some turn to anarchism?

A lack of revolutionary fervor caused many to turn to anarchism, a movement prominent in less industrialized and democratic countries. Anarchists believed people were inherently good but corrupted by society. They wanted to abolish the state. Michael Bakunin was an anarchist who believed that small groups of trained revolutionaries could perpetrate so much violence so as to cause the disintegration of the state. Lev Aleshker also believed in anarchy. Anarchists turned to assassination following Bakunin's death.

Who was Wagner?

A musician who believed that opera was the best form of artistic expression. He transformed opera into music drama through his "total art work" which combined music, acting, dance, and poetry. Created the leitmotiv where the human voice combined with rather than dominated the instruments. The Ring of the Nibelung was a series of four music dramas dealing with mythical German gods.

What was the result of the search for unity?

A need arose for the Zurich and the southern German states to ally in order to defend against Charles V. Divisions within the reformation soon arose and a conference was called at Marburg where Zwingli would insist that the Lord's Supper was symbolic. The different factions were not able to unite and Zwingli died.

What was the Vendee?

A peasant revolt against the National Convention's new military draft. They wanted the king and the old regime. They favored a decentralized republic.

Who was David Hume?

A pioneering social scientist who argued that the experiences that constituted human life would lead to the knowledge of human nature.

Who is fourier?

A socialist who wished to establish utopian communities called phalanstery where the 1,620 people would become communists.

Who was flora tristan?

A special girl who created a utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism. Of course it failed. After decades and decades of failed socialist experiments it was eventually abandoned as simply impractical and thus overshadowed by the practical forces of economic liberalism and nationalism.

Describe the Weakness of the Polish Monarchy?

Although Poland ruled over a vast amount of land, it was weak in that the monarch was elected. Particularly destabilizing was the Sejm, which was a two-chamber assembly where landowners dominated the others who existed. The king had to agree to share important powers which created an uncentralized monarchy which made easy pray for prospective conquerors.

Why did the British give Canada independence?

Although they had crushed prior rebellions, American rhetoric during the Civil War to seize Canada gave impetus to the British government ultimately establishing the Canadian Nation.

What was the Directory?

An executive body chosen from the Council of Elders which relied on the military to sustain its governance. For example, the first day of its existence, it used the military to suppress Parisian discontent. New elections in 1797 only furthered the Directory's reliance on military power which led to Napoleon's 1799 coup d'etat.

Describe the Pugachev Rebellion?

An illiterate Cossack Pugachev stirred Russia peasants to fight against the government and peasants killed up to fifteenhundred lords. The government cracked down on this anarchy and Pugachev was tortured and executed. Rural reform was halted and serdom was expanded.

How did the slave trade work?

African middlemen would actually capture the slaves or local rulers would sell sell their people to Europeans. As local rulers realized that it was unsustainable and had negative consequences, they began to protest it but the Euro's didn't care.

Describe European prison reform.

France and England examined two US prisons and decided to implement a system of solitary confinement. Due to its high costs, the French decided to return to their system of shipping prisoners to French Guiana.

What caused the scramble for Africa?

As European countries began their land grab, others followed suit in fear of looking weak on the national stage.

Describe Renaissance Art?

Friedrich painted landscapes of Earth, believing nature a manifestation of divine life. Turner painted landscapes by seeking to convey moods by changing the focus of the painting and which colors he emphasized. Delacroix was fascinated by the exotic and had a passion for color.

Describe the German Police?

Modeled after the London police, these Schutzmannschaft, were armed with brass knuckles, swords, and pistols. They were soon used for political purposes.

What precipitated the Spanish Civil War?

As parliamentary regimes failed to survive, Primo Rivera led a military coup and created a dictatorship. The Great Depression, however, led to the collapse of his regime, with the Popular Front -an anti fascist coalition- providing some stability to the fledgling republic. Senior army officers such as Francisco Franco, however, did not like this anti-fascist government and inaugurated a brutal and bloody civil war.

What resulted in new public health measures?

Cholera outbreak encouraged cities to focus on preventative medicine and revamp infrastructure for better sewage disposal, clean water, and less crowded housing. Furthermore, practices such as pasteurization of milk and water purification became the norm.

Discuss Germany's growing aggression in Europe?

AFter the union with Austria, which Hitler concocted with his Austria Nazi ally as leader, he began to incorporate Czechoslovakia. He first demanded autonomy for the Sudetenland (the most resource rich area in the country) and later at the Munich Conference, the Western powers had appeased this aggression. Czechoslovakia was left powerless and destroyed. Hitler then believed western powers would permit the invasion of Poland. They did not. As Hitler invaded Poland, the Western powers declared war and so did the Soviet Union on Germany in spite of the Non-Aggression pact.

Describe how declarations of war intensified?

After Austria declared war on Serbia, Russia declared war on Austria to back up its ally. The Russia military plans, however, had been devised for a two-front war against Germany and Austria so Germany became involved in the conflict. German military plans, on the other hand, had anticipated a two-front war between France and Russia and Germany thus enacted the Schlieffen plan which called for a rapid French defeat followed by concentration of troops on Russia. Britain then declared war on the side of the Triple Entente to protect its world power.

Describe the development of the third republic of France?

After Germany invaded, it set up a new National Assembly which was divided between monarchists and republicans. Paris decided to not participate in this national assembly and form its own radical republic called the commune which was brutally oppressed. Louis Michel was a woman who supported the Commune. Divisions between the strong monarchists regarding who should be king resulted in the Republicans to gain more power and they established the third republic in the Constitution of 1875. It still faced opposition from the monarchists, Catholic Clergy, and professional army officers. General Georges Boulanger, a popular military general, lost the nerve to stage a coup d'etat and fled France.

How did the tide of war turn in fall 1942?

Advanced detection technology minimized German submarine attacks while British and American forces defeated Rommel's troops at El Alamein. In Russia, meanwhile, Stalin had relentlessly defended his city (Stalingrad), and forced the German 6th Army to surrender. Hope for defeating the Soviet Union was all but gone. In the Asian Pacific theatre of the war, the allies had wiped out all four attacking Japanese aircraft carriers establishing US naval superiority in the Pacific.

Describe Peter the Great and his reforms?

After a visit to the West, Peter returned to Russia with a firm determination to westernize his realm in order to increase the power of the army and navy. He conscripted peasants to work in the army of 9or 25 years and developed a large standing army of 210,000 men. He formed the first navy and reorganized the central government by creating a Senate and colleges to govern and deal with specific functions of government while Peter was away. He divided Russia into 50 provinces, yet many of his bureaucrats feared him creating an ineffective bureaucracy. He created a system of ranks whereby the non-nobility could achieve nobility status through merit. The army was expensive so Peter tried mercantilist policies and raised taxes. He attempted to establish state control over the Russian Orthodox Church by abolishing the position of patriarch and creating a body called the Holy Synod to make church decisions. He created a procurator, or layman who represented the interest of the tsar who assured Peter of his denomination of the church. He rigorously enforced western etiquette by shaving off Russian beards and by cutting long Russian coats. He gave women more rights by allowing them to mary and by allowing them to mingle with western games.

Why is Descartes considered the founder of modern Rationalism?

After becoming "learned" in university, Descartes had an epiphany, that he would begin again in his learning and only accept those things that his reason said were true. He is attributed with the quote I think, therefore I am which demonstrates the reason he had in accepting his very existence. Descartes came up with Cartesian dualism, or the belief that the mind cannot be doubted but the body and material world could' which earned him the enmity of church officials. He believed that the human world was governed by its own physical laws because it was created by the Great Geometrician, God. He caused many Westerners to equate their identity with mind and reason rather than with the whole organism. He was the father of modern rationalism because he doubted many previous teachings and only accepted what his reason said was true.

Describe the Italian States?

After the Treaty of Utrecht, Austria took control of much of Italy. Under the new bourbon dynasty, however, Spain reestablished control of Naples and Sicily. Venice and Genoa remained independent and grew in power.

Describe how the US matured?

After the War of 1812, justice Marshall helped to establish national unity. Jackson's election, moreover, greatly expanded the electorate establishing universal white male suffrage.

How do taverns and alcohol reflect pop culture?

Alcohol was dirt cheap and many people drank large quantities of gin in England and vodka in Russia which led to a very drunk public. THe rich's drinking habits however, focused on more expensive alcohol reflecting a divide in culture. Popular culture became only a thing for the masses, while the elite culture abandoned popular festivals the the geocentric and medieval view of the world.

How did Russia embrace nationalism?

Alexander III embarked on a policy of Russification where only Russian would be used in the empire. Furthermore, his autocracy angered especially ethnic groups and created opposition to tsarist policy.

What were French possessions?

Algeria, West Africa, and Tunisia.

How should one characterize northern humanists?

All were concerned with reform and convinced of human improvement through education in the classics.

Who was Henry John Temple?

Also known as Lord Palmerston, he was a prime minister from 1855-1865. While a whig, he easily made political compromises. He was opposed to expanding the franchise.

In what way did Pascal reconcile science and religion?

Although he recognized the importance of reason, he tried to convert fellow rationalists to Christianity by appealing to this very reason and their emotions. He famously said that God is a reasonable bet for it is worthwhile to assume that he exists. If he does; then we win all; if he does not, we lose nothing. He ultimately reasoned that man must imply reason but also heart for the heart feels God not reason. At the end of the day, Pascal failed to unify Christianity and science. The gap between the two only grew larger.

Describe the development of German politics from 1529-1555.

Although technically loyal to the crown, German states had gained considerable power. Charles failed to settle problems at the Diet of Augsburg and eight princes and eleven imperial cities soon formed a defensive alliance called the Schmalkaldic League. The league allied itself with a foe of Charles', king Henry II and Charles was soon ready for compromise. The Peace of Augsburg put an end to religious warfare and formally acknowledged and permitted the division of Lutheranism and Catholicism. It gave German Prince's the right to determine the religion of his subjects.

What characteristics distinguish the Renaissance from the Middle Ages?

An increasingly wealthy elite class formed a new urban society which with a new secular spirit urged elites to rediscover their classical antiquity. Such rediscovery affected all realms of life from politics to art and prompted a renewed emphasis on humanism. Indeed, such renewed interest led some pagans to reconcile Greco-Roman thoughts with the Christian world.

Describe the evolution of Dutch anabaptist?

Anabaptists took over the city of Munster and renamed it New Jerusalem and drove everyone out and burned all books except for the bible. Soon, the city was regained and the anabaptists became peaceful under the leadership of Menno Simons whose followers became known as Mennonites.

Describe Spanish Theatre?

Lope de Vega set the agenda for playwrights who was a prolific writer. He felt he needed to please his audience.

What was the functionalism movement?

Artists felt that architecture should be stripped of ornamentation and serve a specific purpose. THe Chicago School in the 1890s led by Louis H. Sullivan pioneered the art form. Frank Lloyd Wright, a pupil of Sullivan's pioneered the modern American house. In Europe, Berlin architect Walter Gropius created steel block buildings.

What ways did Ancient Authors and Renaissance Artists further the pursuit of knowledge?

As Greek was mastered in Italy, Europeans encountered differing theories than the long accepted ones held by Aristotle and Galen. This caused Europeans to study more in order to find out who was correct; many of Aristotle's and Galen's theories were incorrect. Artists also, through their exact depiction of flora and fauna fostered the scientific study of the natural world.

How does the text argue we look at the French Revolution?

As a culmination of events 50 years prior. It must be examined in a multifaceted manner.

Describe the evolution of Hitler's anti-semitic policies?

At first, Hitler believed in emigration. He sought to ship Jews to Madagascar. After the war started, this became impractical so he needed to adjust. The SS began the final solution which was the annihilation of the Jewish people. They would make the victims dig mass graves and shoot them with special strike forces called Einsatzgruppen. Next, the Nazis created specially built death camps equipped with gas chambers to exterminate Jewish people. 2/3 of Jews were exterminated this way throughout Europe. Women, children, and the elderly were the Jews who mostly were killed as they could not work in the labor camps. After death, their hair was cut off to use in mattresses while others were subject to medical experiments. Jews weren't the only ones who were executed. Homosexuals, Slavs, gypsies, and POWs were also targets of the Nazi brutality.

How did Luther's issue with indulgences spark rebellion?

At the Leipzig debate, Luther debated a Catholic theologian Johann Eck who forced Luther to move beyond his issue with indulgences and deny papal and conciliar authority. Eck soon compared Luther to the likes of John Hus, a condemned heretic. Luther soon broke with the church where he wrote three pamphlets addressed to German princes, theologians, and the people. His pamphlet On the Freedom of a Christian Man broke with traditional Catholic practices and declared that virginity is good but marriage was better sparking family values. He was soon excommunicated for his ideas and Emperor Charles V was appalled by Luther's audacity. He issued the Edict of Worms which made Luther an outlaw within the empire. Luther went into hiding at Wartburg.

How did major powers react to crises in the Balkans?

Austria annexed slavic-speaking territories which upset the Serbs and Russians. Germany continued to support the Austrians while the Russians and French renewed their alliance. Britain drew ever closer to France and Russia.

Describe the ultimate decline of Spain?

Bankruptcies plagued the country. Military expenditures made it even more difficult to upkeep the treasury. Armed forces were out of date and internal rebellions from within threatened the stability of the country. The Peace of Westphalia, furthermore, recognized independence of former spanish territories.

What was the Baroque Period?

Baroque art was a departure from Renaissance style and was known for its use of dramatic effects to arouse the emotions. Famous artists are Peter Rubens who showed bodies in violent motion and used dramatic light and shadow and sensuous pigments to express intense emotions. Bernini was known for intensive emotional sculptures such as the Ecstasy of Saint Theresa while Artemisia Gentileschi was a famous woman artist known for her violence.

Why was the baton of industrial leadership passed from Britain to Germany in the 2nd industrial revolution?

Because Britain had industrialized earlier, it found itself less likely to embrace change. Why render an otherwise good plant useless for a riskier new method. Germans on the other hand, had entered industrialization later and were not afraid to make change. Moreover, the cartels within Germany and investment of German banks in industrial ventures put more capital for innovation in Germany rather than the cautious investors of Great Britain. Furthermore, the German government actively promoted technical and scientific education, allowing such schools to issue doctorate degrees. The 2nd industrial revolution required more such scientific knowledge, and Germany's science and tech educated graduates were more equipped to tackle the fields of electrical engineering and organic chemistry.

What parallels does Renaissance Music hold with Renaissance art?

Both Renaissance music and art explored more secular themes. Indeed Renaissance music became entertainment for many often depicting emotional or erotic love.

How did Charles I's rule foment the English Civil War?

Charles I reneged the Petition of Right and disbanded Parliament. He didn't call Parliament again for another 11 years. During this period, the king ruled as an autocrat and imposed unapproved taxes which sparked discontent in the middle class. His marriage to a Catholic, Henrietta Maria of France, aroused suspicions regarding the King's loyalty to Protestantism and when Archbishop Laud imposed the Anglican prayerbook on the Presbyterian Scottish church, the Scots rebelled. This caused Charles to call Parliament which was determined to deal the king his due. They took steps to limit royal authority such as the abolition of unapproved taxes, the Triennial Act (said that Parliament meets every 3 years regardless of king) and the abolition of arbitrary courts. When the king arrested members of Parliament, Parliament united under John Pym ushering in the English Civil War.

Who called for home rule of Ireland?

Charles Parnell.

Describe Italy during this time period?

Charles V gave much of his land to his son Philip II making Spain the dominant power in Italy. The presence was felt everywhere while the papacy also became oppressive. Austria soon replaced Spain as the dominant power.

What put France on the brink of another Revolution?

Charles X's violation of the principle of ministerial responsibility-that the ministers of the king were responsible to the legislature.

Explain King Charles' problems and their significance?

Charles had an overextended empire and needed to deal with four major problems: the French, the papacy, the Turks and Germany's internal situation. These problems allowed Luther's movement to organize before Charles nipped the movement at the bud.

What did Copernicus contribute to a new vision of the universe? How did it differ from the Ptolemaic?

Copernicus created the Copernican system which differed from the Ptolemaic system as it had a heliocentric model where the moon orbited around the earth. He explained the appearance of the sun revolving around the Earth in that the Earth simply rotated on its access. He was a conservative who reluctantly published his ideas, he drew heavily from ancient influence.

Discuss the spread of industrialization?

Countries like Japan attempted to mimic European industrialization successfully by promoting industry and technical, scientific education. Early conditions, however, were terrible for the workers just like in early industrialized Europe.

Why was nationalism an underlying force which caused WWI?

Countries who exercised restraint in order to avoid war were publicly humiliated as preserving the nation's "honor" became a popular notion. Each state, moreover, had their own nationalistic goals to increase the state's prestige. Britain wanted to preserve its empire, France wanted to regain Alsace Lorraine, Austria wanted to control Serbia, Russia wanted to defend its prestige by suppressing Serbia, and Germany sought to expand its empire.

Who was Louis Pasteur?

Formulated germ theory of disease which modernized scientific medical practices. He discovered microorganisms were responsible for fermentation launching bacteriology. He developed pasteurization which heated a product to destroy organisms causing spoilage. He soon developed vaccinations against rabies, diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague.

Describe the Bohemian phase of the war?

Frederick V leads the Bohemian rebels to overthrow Ferdinand, the Holy Roman Emperor. Ferdinand enlists the help of the Spanish and the Catholic League to combat this upset of regional power. They ridded of Frederick V and renewed their attack on the Dutch.

Describe the rise of Nationalism in Europe?

French nationalism spurred by the French Revolution caused other nations to soon join in. Other nations became nationalist based on opposition to France and by mimicking the successful French system which enabled such a Nation in Arms. Nationalists arose in France to oppose the rule of Napoleon's brother Joseph. Nationalists arose in Germany in order to build a unified German state headed by the intellectual Johann Gottlieb Fichte.

Who did Marx meet with who radicalized him?

Friedrich Engels. They wrote the Communist Manifesto. Marx would later actively organize the working class through his involvement in organizations such as the International Workingmen's Association.

Evaluate the validity of what Galen contributed to the scientific world?

Galen was an authority in the medieval scientific world yet had relied on animal rather than human dissection to give a grossly inaccurate portrayal of human anatomy. He believed there were four bodily humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile. This was incorrect.

What were the social effects of the rise of fascism?

Gender inequality increased as masculinity and femininity were embraced. The Fascists passed laws encouraging larger families and discouraging female employment. While Mussolini professed to help the poor, his policies actually benefited the industrialists and large landowners at the expense of lower classes. Mussolini began to co-opt the Catholic Church for a mutual support of the fascist church and Catholicism as the state religion.

How did WWI end in Europe?

Generals Ludendorff and Hindenburg were inspired by the Russian defeat and launched an all-out assault on the western front. Rejuvenated with the arrival of more than a million US troops, the allies had won. General Ludendorff notified German leaders they needed to sue for peace. The allies, however, were unwilling to make deals with the autocratic German government. They demanded William II leave and following the Kiel naval mutiny and German versions of soviets forming throughout the country, William II bended to public pressure. An armistice was signed after a bloody war which killed millions. Furthermore, the Armenian genocide in Syria and Iraq dramatically upped the casualties.

Describe Louis Napoleon's foreign policy in Mexico?

In 1861, he sent French troops into Mexico in order to better secure French interests. He installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria to the Mexican throne. However, when troops were needed back in Europe, Maximilian was no longer able to keep authority. He was executed which become a blow to the prestige of the French emperor.

Describe the course of the Danish War?

In 1864, the Danish government moved to incorporate German speaking duchies into Denmark. The German nationalists were outraged and persuaded Austria to join Germany in declaring war on Denmark. Denmark lost and Bismark said that government of the two duchies should be divided administratively between Prussia and Austria which laid the foundations for the isolation of Austria and provided a reason for war if it came to that later on.

Explain anti-semitism in 19th century Europe.

In Austria, Karl Lueger claimed that Jews were responsible for the corruption of German culture. The Christian Social Party used anti-Semitism to win lower class votes. The worst treatment of Jews occurred in Eastern Europe. Pogroms, (organized massacres) occurred regularly and caused many to emigrate to escape persecution. Many went to the US and Canada, and also Palestine.

Compare the growth of cities in Great Britain to continental Europe?

In Britain cities grew very quickly. So quickly, that Britain soon became a food importer as fewer and fewer people were involved in agriculture. In continental Europe, there were fewer cities. The pattern, it seems, is that those areas with greater industrialization will witness a greater growth in cities.

Analyze the role of trade unions in Europe?

In Britain, trade unions were remarkably popular, orchestrating strikes and growing to 4 million by 1914. IN continental Europe, however, trade unions were tied very close to socialist ideology and remained fragmented. The French created the General Confederation of Labor in 1895 which remained decentralized and was weak and ineffective. German unions were attached too closely to political parties to be nationally effective, yet eventually achieved success with the acceptance of collective bargaining with employers.

Describe Galileo and the Inquisition.

In his The Starry Messenger he revealed himself a firm proponent of the heliocentric system which the church held was contrary to doctrine and philosophy. After the church demanded he recant his supposition, he published his Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems written in the vernacular Italian which caused church authorities to place him under house arrest.

Describe the outcome of revolutionary outbursts in Belgium, Poland, and Italy.

In Italy and Poland, Metternich successfully repressed rebellion. In Belgium, however, dissidents successfully achieved independence from the Dutch Republic.

How did totalitarian Germany and Italy organize mass leisure?

In Italy the Dopolavoro establish various means to entertain the Italian workers in their freetime (concerts, libraries, operas, etc). LIkewise, the German Kraft durch Freude coordinated the free time of the working class offering a myriad of leisure activities including vacations.

Discuss the rise of Hitler?

In Vienna he discovered his purpose. He established his basic anti-Semitic, racist, and nationalist beliefs and entered politics following WWI. FOllowing WWI, he formed the National Socialist German Workers' Party or the Nazi party. He worked hard to assiduously develop the party into a mass political movement and in 1923 when he staged his Beer Hall Putsch he was sentenced to jail for five years. In his book Mein Kampf which he wrote in prison he stressed the right of superior nations to living space or lebensraum.

What were the ideas of Montesquieu?

In his Persian Letters, he criticized French institutions especially the church and advocated for absolute religions toleration, the denunciation of slavery, and the use of reason to erase human prejudices. His most famous work, The Spirit of the Laws, was a comparative study of governments in which he praised England's constitution for its checks and balances and separation of powers. This had an impact on the founders when it was translated into English.

Describe the utility of mass education?

It instilled patriotism and a common language in a country. This education was sexist with boys focusing on math. Following elementary school, many found an apprenticeship and later a job.

In what way did conservative governments dominate domestically in Europe?

In the UK, the conservative Tories ruled and resisted reforms until 1830. Despite uprisings such as the St. Peter's Field uprising in Manchester, the government maintained order and crushed such revolts. In England, while Louis XVIII made concessions to the liberals such as keeping the Napoleonic Code, his successor Charles X was more aligned with the ultra royalists who were more conservative. In Italy, Austria dominated much of Italy even though there were revolutionary secret societies such as the Carbonari. In Spain, the Bourbon dynasty led by Ferdinand VII

How did nations take a religious approach to Imperialism?

In the belief of superiority of their civilization, many missionaries wanted to spread their wonderful civilization known as the white man's burden.

What effect did the war have on pop culture?

It created the Lost Generation which was a literary movement emphasizing loss from the war and the depression. Furthermore, women began to embrace more promiscuous hair and outfit styles.

What is the significance of the election of 1860?

It elected Abraham Lincoln which led to a political realignment and the split of the democrat party and south from the union.

What caused the July Revolution?

King Charles edicts which dissolved the legislature, and reduced social liberties. His actions only fueled simmering discontent. Newspapers defied his authority and published flaming articles while the duke of Orleans, Louis-Philippe, wanted to become the constitutional king.

Describe the Danish Phase?

King Christian IV of Denmark intervened on behalf of the Protestants. He was defeated by Ferdinand's new commander, Albrecht von Wallenstein, a wealthy landowner. His defeat signified the end of Danish supremacy in the Baltic. Ferdinand II capitalized on his defeat by issuing the Edict of Restitution which prohibited Calvinist worship and restored all Protestant property to the Catholic Church.

What were Belgium possession?

King Leopold II conquered the central African republic and was so harsh in his treatment of Africans that other European colonies intervened.

Describe King Charles' problems with the French and the papacy?

King Valois of France grew worried over Charles' possessions all along the circumference of his empire. For twenty-four years, Charles and King Valois fought the Habsburg-Valois Wars. Pope Clement VII decided to join in on King Valois' side which caused king Charles to sack Rome.

Who was Frederick II?

Known as Frederick the Great, he was one of the best-educated and most cultured monarchs of the 17th century and invited Voltaire to live at his house. He oversaw the operation of the administration with diligence making the Prussian bureaucracy renowned for its efficiency and honesty. He was a social conservative who furthered the system of serfdom and caste-like nobility. He did however, introduce freedom of speech and press and religious toleration expect for Jews. He increased peasant productivity and used his armies when he needed to. By the end of his reign, Prussia was recognized as a superpower.

What were the effects of efforts to reform the church?

Like many other new monarchies at the time, popes likewise resisted any checks on their authority. Indeed, the Council of Constance did little more than pass meaningless decrees. Pope Pius II finally fully ridded of conciliar power and had reasserted supremacy over the Catholic Church. In doing so, however, the papal monarchy had lost much moral prestige and no longer asserted the same power over government's as the medieval papacy had.

What were the Zemstvos?

Local assemblies which provided some representative government. Because voting was based on property owned, the nobility representation in the zemstvos was disproportionate to that of other classes. While the Zemstvos were given limited power such as taxation and providing farming services and healthcare, bureaucrats often disrupted these efforts.

In what way did temporal preoccupations overshadow the Renaissance Popes' spiritual functions?

Many Renaissance Popes cared more for the expansion of the Papal States than for maintaining piety. Indeed, pope Julius II was involved in war and politics leading numerous armies himself against opponents. Popes concentrated their efforts also in developing the practice of nepotism in order to further territorial aims. Nepotism is the practice of pope's giving relatives (particularly nephews) church offices in the hopes that the Papal States would be secured.

Describe the problem of poverty in the cities?

Many cities had beggars who needed to beg for food and money to sustain themselves. In early Europe, they believed that giving to such beggars was a duty of Christianity, however later beggars were viewed as lazy.

Discuss the impact world war I had on Europe's population?

Many were mourning the loss of loved ones-especially in France. Veterans had PTSD and became accustomed to violence which they used in the new political movements of the 1920s and 1930s.

What role did women play in the Scientific Revolution?

Margaret Cavendish questioned rationalist and empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge arguing that man did not have supreme and absolute power in her Observations upon Experimental Philosophy. Maria Merian was a superb artist who drew the reproductive and developmental cycles of Surinam's insect life. Maria Winklemann was an astronomer who discovered a new comet and who was complimented by male scientists. Nonetheless, the role of men remained restricted in society. For example, Winklemann and Cavendish were not permitted to join the Royal Society of England or the French Academy of Scientists. Winklemann was also denied the admittance to the Berlin Academy which feared that hiring a woman would establish a precedent. Women, moreover, remained discriminated against as all the new science of women's smaller skulls and larger pelvic areas proved that women were inferior. Even the role of midwives began to be replaced by men. The Scientific Revolution reaffirmed traditional ideas about women.

Describe the War of the Austrian Succession?

Maria Theresa, the heir of Charles VI was supposed to be the heir to the Austrian throne. Some, however, took advantage of the new empress to invade Austrian Silesia and the conflict erupted into a world war. The Pragmatic Sanction was what Charles VI wrote which had the Magyars agree to recognize Theresa the leader if the Austrians recognized more independence. Made the empire less united. This launches Prussia as a serious power.

What steps did Hitler take to develop a total state?

Mass demonstrations such us the Nuremberg party rallies combined the symbolism of a religious service with the merriment of a popular amusement. These rallies invoked excitement. Hitler fostered rivalry among the party members and leaders so that he could become the ultimate decision maker, the fuhrer. The German Labor Front under Robert Ley created a state-run union where to control the workers, each labourer needed a workbook. Only by being a Nazi could you obtain a workbook. Non-Aryans could not work. The Schutzstaffel or Protection Squads controlled the secret police. They functioned on two principles: terror and ideology. The churches soon became Nazi-run and state-run professional leagues helped indoctrinate the workers.

Describe the rise of mass consumption?

Mass leisure soon became a part of mass consumption. Furniture, clothing, utensils, bedding, all became material goods which people longed for. Men consumed alcohol and tobacco and were purchasing ready made clothing.

What was the principle of legitimacy?

Metternich, the leader of the Congress of Vienna, established this principle which valued the restoration of monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. In some areas such as France and Spain, this principle was followed in that Bourbon king Louis XVIII and another Bourbon king was restored to the throne. In Italy and Poland however, this principle was ignored and overshadowed by "practical considerations of power."

What were the five major states of Italy?

Milan, Venice, Florence, Papal States, and Kingdom of Naples were the five major states. Merchant-aristocracies dominated many of the major states excluding the Papal states.

What was the effect of European colonization of the African Coastline?

Millions of Africans were displaced and forcibly shipped to work as slaves in the new world.

What effects did the revolutions of 1848 have on the Austrian Empire?

Only resulted in abolition of compulsory labor services and serfdom.

Who was Francis Xavier?

Original member of the Society of Jesus who carried messages of Catholicism to East Asia. He converted thousands in India and Japan.

What were the policies of the Renaissance popes, and what impact did those policies have on the Catholic Church?

Renaissance Popes centralized power at the expense of temporal governmental influence. In not cooperating with council's the Catholic Church had lost the influence over temporal government's which the medieval papacy had had. Moreover, the Renaissance Papacy policies of focusing more securing the territorial stability of the Papal States and especially Pope Julius II's inclination towards war again diminished the influence of the Pope on ordinary Christians prompting many to question the hypocrisy and corruption of the clergy and papacy.

What were the differences between the 1st and 2nd industrial revolution?

The 1st gave rise to textiles, railroads, irion, and coal while the second focused on steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum.

Describe the formation of the American Nation?

The Articles of Confederation were originally too weak to prevail, so eventually delegates got together and formed the constitutional convention to revise the articles. They created a government with separation of powers and a president. The Constitution was approved by a slim margin and the government guaranteed basic freedoms in the bill of rights.

What was the Congress of Berlin?

The European powers rescinded the Treaty of San Stefano and aimed to balance powers to safeguard their security.

What was the General Directory and what was its significance?

The General Directory was created by Frederick William the I and it promoted the evolution of Prussia's highly efficient civil bureaucracy by serving as the chief administrative agent of the central government, supervising military, police, economic, and financial affairs. In developing the bureaucracy, Frederick William developed a code emphasizing the values of obedience, honor, and service to the king as the highest duty.

How did the Treaty of Versailles affect Germany?

The allies included a War Guilt Clause which placed responsibility of the war on Germany and ordered Germany to pay reparations. It also stripped Germany's army and imperial territories. It established a 30 mile demilitarized zone. Germans were outraged by the "dictated peace." Something Hitler would capitalize on later.

What was the Tennis Court Oath?

The delegates of the Third Estate found their meeting place locked so they moved to an indoor tennis court where they agreed to continue meeting until they had drawn up a Constitution. Thereafter, the King sided with the 1st estate and was prepared to respond to the third estate with force.

What caused another French government?

The depression of 1846 coupled with Louis-Philippe's lack of appeal to the lower classes led to the uprising of radical republicans, socialists, the upper middle class, and the lower class. These groups soon established national workshops under the influence of louis blanc, a socialist. This program was very burdensome. Eventually it was unsustainable and as it was closed down, the communist-minded workers revolted resulting in thousands of people dying. 4,000 more prisoners were deported to Algeria. A new constitution was thereafter established and Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napoleon, became President Napoleon.

Describe Portugal

The economy rejuvenated following the Lisbon Earthquake. Marquis de Pombal was the chief minister who helped increase Portugal's power by securing his reputation following the earthquake. The catholic church was curtailed the the empire revived.

Describe the development of the cotton industry?

The flying shuttle increased the speed of weaving whereas Hargreaves's spinning jenny sped up the process of yarn making. Arkwright's water frame spinning machine and Crompton's 'mule' further improved the industry. Finally in 1787, Cartwright's power loom greatly improved the industry.

Describe the financial crisis?

The immediate cause of the Revolution was economics. They had a depression from 1778-1787 because of overproduction and a loss of overseas markets. Poor harvests furthered this trend. This led to rapidly soaring prices for bread. Simultaneously, the government had no money. Expenditures grew due to costly wars and royal extravagance while debts grew. France had no central bank so they faced high interest rates. Many French lenders were fearful they wouldn't get repaid.

Explain the development of the new mass leisure?

The industrial system created free time for workers as it progressed. Evening hours, weekends, and summer break. Railways allowed people to go to the beaches. Music and dance halls became popular, mass tourism of other areas through train was popular, team sports became organized with strict rules and scoring methods. Stadiums attracted spectators. Women, however, were not allowed to play. Mass leisure was intended to distract people from the realities of work life.

What were the motives of exploration?

The lure of faraway lands and of adventure spurred in part by magical books written during the middle ages. Economic motives such as cutting out the Muslim middleman during trade and of reaching Asia by sea to directly engage in the lucrative spice trade. Religious zeal of converting the heathens was especially prominent in the crusading mentalities of Portugal and Spain where Muslims were just driven out. Glory was another clear motive along with the spirit of adventure and curiosity. God, Glory Gold.

What was the significance of the marriage of Isabella of Castile to Ferdinand of Aragon?

The marriage of the two Spanish monarchs triggered a greater control of government. Aristocrats' former positions were filled with trained lawyers who were loyal to the monarchy in the royal council. They reformed the Spanish army making it the best infantry force in Europe. They secured the power of selecting the most powerful church officials in Spain which ensured Spanish control of the church. They also expelled Muslims and Jews.

What was the Concert of Europe and why was it established?

The quadruple alliance of the UK, Prussia, Russia, and Austria established this. They soon added France making themselves a quintuple alliance. Eventually, the alliance pledged to fight revolutions which challenged the status quo.

Discuss the effects of the Russian Civil War?

The red Bolshevik army fought the White (anti-Bolshevik army in the Civil War. The royal Czarist family was a victim of the civil war. The Reds developed a more sophisticated army and secret police (Cheka), thanks to the genius of Trotsky,chair of the war department. The Whites lost because of their political differences and disunity while the REds only further appealed to patriotism as foreigners were stationed on Russian soil. The Red Terror where the Reds executed thousands layered an element of fear to the Bolshevik regime.

What were the economic motives for imperialism?

The rich rubber, oil, and tin deposits in colonies caused this demand. However, the textbook's authors point out that colonies often were more costly to administer than the resources extracted out of them. Consequently, they conclude that it was the desire for national prestige which best fueled imperialism.

In what manner did nobles develop throughout the Renaissance?

The second estate, or the nobility witnessed a reconstruction during the renaissance. The nobility maintained its dominant role in society serving in important advisorial and military roles yet unlike the Middle Ages, the nobility pursued education as a means to solidify their role in government. Castiglione, a noble himself wrote a fundamental handbook to aristocrats which urged them to have a classical education and pursue worldly activities such as music, and art. He deducted that through a worldly and respectable character, the second estate could achieve its goal of serving the prince honestly and effectively without fear or risk of displeasing his prince.

Effects of the slave trade?

The slave trade devastated African populations and corrupted the traditional African Way of Life through the introduction of guns, beer, theft, and trickery. Humanitarian chords arose from concerned European intellectuals, but it wouldn't be until the Quakers that strong anti-slavery sentiment in Europe emerged.

Who was Simon Bolivar?

The son of a creole elite who led the bitter struggle for independence in Venezuela and northern South America. He became president of the Venezuela federation in 1819. Bolivar ultimately crushed the last Spanish troops in South America which ensured the establishment of the South American free states.

How did Lenin foster peace?

The treaty of Brest-Litovsk fomented peace with Germany at a price. Russia would lose many baltic provinces and Poland, Ukraine, and Finland.

Describe the growth of the slave trade?

The triangular trade facilitated the trading in slaves. This triangular trade connected Europe, Africa, and the American continents. Europeans would bring guns, gin and cloth to Africa which was traded for slaves which was sold in America where Europeans bought molasses, sugar, rum and cotton which they then exported in European markets. The slave trade soon increased as many realized they could make a profit and because many slaves ended up dying in the Middle Passage, where slaves were in unsanitary and cramped conditions. In the New World, many plantation owners discouraged slaves having children because it was more cost-effective to simply buy a new one.

Define absolutism

The ultimate authority of a state rested in the hands of a king who claimed to rule by divine right.

How did the people react to Louis-Philippe's rule?

The upper classes liked him for he was known as the bourgeois monarch. Constitutional changes largely favored the interests of the upper class. The lower classes, understandably, were disappointed.

Why does the text describe the Victorian Era as one of uneasy stability?

The upper middle class and aristocracy blurred party lines through internal strive and shifting positions.

Describe the middle class family?

The wife stayed at home and maintained the house (although was meant to appear as being idle). Meanwhile, boys sought to appear manly in the boy scouts which reflected Edwardian and Victorian codes of masculinity to counter the dangers that female domination of the home posed for male development. Husbands would work. Limited family size.

Describe the beginnings of the Zionist movement?

Theodor Herzl published The Jewish State which called for a return to the ancient land of Palestine. Jews immigrated here annually yet at that point, Israel was owned by the Ottoman Empire and they were not likely to surrender it.

What was the purpose of trade unions?

To preserve workers' positions by limiting entry into their trade, and to gain benefits from employers.

What was Paracelus' motive?

To replace traditional scientific understanding with a new chemical philosophy based on new observation and experiment.

What caused new police forces to emerge?

Urban middle class fears that the urban poor would steal their property.

In what way were housing needs addressed?

VA Huber viewed slums as dangerous to physical health and the moral and political health of the nation. Good housing was necessary for a stable family and life according to him. Octavia Hill for example, converted dwellings into 3500 tenements at reasonable prices to try to make housing more affordable all together. Government involvement increased.

Describe the failure to make reforms?

While the Parlements had gotten some power after being blocked by XIV, they often sought mostly to push their own interests such as blocking new taxes. A fundamental problem facing the monarchy was financial.