AP Euro Project Quarter 3 Quizlet #1

Alexander Herzen (1812-1870) (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

A Russian exile living in London, whose slogan ''Land and Freedom'' epitomized his belief that the Rus- sian peasant must be the chief in- strument for social reform. Herzen believed that the peasant village com- mune could serve as an independent, self-governing body that would form the basis of a new Russia. Russian students and intellectuals who fol- lowed Herzen's ideas formed a movement called populism whose aim was to create a new society through the revolutionary acts of the peasants. The peasants' lack of in- terest in these revolutionary ideas, however, led some of the populists to resort to violent means to over- throw tsarist autocracy.

British East India Company (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

A private trading company known as the British East India Company had been responsible for subjugating much of India. In 1858, however, after a revolt of the sepoys, or Indian troops of the East India Company's army, had been crushed, the British Parliament trans- ferred the company's powers directly to the government in London. In 1876, the title Empress of India was bestowed on Queen Victoria; Indians were now her colonial subjects.

French Revolution of 1848 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

A severe industrial and agricultural depression beginning in 1846 brought great hardship to the French lower middle class, workers, and peasants. One-third of the workers in Paris were unemployed by the end of 1847. Scandals, graft, and corruption were rife, and the government's persistent refusal to extend the suffrage angered the disenfranchised members of the middle class. As Louis-Philippe's government continued to refuse to make changes, opposition grew. Radical republicans and socialists, joined by the upper middle class under the leadership of Adolphe Thiers, agitated for the dismissal of Guizot. Since they were forbidden by law to stage political rallies, they used the political banquet to call for reforms. Almost seventy such banquets were held in France during the winter of 1847-1848; a grand culminating banquet was planned for Paris on February 22. When the government forbade it, people came anyway; students and workers threw up barricades in Paris. Although Louis- Philippe now proposed reform, he was unable to form another ministry and abdicated on February 24 and fled to Britain. A provisional government was established by a group of moderate and radical republicans; the latter even included the socialist Louis Blanc. The provisional gov- ernment ordered that representatives for a constituent assembly convened to draw up a new constitution be elected by universal manhood suffrage. The provisional government also established national workshops under the influence of Louis Blanc. As Blanc envisioned them, the workshops were to be cooperative factories run by the workers. In fact, the workshops primarily provided unskilled jobs, such as leaf raking and ditch digging, for unemployed workers. The cost of the program became increasingly burdensome to the government. The result was a growing split between the moderate republicans, who had the support of most of France, and the radical republicans, whose main support came from the Parisian working class. In the elections for the Na- tional Assembly, five hundred seats went to moderate republicans and three hundred to avowed monarchists, while the radicals gained only one hundred. From March to June, the number of unemployed enrolled in the na- tional workshops rose from 10,000 to almost 120,000, emptying the treasury and frightening the moderates, who responded by closing the workshops on June 23. The workers refused to accept this decision and poured into the streets. Four days of bitter and bloody fighting by government forces crushed the working-class revolt. Thousands were killed, and four thousand prisoners were deported to the French colony of Algeria in North Africa. The new constitution, ratified on November 4, 1848, established a republic (the Second Republic) with a unicameral (one-house) legislature of 750 elected by universal male suffrage for three years and a president, also elected by universal male suffrage, for four years. In the elections for the presidency held in December 1848, four repub- licans who had been associated with the early months of the Second Republic were resoundingly defeated by Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, the nephew of Napo- leon Bonaparte. Within four years, President Napoleon would become Emperor Napoleon.

"The woman question" (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

''The woman question'' was the catchphrase used to refer to the debate over the role of women in society. In the nineteenth century, women remained legally inferior, economically dependent, and largely defined by family and household roles. Many women still aspired to the ideal of femininity popularized by writers and poets. Historians have pointed out that this traditional charac- terization of the sexes, based on gender-defined social roles, was elevated to the status of universal male and female at- tributes in the nineteenth century, due largely to the impact of the Industrial Revolution on the family. As the chief family wage earners, men worked outside the home, while women were left with the care of the family, for which they were paid nothing. Of course, the ideal did not always match reality, especially for the lower classes, where the need for supplemental income drove women to do sweatwork.

Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881) (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

After Pal- merston's death in 1865, the movement for the extension of the franchise only intensified. Although the Whigs (now called the Liberals), who had been responsible for the Reform Act of 1832, talked about passing additional reform legislation, it was actually the Tories (now called the Conservatives) who carried it through. The Tory leader in Parliament, Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881), was apparently motivated by the desire to win over the newly enfranchised groups to the Conservative Party. The Reform Act of 1867 was an important step toward the democratization of Britain. By lowering the monetary requirements for voting (taxes paid or income earned), it by and large enfranchised many male urban workers. The number of voters increased from about 1 million to slightly over 2 million. Although Disraeli believed that this would benefit the Conservatives, industrial workers helped produce a huge Liberal victory in 1868. The extension of the right to vote had an important by- product as it forced the Liberal and Conservative Parties to organize carefully in order to manipulate the electorate. Party discipline intensified, and the rivalry between the Liberals and Conservatives became a regular feature of parliamentary life. In large part this was due to the per- sonal and political opposition of the two leaders of these parties, William Gladstone (1809-1898) and Disraeli.

Reform in Austria-Hungary (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

After the creation of the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary in 1867, the Austrian part received a constitution that established a parliamentary system with the principle of ministerial responsibility. But Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) largely ignored ministerial responsibility and proceeded to personally appoint and dismiss his ministers and rule by decree when parliament was not in session. The problem of the minorities continued to trouble the empire. The ethnic Germans, who made up only one-third of Austria's population, governed Austria but felt in- creasingly threatened by the Czechs, Poles, and other Slavic groups within the empire. The difficulties in dealing with this problem were especially evident from 1879 to 1893 when Count Edward von Taaffe (1833-1895) served as prime minister. Taaffe attempted to ''muddle through'' by relying on a coalition of German con- servatives, Czechs, and Poles to maintain a majority in parliament. But his concessions to national minorities, such as allowing the Slavic languages as well as German to be used in education and administration, antagonized the German-speaking Austrian bureaucracy and aristocracy, two of the basic pillars of the empire. Opposition to Taaffe's policies brought his downfall in 1893 but did not solve the nationalities problem. While the dissatisfied non-German groups demanded concessions, the ruling Austrian Germans resisted change. What held the Austro-Hungarian Empire together was a combination of forces. Francis Joseph, the emperor, was one unifying factor. Although strongly anti-Hungarian, the cau- tious emperor made an effort to take a position above na- tional differences. Loyalty to the Catholic Church also helped keep such national groups as Czechs, Slovaks, and Poles loyal to the Catholic Habsburg dynasty. Finally, although dominated by German-speaking officials, the large imperial bureaucracy served as a unifying force for the empire. Unlike Austria, Hungary had a working parliamentary system, but it was controlled by the great Magyar land-owners who dominated both the Hungarian peasantry and the other ethnic groups in Hungary. The Hungarians at- tempted to solve their nationalities problem by systematic Magyarization. The Magyar language was imposed on all schools and was the only language that could be used by government and military officials.

Albert Einstein (1879-1955) (7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

Albert Einstein (1879-1955), a German-born patent officer working in Switzerland, pushed these theories of ther- modynamics into new terrain. In 1905, Einstein published a paper titled ''The Electro-Dynamics of Moving Bodies'' that contained his special theory of relativity. According to relativity theory, space and time are not absolute but relative to the observer, and both are interwoven into what Einstein called a four-dimensional space-time continuum. Neither space nor time had an existence inde- pendent of human experience. As Einstein later explained simply to a journalist, ''It was formerly believed that if all material things disappeared out of the universe, time and space would be left. According to the relativity theory, however, time and space disappear together with the things.'' Moreover, matter and energy reflected the rel- ativity of time and space. Einstein concluded that matter was nothing but another form of energy. His epochal formula E = mc^2—each particle of matter is equivalent to its mass times the square of the velocity of light—was the key theory explaining the vast energies contained within the atom. It led to the atomic age. Many scientists were unable to comprehend Einstein's ideas, but during a total eclipse of the sun in May 1919, scientists were able to demonstrate that light was deflected in the gravitational field of the sun, just as Einstein had predicted. This confirmed Einstein's general theory of relativity and opened the scientific and intellectual world to his ideas. The 1920s would become the ''heroic age'' of physics.

Zemstvos (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

Alexander II also attempted other reforms. In 1864, he instituted a system of zemstvos, or local assemblies, that provided a moderate degree of self-government. Representatives to the zemstvos were to be elected from the noble land-owners, townspeople, and peasants, but the property-based system of voting gave a distinct advantage to the nobles. Zemstvos were given a limited power to provide public services, such as education, famine relief, and road and bridge maintenance. They could levy taxes to pay for these services, but their efforts were frequently disrupted by bureaucrats, who feared any hint of self-government. The hope of liberal nobles and other social reformers that the zemstvos would be expanded into a national parliament remained unfulfilled. The legal re- forms of 1864, which created a regular system of local and provincial courts and a judicial code that accepted the principle of equality before the law, proved success- ful, however

Richard Wagner (1813-1883) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Although Liszt was an influential mentor to a number of young composers, he was most closely associated with his eventual son-in-law Richard Wagner (1813-1883). Building on the advances made by Liszt and the New German School, Wagner ultimately realized the German desire for a truly national opera. Wagner was not only a composer but also a propagandist and writer in support of his unique conception of dramatic music. Called both the culmination of the Romantic era and the beginning of the avant-garde, Wagner's music may be described as a monumental development in classical music. Believing that opera is the best form of artistic expression, Wagner transformed opera into ''music drama'' through his Gesamtkunstwerk (''total art work''), a musical composition for the theater in which music, acting, dance, poetry, and scenic design are synthesized into a harmonious whole. He abandoned the traditional divisions of opera, which interrupted the dramatic line of the work, and instead used a device called a leitmotiv, a recurring musical theme in which the human voice combined with the line of the orchestra instead of rising above it. His operas incorporate literally hundreds of leitmotivs in order to convey the story. For his themes, Wagner looked to myth and epic tales from the past. His most ambitious work was The Ring of the Nibelung, a series of four music dramas dealing with the mythical gods of the ancient German epic.

Mass consumption (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Amusement parks, dance halls, organized tourist trips, and athletic events all offered new forms of leisure for masses of people, but they also quickly became part of the new mass consumption of the late nineteenth century. Earlier most people's purchases had been limited: some kitchen utensils, bedding, furniture, and a few select pieces of tailor-made clothing. Now middle- and upper-class Europeans were able to purchase and enjoy a wide variety of material goods. The new mass consumption was made possible by improvements in the standard of living, the factory system, population growth, expanded transportation systems, urbanization, and the modernization of retailing in which standardized merchandise was sold in large volumes. When European cities were reconstructed in the late nineteenth century, space was allotted for department stores. Constructed of the new industrial materials—iron columns and plate-glass windows—department stores such as Paris's Le Bon Marche offered consumers an endless variety of goods in large spaces; Le Bon Marche covered 52,000 square meters of surface space. In 1860, its mer- chandise included shawls, cloaks, bedding, and fabrics; by the 1880s, its stock had expanded to include women's, men's, and children's clothing, accessories, furniture, rugs, umbrellas, toothbrushes, stationery, perfume, toys, shoes, and cutlery. Sales at Le Bon Marche in 1877 registered 73 million francs. Omnibuses carried people throughout Paris, enabling them to travel beyond their neighborhoods to shop at the new stores. Advertising in mass newspapers introduced Europeans to the new products, while de- partment store catalogs enabled people living outside the cities to also purchase the new goods. Although most advertisements were directed toward women, men also took part in the new consumer culture of the late nineteenth century. Not only did men consume goods such as alcohol and tobacco, but they were also the chief purchasers of ready-made clothing in the late nine- teenth century. In the United States in 1890, men bought 71 percent of all ready-made clothing. As work and leisure were separated, men needed to expand their wardrobes to include both clothes for work outside the home and clothes to be worn for entertaining at home or other leisure activities. Men also consumed such goods as shaving soaps, aftershave lotions, hair dyes, and sporting goods.

The American Civil War (1861-1865) (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

An extraordinarily bloody struggle, a foretaste of the total war to come in the twentieth century. More than 600,000 soldiers died, either in battle or from deadly in- fectious diseases spawned by filthy camp conditions. Over a period of four years, the Union states of the North mobilized their superior assets and gradually wore down the Confederate forces of the South. As the war dragged on, it had the effect of radicalizing public opinion in the North. What began as a war to save the Union became a war against slavery. On January 1, 1863, Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation made most of the nation's slaves forever free". The increasingly effective Union blockade of the South, combined with a shortage of fighting men, made the Confederate cause desperate by the end of 1864. The final push of Union troops under General Ulysses S. Grant forced General Robert E. Lee's Confederate Army to surrender on April 9, 1865. Although problems lay ahead, the Union victory confirmed that the United States would be ''one nation, indivisible.''

Henri Bergson (1859-1941) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Another popular revolutionary against reason in the 1890s was Henri Bergson (1859-1941), a French philosopher whose lectures at the University of Paris made him one of the most important influences in French thought in the early twentieth cen- tury. Bergson accepted rational, scientific thought as a practical instrument for providing useful knowledge but maintained that it was incapable of arriving at truth or ultimate reality. To him, reality was the ''life force'' that suffused all things; it could not be divided into analyzable parts. Reality was a whole that could only be grasped in- tuitively and experienced directly. When we analyze it, we have merely a description, no longer the reality we have experienced.

Battle of Omdurman (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

Any peoples who dared to resist (with the exception of the Ethiopians, who defeated the Italians) were simply devastated by the superior military force of the Europeans. In 1898, Sudanese tribesmen at- tempted to defend their independence and stop a British expedition armed with the recently developed machine gun. In the ensuing Battle of Omdurman, the Sudanese were massacred. One observer noted, ''It was not a battle but an execution. . . . The bodies were not in heaps—bodies hardly ever are; but they spread evenly over acres and acres. Some lay very composedly with their slippers placed under their heads for a last pillow; some knelt, cut short in the middle of a last prayer. Others were torn to pieces.'' The battle casualties at Omdurman tell the story of the one-sided conflicts between Europeans and Africans: twenty-eight British deaths to 11,000 Sudanese.

No man's land (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

Area between opposing trenches across which soldiers typically did not move except when attacking; heavily bombarded

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Around the turn of the twentieth century, a Viennese doctor, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), put forth a series of theories that undermined optimism about the rational nature of the human mind. Freud's thought, like the new physics and the irrationalism of Nietzsche, added to the uncertainties of the age. His major ideas were published in 1900 in The Interpretation of Dreams, which contained the basic foundation of what came to be known as psychoanalysis. Although many of Freud's ideas have been shown to be wrong in many details, he is still regarded as an important figure because of the impact his theories have had.

British/Allied defeat at Gallipoli (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

As another response to the stalemate on the Western Front, both sides looked for new allies that might provide a winning advantage. The Ottoman Empire had already come into the war on Germany's side in the autumn of 1914. Russia, Great Britain, and France declared war on the Ottoman Empire in November. Although the forces of the British Empire attempted to open a Balkan front by landing forces at Gallipoli, southwest of Constantinople, in April 1915, the entry of Bulgaria into the war on the side of the Central Powers (as Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were called) and a disastrous campaign at Gallipoli caused them to withdraw. The Italians, as we have seen, entered the war on the Allied side after France and Britain promised to further their acquisition of Austrian territory. In the long run, however, Italian military incompetence forced the Allies to come to the assistance of Italy.

Russian Revolution of 1905 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

As had happened elsewhere in Europe in the nineteenth century, defeat in war led to political upheaval at home. Russia's territorial expansion to the south and east, especially its designs on northern Korea, led to a confrontation with Japan. Japan made a surprise attack on the Russian eastern fleet at Port Arthur on February 8, 1904. In turn, Russia sent its Baltic fleet halfway around the world to the East, only to be defeated by the new Japanese navy at Tsushima Strait off the coast of Japan. Much to the astonishment of many Europeans, who could not believe that an Asian state was militarily superior to a great European power, the Russians admitted defeat and sued for peace in 1905. In the midst of the war, the growing discontent of increased numbers of Russians rapidly led to upheaval. A middle class of business and professional people longed for liberal institutions and a liberal political system. Na- tionalities were dissatisfied with their domination by an ethnic Russian population that constituted only 40 per- cent of the empire's total population. Peasants were still suffering from lack of land, and laborers felt oppressed by their working and living conditions in Russia's large cities. The breakdown of the transport system caused by the Russo-Japanese War led to food shortages in the major cities of Russia. As a result, on January 9, 1905, a massive procession of workers went to the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg to present a petition of grievances to the tsar. Troops foolishly opened fire on the peaceful demonstra- tion, killing hundreds and launching a revolution. This ''Bloody Sunday'' incited workers to call strikes and form unions; meanwhile, zemstvos demanded parliamentary government, ethnic groups revolted, and peasants burned the houses of landowners. After a general strike in October 1905, the government capitulated. Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto, in which he granted civil liberties and agreed to create a legislative assembly known as the Duma, elected directly by a broad franchise. This satisfied the middle-class moderates, who now supported the government's repres- sion of a workers' uprising in Moscow at the end of 1905. But real constitutional monarchy proved short-lived. Under Peter Stolypin, who served as the tsar's chief adviser from late 1906 until his assassination in 1911, important agrarian reforms dissolved the village ownership of land and opened the door to private ownership by enterprising peasants. Nicholas II, however, was no friend of reform. Already by 1907, the tsar had curtailed the power of the Duma, and after Stolypin's murder, he fell back on the army and bureaucracy to rule Russia.

Mobilization (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

Assembling of troops for war

Second Industrial Revolution (2 ECD, 7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

At the heart of Europeans' belief in progress after 1871 was the stunning material growth produced by what historians have called the Second Industrial Revolution. The First Industrial Revolution had given rise to textiles, railroads, iron, ad coal. In the second revolution, steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum led the way to new industrial frontiers.

Fabian Socialists (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

At the same time, a movement for laborers emerged among a group of intellectuals known as the Fabian Socialists who stressed the need for the workers to use their right to vote to capture the House of Commons and pass legislation that would benefit the laboring class. Neither the Fabian Socialists nor the British trade unions were Marxist. They did not advocate class struggle and revo- lution but instead favored evolution toward a socialist state by democratic means. In 1900, representatives of the trade unions and Fabian Socialists coalesced to form the Labour Party. Although the new party won only one seat in 1900, it managed to elect twenty-nine members to the House of Commons in 1906.

Plutocrats (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

At the top of European society stood a wealthy elite, constituting only 5 percent of the population but controlling between 30 and 40 percent of its wealth. In the course of the nineteenth century, aristo- crats coalesced with the most successful in- dustrialists, bankers, and merchants to form this new elite. Big business had produced this group of wealthy plutocrats, while aristo- crats, whose income from landed estates had declined, invested in railway shares, public utilities, government bonds, and businesses, sometimes on their own estates. Gradually, the greatest fortunes shifted into the hands of the upper middle class. In Great Britain, for example, landed aristocrats constituted 73 percent of the country's millionaires at midcentury, while commercial and financial magnates made up 14 percent. By the period 1900-1914, landowners had declined to 27 percent. Increasingly, aristocrats and plutocrats fused as the wealthy upper middle class pur- chased landed estates to join the aristocrats in the pleasures of country living and the aristocrats bought lavish town houses for part-time urban life. Common bonds were also forged when the sons of wealthy middle-class families were ad- mitted to the elite schools dominated by the children of the aristocracy. At Oxford, the landed upper class made up 40 percent of the student body in 1870 but only 15 per- cent in 1910, while undergraduates from business families went from 7 to 21 percent during the same period. This educated elite, whether aristocratic or middle class in background, assumed leadership roles in government bu- reaucracies and military hierarchies. Marriage also served to unite the two groups. Daughters of tycoons acquired titles, while aristocratic heirs gained new sources of cash. Wealthy American heiresses were in special demand. When Consuelo Vanderbilt married the duke of Marlborough, the new duchess brought £2 million (approximately $10 million) to her husband.

Symbolism (literature) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

At the turn of the century, a new group of writers, known as the Symbolists, reacted against Realism. Primarily interested in writing poetry, the Symbolists believed that an objective knowledge of the world was impossible. The external world was not real but only a collection of symbols that reflected the true reality of the individual human mind. Art, they believed, should function for its own sake instead of serving, criticizing, or seeking to understand society. In the works of such Symbolist poets as W. B. Yeats and Rainer Maria Rilke, poetry ceased to be part of popular culture because only through a knowledge of the poet's personal language could one hope to understand what the poem was saying.

General Alfred von Schlieffen (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

At this stage of the conflict, German war plans determined whether France would become involved in the war. Under the guidance of General Alfred von Schlieffen, chief of staff from 1891 to 1905, the German General Staff had de- vised a military plan based on the assump- tion of a two-front war with France and Russia, since the two powers had formed a military alliance in 1894. The Schlieffen Plan called for a minimal troop deployment against Russia while most of the German army would make a rapid invasion of western France by way of neutral Belgium. After the planned quick defeat of the French, the German army expected to rede- ploy to the east against Russia. Under the Schlieffen Plan, Germany could not mobilize its troops solely against Russia and therefore declared war on France on August 3 after issuing an ultimatum to Belgium on August 2 demanding the right of German troops to pass through Belgian territory. On August 4, Great Britain declared war on Germany, officially over this violation of Belgian neutrality but in fact over the British desire to maintain world power. As one British diplomat argued, if Germany and Austria were to win the war, ''what would be the position of a friendless England?'' By August 4, all the great powers of Europe were at war. Through all the maneuvering of the last few days before the war, one fact stands out—all the great powers seemed willing to risk war. They were not disappointed.

T. E. Lawrence (1888- 1935) (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

Because the major European powers controlled colonial empires in other parts of the world, the war in Europe soon became a world war. In the Middle East, the British officer T. E. Lawrence (1888- 1935), who came to be known as Lawrence of Arabia, incited Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman overlords in 1916. In 1918, British forces from Egypt and Mesopotamia destroyed the rest of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. For their Middle East campaigns, the British mobilized forces from India, Australia, and New Zealand.

Trade unions (2 ECD, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Before long, workers looked to the formation of labor organizations to gain decent wages and working conditions. The British government, reacting against the radicalism of the French revolutionary working classes, had passed the Combination Acts in 1799 and 1800 out- lawing associations of workers. The legislation failed to prevent the formation of trade unions, however. Similar to the craft societies of earlier times, these new associations were formed by skilled workers in a number of new industries, including the cotton spinners, ironworkers, coal miners, and shipwrights. These unions served two purposes. One was to preserve their own workers' position by limiting entry into their trade; the other was to gain benefits from the employers. These early trade unions had limited goals. They favored a working-class struggle against employers, but only to win improvements for the members of their own trades.

Emperor William II (4 SOP) (KC 3.2)

Both the repressive and the social welfare measures failed to stop the growth of socialism, however. The Social Democratic Party continued to grow. In his frustration, Bismarck planned still more repressive measures in 1890, but before he could carry them out, the new emperor, William II (1888-1918), eager to pursue his own policies, cashiered the aged chancellor.

Sinking of the Lusitania (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

Britain used its superior naval power to maximum ef- fect, however, by imposing a naval blockade on Germany. Germany retaliated with a counterblockade enforced by the use of unrestricted submarine warfare. At the begin-ing of 1915, the German government declared the area around the British Isles a war zone and threatened to torpedo any ship caught in it. Strong American protests over the German sinking of passenger liners, especially the British ship Lusitania on May 7, 1915, when more than one hundred Americans lost their lives, forced the German government to modify its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare starting in September 1915 and to briefly suspend unrestricted submarine warfare a year later.

The Great Trek (1 INT) (KC 3.5)

British policies disgusted the Boers or Afrikaners, as the descendants of the Dutch colonists were called, and led them in 1835 to migrate north on the Great Trek to the region between the Orange and Vaal rivers (later known as the Orange Free State) and north of the Vaal River (the Transvaal). Hostilities between the British and the Boers continued, however. In 1877, the British governor of the Cape Colony seized the Transvaal, but a Boer revolt led the British government to recognize Transvaal as the independent South African Republic. These struggles between the British and the Boers did not prevent either white group from massacring and subjugating the Zulu and Xhosa peoples of the region.

King Leopold II (1865-1909) of Belgium (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

But the real driving force for the colonization of Central Africa was King Leopold II (1865-1909) of Belgium, who rushed enthusiastically into the pursuit of empire in Africa: ''To open to civilization,'' he said, ''the only part of our globe where it has not yet penetrated, to pierce the darkness which envelops whole populations, is a crusade, if I may say so, a crusade worthy of this century of progress.'' Profit, however, was far more important to Leopold than progress; his treatment of the Africans was so brutal that even other Europeans condemned his actions. In 1876, Leopold created the International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa and engaged Henry Stanley to establish Belgian settlements in the Congo. Alarmed by Leopold's actions, the French also moved into the territory north of the Congo River.

Reform in Britain (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

By 1871, Great Britain had a functioning two-party parliamentary system, and the growth of political democracy became one of the pre- occupations of British politics. Its cause was pushed along by the expansion of suffrage. Much advanced by the Re- form Act of 1867 (see Chapter 22), the right to vote was further extended during the second ministry of William Gladstone (1880-1885) with the passage of the Reform Act of 1884. It gave the vote to all men who paid regular rents or taxes; by largely enfranchising agricultural workers, a group previously excluded, the act added another 2 million male voters to the electorate (see Table 22.1 on p. 688 in Chapter 22). Women were still denied the right to vote. The following year, the Redistribution Act eliminated historic boroughs and counties and established constituencies with approximately equal populations and one representative each. The payment of salaries to members of the House of Commons beginning in 1911 further democratized that institution by at least opening the door to people other than the wealthy. The British system of gradual reform through parliamentary institutions had become the way of British political life.

Suffragettes (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

By the 1840s and 1850s, the movement for women's rights had entered the political arena with the call for equal political rights. Many feminists believed that the right to vote was the key to all other reforms to improve the position of women. The British women's movement was the most vocal and active in Europe, but it divided over tactics. The liberal Millicent Fawcett (1847-1929) organized a moderate group who believed that women must demonstrate that they would use political power responsibly if they wanted Parliament to grant them the right to vote. Another group, however, favored a more radical approach. Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-1928) and her daughters, Christabel and Sylvia, founded the Women's Social and Political Union in 1903, which enrolled mostly middle- and upper- class women. The members of Pankhurst's organization realized the value of the media and used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands. Derisively labeled ''suffragettes'' by male politicians, they pelted government officials with eggs, chained themselves to lampposts, smashed the windows of department stores on fashionable shopping streets, burned railroad cars, and went on hunger strikes in jail. In 1913, Emily Davison accepted martyrdom for the cause when she threw herself in front of the king's horse at the Epsom Derby horse race. Suffragists had one fundamental aim: the right of women to full citizenship in the nation-state. Although few women elsewhere in Europe used the Pankhursts' confrontational methods, demands for women's rights were heard throughout Europe and the United States before World War I. Nevertheless, only in Finland, Norway, and some American states did women actually receive the right to vote before 1914. It would take the dramatic upheaval of World War I before male-dominated governments capitulated on this basic issue.

Post-Impressionism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

By the 1880s, a new movement known as Post-Impressionism had emerged in France and soon spread to other European countries. Post-Impressionism retained the Impressionist emphasis on light and color but revolutionized it even further by paying more attention to structure and form. Post-Impressionists sought to use both color and line to express inner feelings and produce a personal statement of reality rather than an imitation of objects. Impressionist paintings had retained a sense of realism, but the Post-Impressionists shifted from objective reality to subjective reality and in so doing began to withdraw from the artist's traditional task of depicting the external world. Post-Impressionism was the real beginning of modern art. Paul Cezanne (1839-1906) was one of the most important Post-Impressionists. Initially, he was influenced by the Impressionists but soon rejected their work. In paintings, such as Mont Sainte-Victoire, Cezanne sought to express visually the underlying geometric structure and form of everything he painted. He accomplished this by pressing his wet brush directly onto the canvas, forming cubes of color on which he built the form of the mountain. His technique enabled him to break down forms to their basic components. As Cezanne explained to one young painter: ''You must see in nature the cylinder, the sphere, and the cone.'' Another famous Post-Impressionist was a tortured and tragic figure, Vincent van Gogh (1853-1890). For van Gogh, art was a spiritual experience. He was especially interested in color and believed that it could act as its own form of language. Van Gogh maintained that artists should paint what they feel, which is evident in his Starry Night

Modern art (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

By the be- ginning of the twentieth century, the belief that the task of art was to represent ''reality'' had lost much of its meaning. By that time, psychology and the new physics had made it evident that many people were not sure what constituted reality anyway. Then, too, the development of photography gave artists another reason to reject visual realism. Invented in the 1830s, photography became popular and widespread after George Eastman produced the first Kodak camera for the mass market in 1888. What was the point of an artist doing what the camera did better? Unlike the camera, which could only mirror reality, artists could create reality. Individual consciousness be- came the source of meaning. Between 1905 and 1914, this search for individual expression produced a wide variety of schools of painting, all of which had their greatest impact after World War I. In 1905, one of the most important figures in modern art was just beginning his career. Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) was from Spain but settled in Paris in 1904. Picasso was extremely flexible and painted in a remarkable variety of styles. He was instrumental in the development of a new style called Cubism that used geometric designs as visual stimuli to re-create reality in the viewer's mind. Pi- casso's 1907 work Les Demoiselles d'Avignon has been called the first Cubist painting. The modern artist's flight from ''visual reality'' reached a high point in 1910 with the beginning of abstract painting. Wassily Kandinsky (1866-1944), a Russian who worked in Germany, was one of the founders of abstract painting. As is evident in his Square with White Border, Kandinsky sought to avoid representation altogether. He believed that art should speak directly to the soul. To do so, it must avoid any reference to visual reality and concentrate on color.

New technology in WWI (4 SOP, 7 TSI) (KC 4.1)

By the end of 1915, airplanes appeared on the battlefront. The planes were first used to spot the enemy's position, but soon they began to attack ground targets, especially enemy communications. Fights for control of the air occurred and increased over time. At first, pilots fired at each other with handheld pistols, but later machine guns were mounted on the noses of planes, which made the skies considerably more dangerous. The Germans also used their giant airships—the zeppelins—to bomb London and eastern England. This caused little damage but frightened many people. Germany's enemies, however, soon found that zeppelins, which were filled with hydrogen gas, quickly became raging infernos when hit by antiaircraft guns. Tanks were also introduced to the battlefields of Europe in 1916. The first tank—a British model—used caterpillar tracks, which enabled it to move across rough terrain. Armed with mounted guns, tanks could attack enemy machine-gun positions as well as enemy infantry. But the first tanks were not very effective, and it was not until 1918, with the introduction of the British Mark V model, that tanks had more powerful engines and greater maneuverability. They could now be used in large num- bers, and coordinated with infantry and artillery, they became effective instruments in pushing back the re- treating German army. The tank came too late to have a great effect on the outcome of World War I, but the lesson was not lost on those who realized the tank's potential for creating a whole new kind of warfare. In World War II, lightning attacks that depended on tank columns and massive air power enabled armies to cut quickly across battle lines and encircle entire enemy armies. It was a far cry from the trench warfare of World War I.

First Battle of the Marne (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

By the first week of September, the Germans had reached the Marne River, only 20 miles from Paris. The Germans seemed on the verge of success but had un- derestimated the speed with which the British would be able to mobilize and put troops into battle in France. An unexpected counterattack by British and French forces under the French commander General Joseph Joffre stopped the Germans at the First Battle of the Marne (September 6-10) east of Paris. The German troops fell back, but the ex- hausted French army was unable to pursue its advantage. The war quickly turned into a stalemate as neither the Germans nor the French could dislodge the other from the trenches they had begun to dig for shelter. Two lines of trenches soon extended from the English Channel to the frontiers of Switzerland. The Western Front had become bogged down in trench warfare, which kept both sides in virtually the same positions for four years.

Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881) (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

Came to power in the midst of the Crimean War, turned his energies to a serious overhaul of the Russian system. Serfdom was the most burdensome problem in tsarist Russia. The continuing subjugation of millions of peasants to the land and their landlords was an obviously corrupt and failing system. Reduced to antiquated methods of production based on serf labor, Russian landowners were economically pressed and unable to compete with foreign agriculture. The serfs, who formed the backbone of the Russian infantry, were uneducated and consequently increasingly unable to deal with the more complex machines and weapons of war. Then, too, peasant dissatisfaction still led to local peasant revolts that disrupted the countryside. Alexander II seemed to recognize the inevi- table: ''The existing order of serfdom,'' he told a group of Moscow nobles, ''cannot remain unchanged. It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until it is abolished from below.'

Francois-Renede Chateaubriand (1768-1848) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Catholicism, in particular, benefited from this Romantic enthusiasm for religion. Especially among German Romantics, there were many conversions to the Catholic faith. One of the most popular expressions of this Romantic revival of Catholicism was found in the work of the Frenchman Francois-Renede Chateaubriand (1768-1848). His book Genius of Christianity, published in 1802, was soon labeled the ''Bible of Romanticism.'' His defense of Catholicism was based not on historical, theological, or even rational grounds but largely on Romantic sentiment. As a faith, Catholicism echoed the harmony of all things. Its cathedrals brought one into the very presence of God; according to Chateaubriand, "You could not enter a Gothic church without feeling a kind of awe and a vague sentiment of the Divinity. . . . Every thing in a Gothic church reminds you of the labyrinths of a wood; every thing ex- cites a feeling of religious awe, of mystery, and of the Divinity."

David Livingstone and Henry M. Stanley (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

Central Africa was also added to the list of European colonies. Popular interest in the forbiddingly dense tropical jungles of Central Africa was first aroused in the 1860s and 1870s by explorers, such as the Scottish missionary David Livingstone and the British-American journalist Henry M. Stanley.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882) (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

Darwin came to discard the notion of a special creation and to believe that animals evolved over time and in response to their environment. When he returned to Britain, he eventually formulated an explanation for evolution in the principle of natural selection, a theory that he presented in 1859 in his celebrated book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.

Social Darwinism and racism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Darwin's ideas were also applied to human so- ciety in an even more radical way by rabid nationalists and racists. In their pursuit of national greatness, extreme nationalists argued that nations, too, were engaged in a ''struggle for existence'' in which only the fittest survived. One proponent was The German general Friedrich von Bernhardi. Numerous nationalist organizations preached the same doctrine as Bernhardi. The Nationalist Association of Italy, for example, founded in 1910, declared that ''we must teach Italy the value of international struggle. But international struggle is war? Well, then, let there be war! And nationalism will arouse the will for a victorious war, . . . the only way to national redemption.'' Racism, too, was dramatically revived and strengthened by new biological arguments. Perhaps nowhere was the combination of extreme nationalism and racism more evident and more dangerous than in Germany. The concept of the Volk (nation, people, or race) had been an underlying idea in German history since the beginning of the nineteenth century. One of the chief propagandists for German volkish thought at the turn of the twentieth century was Houston Stewart Chamberlain (1855-1927), an Englishman who became a German citizen. His book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, published in 1899, made a special impact on Germany. Modern-day Germans, according to Chamberlain, were the only pure successors of the ''Aryans,'' who were portrayed as the true and original creators of Western culture. The Aryan (AR-ee- un) race, under German leadership, must be prepared to fight for Western civilization and save it from the destruc- tive assaults of such lower races as Jews, Negroes, and Orientals. Increasingly, Jews were singled out by German volkish nationalists as the racial enemy in biological terms and as parasites who wanted to destroy the Aryan race.

Anarchism (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Despite the revolutionary rhetoric, socialist parties and trade unions gradually became less radical in pursuing their goals. Indeed, this lack of revolutionary fervor drove some people from Marxist socialism into anarchism, a movement that was especially prominent in less industrialized and less dem- ocratic countries. Initially, anarchism was not a violent movement. Early anarchists believed that people were inherently good but had been corrupted by the state and society. True freedom could be achieved only by abolishing the state and all existing social institutions. In the second half of the nineteenth century, however, anarchists in Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Russia began to advocate using radical means to accomplish this goal. The Russian Michael Bakunin (1814-1876), for example, believed that small groups of well-trained, fanatical revolutionaries could perpetrate so much violence that the state and all its institutions would disintegrate. To revolutionary anarchists, that would usher in the anarchist golden age. After Bakunin's death in 1876, anarchist revolutionaries used assassination as their primary instrument of terror. The list of victims of anarchist assassins at the turn of the century included a Russian tsar (1881), a president of the French Republic (1894), the king of Italy (1900), and a president of the United States (1901). Despite anarchist hopes, these states did not collapse.

Women in professions (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Divorce and property rights were only a beginning for the women's movement, however. Some middle- and upper-middle-class women gained a cess to higher education, and others sought entry into occupations dominated by men. The first to fall was teaching. Because medical training was largely closed to women, they sought alternatives through the development of nursing. One nursing pioneer was Amalie Sieveking (1794-1859), who founded the Female Association for the Care of the Poor and Sick in Hamburg, Germany. As she explained, ''To me, at least as important were the benefits which [work with the poor] seemed to promise for those of my sisters who would join me in such a work of charity. The higher interests of my sex were close to my heart.'' Sieveking's work was followed by the more famous British nurse, Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), whose efforts during the Crimean War, along with those of Clara Barton (1821- 1912) in the American Civil War, transformed nursing into a profession of trained, middle-class ''women in white.''

Triple Entente and Tripple Alliance (1 INT, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

During the next ten years, German policies abroad caused the British to draw closer to France (see the box above). By 1907, a loose confederation of Great Britain, France, and Russia—known as the Triple Entente—stood opposed to the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria- Hungary, and Italy. Europe was divided into two opposing camps that became more and more inflexible and unwilling to compromise. When the members of the two alliances became involved in a new series of crises between 1908 and 1913 over control of the remnants of the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, the stage was set for World War I.

Progressive Era of US (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

During the so-called Progressive Era after 1900, an age of reform swept across the United States. State governments enacted economic and social legislation, such as laws that governed hours, wages, and working conditions, especially for women and children. The realization that state laws were ineffective in dealing with nationwide problems, however, led to a Progressive movement at the national level. The Meat Inspection Act (1906) and Pure Food and Drug Act (1905) provided for a limited degree of federal regulation of corrupt industrial practices. The presidency of Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) witnessed the enactment of a graduated federal income tax and the establishment of the Federal Reserve System, which permitted the federal government to play a role in important economic decisions formerly made by bankers. Like European nations, the United States was slowly adopting policies that extended the functions of the state.

Cartels (2 ECD) (KC 3.1)

During this same period, cartels were being formed to decrease competition internally. In a cartel, independent enterprises worked together to control prices and fix production quotas, thereby restraining the kind of com- petition that led to reduced prices. Cartels were especially strong in Germany, where banks moved to protect their investments by eliminating the ''anarchy of competition.'' German businesses established cartels in potash, coal, steel, and chemicals.

Electricity-related inventors (7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

Electricity spawned a whole series of inventions. The invention of the lightbulb by the American Thomas Edison (1847-1931) and the Briton Joseph Swan (1828-1914) opened homes and cities to illumination by electric lights. A revolution in communications was fostered when Al- exander Graham Bell (1847-1922) invented the telephone in 1876 and Guglielmo Marconi (1874-1937) sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901. Although most electricity was initially used for lighting, it was eventually put to use in transportation. The first electric railway was installed in Berlin in 1879. By the 1880s, streetcars and subways had appeared in major European cities and had begun to replace horse-drawn buses. Electricity also transformed the factory. Conveyor belts, cranes, machines, and machine tools could all be powered by electricity and located anywhere. In the First Industrial Revolution, coal had been the major source of energy. Countries without adequate coal supplies lagged behind in industrialization. Thanks to electricity, they could now enter the industrial age.

Women in medicine (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) achieved the first major breakthrough for women in medicine. Although she had been admitted to the Geneva College of Medicine in New York by mistake, Blackwell's perseverance and intelligence won her the respect of her fellow male students. She re- ceived her M.D. degree in 1849 and eventually established a clinic in New York City. European women experienced difficulties similar to Blackwell's. In Britain, Elizabeth Garret and Sophia Jex- Blake had to struggle for years before they were finally admitted to the practice of medicine. The unwillingness of medical schools to open their doors to women led to the formation of separate medical schools for women. The Female Medical College of Pennsylvania, established in 1850, was the first in the United States, and the London School of Medicine for Women was founded in 1874. But even after graduation from such institutions, women faced obstacles when they tried to practice as doctors. Many were denied licenses, and hospitals often closed their doors to them. In Britain, Parliament finally capitulated to pres- sure and passed a bill in 1876 giving women the right to take qualifying examinations. Soon women were entering medical schools in ever-larger numbers. By the 1890s, universities in Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Russia, and Belgium were admitting women to medical training and practice. Germany and Austria did not do so until after 1900. Even then, medical associations refused to accept women as equals in the medical profes- sion. Women were not given full membership in the American Medical Association until 1915.

Anticlericalism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Eventually, however, the close union of state authori- ties with established churches produced a backlash in the form of anticlericalism, especially in the liberal nation- states of the late nineteenth century. As one example, in the 1880s, the French republican government substituted civic training for religious instruction in order to un- dermine the Catholic Church's control of education. In 1901, Catholic teaching orders were outlawed, and four years later, in 1905, church and state were completely separated.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) was one of the intellectuals who glorified the irrational. According to Nietzsche, West- ern bourgeois society was decadent and incapable of any real cultural creativity, primarily because of its excessive emphasis on the rational faculty at the expense of emo- tions, passions, and instincts. Reason, Nietzsche claimed, actually played little role in human life because humans were at the mercy of irrational life forces. Nietzsche believed that Christianity should shoulder much of the blame for Western civilization's enfee- blement. The ''slave morality'' of Christianity, he believed, had obliterated the human impulse for life and had crushed the human will

Georges Sorel (1847-1922) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Georges Sorel (1847-1922), a French political theorist, combined Bergson's and Nietzsche's ideas on the limits of rational thinking with his own passionate interest in revolutionary socialism. Sorel understood the political potential of the nonrational and advocated violent action as the only sure way to achieve the aims of socialism. To destroy capitalist soci- ety, he recommended the use of the general strike, en- visioning it as a mythic image that had the power to inspire workers to take violent, heroic action against the capitalist order. Sorel also came to believe that the new socialist society would have to be governed by a small elite ruling body because the masses were incapable of ruling themselves.

Joint-stock investment banks (2 ECD, 3 CID) (KC 3.3)

Governments also played a role in first allowing and then encouraging the formation of joint-stock investment banks. These banks were crucial to Continental industrial development because they mobilized enormous capital re- sources for investment. In the 1850s and 1860s, they were very important in the promotion of railway construction, although railroads were not always a safe investment. During a trip to Spain to examine possibilities for railroad construction, the locomotive manufacturer George Stephenson reported, ''I have been a month in the country, but have not seen during the whole of that time enough people of the right sort to fill a single train.'' His misgivings proved to be well founded. In 1864, the Spanish banking system, which depended largely on investments in railway shares, collapsed.

Reform in Ireland (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Gradual reform failed to solve the problem of Ireland, however. The Irish had long been subject to British rule, and the Act of Union of 1801 had united the English and Irish Parliaments. Like other unfree ethnic groups in Europe, the Irish developed a sense of national self- consciousness. They detested the absentee British land- lords and their burdensome rents. In 1870, William Gladstone attempted to alleviate Irish discontent by enacting limited land reform, but as Irish tenants continued to be evicted in the 1870s, the Irish began to make new demands. In 1879, a group called the Irish Land League, which advocated independence, called on Parliament to at least institute land reform. Charles Par- nell (1846-1891), a leader of the Irish representatives in Parliament, called for home rule, which meant self- government by having a separate Parliament but not complete independence. Soon Irish peasants were re- sponding to British inaction with terrorist acts. When the British government reacted with more force, Irish Catholics began to demand independence. The Liberal leader William Gladstone, continuing to hope for a peaceful solution to the ''Irish Question,'' introduced a home rule bill in 1886 that would have created an Irish Parliament without granting independence. But even this compromise was voted down in Parliament, especially by Conservative members who believed that concessions would only result in more violence. Gladstone tried again when he was prime minister in 1893 but experienced yet another defeat. The Irish Question remained unresolved.

Gustave Courbet (1819-1877) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Gustave Courbet (goo-STAHV koor-BAY) (1819- 1877) was the most famous artist of the Realist school. In fact, the word Realism was first coined in 1850 to describe one of his paintings. Courbet reveled in a realistic portrayal of everyday life. His subjects were factory workers, peas- ants, and the wives of saloon keepers. ''I have never seen either angels or goddesses, so I am not interested in paint- ing them,'' he exclaimed. One of his famous works, The Stonebreakers, painted in 1849, shows two road workers engaged in the deadening work of breaking stones to build a road. This representation of human misery was a scandal to those who objected to his ''cult of ugliness.'' To Courbet, no subject was too ordinary, too harsh, or too ugly to in- terest him

Russo-Japanese War (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

Halted by the British in their expansion to the south, the Russians moved east in Asia. The Russian occupation of Manchuria and an attempt to move into Korea brought war with the new imperialist power, Japan. After losing the Russo-Japanese War in 1905, the Russians agreed to a Japanese protectorate in Korea, and their Asian expansion was brought to a temporary halt.

Spanish-American War (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

Hawaii was annexed by the United States in 1898 during the era of American nationalistic fervor generated by the Spanish-American War. The American defeat of Spain encouraged Americans to extend their empire by acquiring Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands.

Austrian government (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

In 1851, the revolutionary constitutions were abol- ished, and a system of centralized autocracy was imposed on the empire. Under the leadership of Alexander von Bach (1813-1893), local privileges were subordinated to a unified system of administration, law, and taxation implemented by German-speaking officials. Hungary was subjected to the rule of military officers, and the Catholic Church was declared the state church and given control of education. Economic troubles and war, however, soon brought change. After Austria's defeat in the Italian war in 1859, the Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916) attempted to establish an imperial parliament—the Reichsrat—with a nominated upper house and an elected lower house of representatives. Although the system was supposed to provide representation for the nationalities of the empire, the complicated formula used for elections ensured the election of a German-speaking majority and thus served once again to alienate the ethnic minorities, particularly the Hungarian.

The Congress of Berlin (1 INT, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

In 1876, the Balkan states of Serbia and Montenegro declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Both were defeated, but Russia, with Austrian approval, attacked and defeated the Ottomans. By the Treaty of San Stefano in 1878, a large Bulgarian state, extending from the Danube in the north to the Aegean Sea in the south, was created. As Bulgaria was viewed as a Russian satellite, this Russian success caused the other great powers to call for a congress of European powers to discuss a revision of the treaty. The Congress of Berlin, which met in the summer of 1878, was dominated by Bismarck. The congress effectively demolished the Treaty of San Stefano, much to Russia's humiliation. The new Bulgarian state was considerably reduced, and the rest of the territory was returned to Ottoman control. The three Balkan states of Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, until then nominally under Ottoman control, were recognized as independent. The other Balkan territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina were placed under Austrian protection; Austria could occupy but not annex them. After the Congress of Berlin, the European powers sought new alliances to safeguard their security. Angered by the Germans' actions at the congress, the Russians terminated the Three Emperors' League in 1879. Bismarck then made an alliance with Austria in 1879 that was joined by Italy in 1882. The Triple Alliance of 1882 committed Germany, Austria, and Italy to support the exist- ing political order while providing a defensive alliance against France or ''two or more great powers not members of the alliance.'' At the same time, Bismarck sought to remain on friendly terms with the Russians and signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia in 1887, hoping to prevent a French-Russian alliance that would threaten Germany with the possibility of a two- front war. The Bismarckian system of alliances, geared to preserving peace and the status quo, had worked, but in 1890, Emperor William II dismissed Bismarck and began to chart a new direction for Germany's foreign policy.

Dr. Aletta Jacob (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

In 1882 in Amsterdam, Dr. Aletta Jacob founded Europe's first birth control clinic. Initially, ''family planning'' was the suggestion of reformers who thought that the problem of poverty could be solved by reducing the number of children among the lower classes. In fact, the practice spread quickly among the propertied classes, rather than among the impoverished, a good re- minder that considerable differences still remained be- tween middle-class and working-class families.

New unionism (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

In Britain, the demands of the working- class movement caused Liberals to move away from their ideals. Liberals were forced to adopt significant social reforms due to the pressure of two new working-class organizations: trade unions and the Labour Party. Frus- trated by the government's failure to enact social reform, trade unions began to advocate more radical change of the economic system, calling for ''collective ownership and control over production, distribution, and exchange.'' This ''new unionism'' also led to the union organization of many steel factory workers and to new confrontations in the streets of London as British workers struck for a minimum wage and other benefits.

Admiral Holtzendorff (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

In January 1917, however, eager to break the deadlock in the war, the Germans decided on another military gamble by returning to unrestricted submarine warfare. German naval officers convinced Emperor William II that the use of un- restricted submarine warfare could starve the British into submission within five months. When the emperor expressed concern about the Americans, he was told not to worry. The Americans, the chief of the Ger- man Naval Staff said, were ''disorganized and undisciplined.'' The British would starve before the Americans could act. And even if the Americans did intervene, Admiral Holtzendorff assured the emperor, ''I give your Majesty my word as an officer, that not one American will land on the Continent.''

Reform in Russia (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

In Russia, the government made no concession whatever to liberal and democratic reforms, eliminating altogether any possibility of a mass politics. The assassi- nation of Alexander II in 1881 convinced his son and successor, Alexander III (1881-1894), that reform had been a mistake, and he quickly instituted what he said were ''exceptional measures.'' The powers of the secret police were expanded. Advocates of constitutional mo archy and social reform, along with revolutionary groups, were persecuted. Entire districts of Russia were placed under martial law if the government suspected the inhabitants of treason. The powers of the zemstvos, created by the reforms of Alexander II, were sharply curtailed. Alexander also pursued a radical Russification program of the numerous nationalities that made up the Russian Empire. Russians themselves constituted only 40 percent of the population, which did not stop the tsar from ban- ning the use of all languages except Russian in schools. The policy of Russification served primarily to anger national groups and create new sources of opposition to tsarist policies. When Alexander III died, his weak son and successor, Nicholas II (1894-1917), adopted his father's conviction that the absolute power of the tsars should be preserved: ''I shall maintain the principle of autocracy just as firmly and unflinchingly as did my unforgettable father.'' But conditions were changing, especially with the growth of industrialization, and the tsar's approach was not realistic in view of the new circumstances he faced.

Reform in Spain (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

In Spain, a new constitution, drafted in 1875 under King Alfonso XII (1874-1885), established a par- liamentary government dominated by two political groups, the Conservatives and the Liberals, whose members stemmed from the same small social group of great land- owners allied with a few wealthy industrialists. Because suffrage was limited to the propertied classes, Liberals and Conservatives alternated in power but followed basically the same conservative policies. Spain's defeat in the Spanish-American War in 1898 and the loss of Cuba and the Philippines to the United States increased the discontent with the status quo. When a group of young intellectuals known as the Generation of 1898 called for political and social reforms, both Liberals and Conservatives attempted to enlarge the electorate and win the masses' support for their policies. The attempted reforms did little to allay the unrest, however, and the growth of industri- alization in some areas resulted in more workers being attracted to the radical solutions of socialism and anar- chism. When violence erupted in Barcelona in July 1909, the military forces brutally suppressed the rebels. The revolt and its repression made clear that reform would not be easily accomplished because the Catholic Church, the large landowners, and the army remained tied to a conservative social order.

Scientific discoveries (7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

In biology, the Frenchman Louis Pasteur formulated the germ theory of disease, which had enormous practical applica- tions in the development of modern scientific medical practices. In chemistry, in the 1860s, the Russian Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907) classified all the material elements then known on the basis of their atomic weights and provided the systematic foundation for the periodic law. The Englishman Michael Faraday (1791-1867) discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction and put together a primitive generator that laid the foundation for the use of elec- tricity, although economically efficient generators were not built until the 1870s.

Battles of Tannenberg (August 30, 1914) the Masurian Lakes (September 15, 1914) (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

In contrast to the west, the war in the east was marked by much more mobility, although the cost in lives was equally enormous. At the beginning of the war, the Russian army moved into eastern Germany but was decisively defeated at the Battles of Tannenberg on August 30 and the Masurian Lakes on September 15. These battles established the military reputations of the commanding general, Paul von Hindenburg, and his chief of staff, General Erich Ludendorff. The Russians were no longer a threat to German territory.

Contagious Diseases Acts (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

In most European countries, prostitution was licensed and regulated by government and municipal authorities. Although the British government provided minimal regulation of prostitution, it did attempt to enforce the Contagious Diseases Acts in the 1870s and 1880s by giving authorities the right to examine prostitutes for venereal disease. Prostitutes found to be infected were confined for some time to special institutions called lock hospitals, where they were given moral instruction. But opposition to the Contagious Diseases Acts soon arose from middle-class female reformers. Their leader was Josephine Butler (1828-1906), who objected to laws that punished women but not men who suffered from venereal disease. Known as the ''shrieking sisters'' because they discussed sexual mat- ters in public, Butler and her fellow reformers were suc- cessful in gaining the repeal of the acts in 1886.

Urban reform (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

In the 1840s, a number of urban reformers, such as Edwin Chadwick in Britain and Rudolf Virchow and Solomon Neumann in Germany, had pointed to filthy living conditions as the primary cause of epidemic disease and urged sanitary reforms to correct the problem. Soon legislative acts created boards of health that brought governmental action to bear on public heath issues. Urban medical officers and building inspectors were authorized to inspect dwellings for public health hazards. New building regulations made it more difficult for private contractors to build shoddy housing. The Public Health Act of 1875 in Britain, for example, prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water and an internal drainage system. For the first time in Western history, the role of municipal governments had been expanded to include detailed regulations for the improvement of the living conditions of urban dwellers. Early efforts to attack the housing problem empha- sized the middle-class, liberal belief in the efficacy of private enterprise. Reformers such as Huber believed that the construction of model dwellings renting at a reason- able price would force other private landlords to elevate their housing standards. A fine example of this approach was the work of Octavia Hill, granddaughter of a cele- brated social reformer. With the financial assistance of a friend, she rehabilitated some old dwellings and constructed new ones to create housing for 3,500 tenants.

Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902) (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

In the 1880s, British policy in South Africa was largely determined by Cecil Rhodes (1853-1902). Rhodes founded both diamond and gold companies that monop- olized production of these precious commodities and en- abled him to gain control of a territory north of Transvaal that he named Rhodesia after himself. Rhodes was a great champion of British expansion. He said once, ''If there be a God, I think what he would like me to do is to paint as much of Africa British red as possible.'' One of his goals was to create a series of British colonies ''from the Cape to Cairo,'' all linked by a railroad. His imperialist ambitions led to his downfall in 1896, however, when the British government forced him to resign as prime minister of the Cape Colony after he conspired to overthrow the Boer government of the South African Republic without British approval. Although the British government had hoped to avoid war with the Boers, it could not stop extremists on both sides from precipitating a conflict.

New imperialism (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

In the 1880s, European states embarked on an intense scramble for overseas territory. This ''new imperialism,'' as some have called it, led Europeans to carve up Asia and Africa.

Alfred Dreyfus affair (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

In the 1890s, the fragile Third Republic experienced yet another crisis, which was also evidence of the renewed anti- Semitism in Europe in the late nineteenth century. Early in 1895, Alfred Dreyfus, a Jew and a captain in the French general staff, was found guilty by a secret military court of selling army secrets and condemned to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. Evidence soon emerged that pointed to his innocence. Another officer, a Catholic aris- tocrat, was more obviously the traitor, but the army, a stronghold of aristocratic and Catholic officers, refused a new trial. Some right-wing journalists even used the case to push their own anti-Semitic views. Republic leaders, how- ever, insisted on a new trial after a wave of intense public outrage. Although the new trial failed to set aside the guilty verdict, the government pardoned Dreyfus in 1899, and in 1906, he was finally fully exonerated. The impact of the Dreyfus affair extended beyond France. It convinced Theodor Herzl, who covered the trial for a Viennese newspaper, that assimilation did not protect Jews from anti-Semitism. As a result, as we have seen, he came to advocate that Jews needed a country of their own, leading to the Zionist movement. In France itself, the Dreyfus affair led to a change in government. Moderate republicans lost control to radical republicans who were determined to make greater progress toward a more democratic society by breaking the power of the Republic's enemies, especially the army and the Catholic Church. The army was purged of all high- ranking officers who had antirepublican reputations. Most of the Catholic religious orders that had controlled many French schools were forced to leave France. Moreover, church and state were officially separated in 1905, and during the next two years, the government seized church property and stopped paying clerical salaries. These changes ended the political threat from the right to the Third Republic, which by now commanded the loyalty of most French people. Nevertheless, prob- lems remained. As a nation of small businessmen and farmers, the French lagged far behind Great Britain, Germany, and the United States in industrial activity. Moreover, a surge of industrialization after 1896 left the nation with the realization that little had been done to appease the discontent of the French working classes and their abysmal working conditions. Since only a quarter of the French wage earners worked in industry, there was little pressure for labor legislation from the French par- liament. This made the use of strikes more appealing to the working classes. The brutal government repression of labor walkouts in 1911 only further alienated the working classes.

Meiji Restoration (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

In the late 1850s and early 1860s, it looked as if Japan would follow China's fate and be carved up into spheres of influence by aggressive Western powers. A re- markably rapid transformation, however, produced a very different result. Before 1868, the shogun, a powerful hereditary military governor assisted by a warrior nobility known as the samurai, exercised real power in Japan. The emperor's functions had become primarily religious. After the shogun's concessions to the Western nations, anti-foreign sentiment led to a samurai revolt in 1867 and the restoration of the emperor as the rightful head of the government. The new emperor was the astute, dynamic, young Mutsuhito (1867-1912), who called his reign the Meiji (Enlightened Government). The new leaders who controlled the emperor now inaugurated a remarkable transformation of Japan that has since been known as the Meiji Restoration. Recognizing the obvious military and industrial superiority of the West, the new leaders decided to modernize Japan by absorbing and adopting Western methods. Thousands of young Japanese were sent abroad to receive Western educations, especially in the social and natural sciences. A German-style army and a British-style navy were established. The Japanese copied the industrial and financial methods of the United States and developed a modern commercial and industrial system. A highly centralized administrative system copied from the French replaced the old system. Initially, the Japanese adopted the French principles of social and legal equality, but by 1890, they had created a political system that was democratic in form but authoritarian in practice. In imitating the West, Japan also developed a powerful military state Universal military conscription was introduced in 1872, and a modern peacetime army of 240,000 was eventually established. The Japanese avidly pursued the Western imperialistic model. They defeated China in 1894-1895, annexed some Chinese territory, and established their own sphere of influence in China. After they had defeated the Russians in 1905, the Japanese made Korea a Japanese Expansion colony under harsh rule. The Japanese had proved that an Asian power could play the ''white man's'' imperialistic game and provided a potent example to peoples in other regions of Asia and Africa.

Mass leisure (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

In the preindustrial centuries, play or leisure activities had been closely connected to work patterns based on the seasonal or daily cycles typical of the life of peasants and artisans. The process of industrialization in the nineteenth century had an enormous impact on those traditional patterns. The factory imposed new work pat- terns that were determined by the rhythms of machines and clocks and removed work time completely from the family environment of farms and workshops. Work and leisure became opposites as leisure came to be viewed as what people did for fun when not on the job. In fact, the new leisure hours created by the industrial system— evening hours after work, weekends, and later a week or two in the summer—largely determined the contours of the new mass leisure. New technology and business practices also determined the forms of leisure pursuits. New technology created novelties such as the Ferris wheel at amusement parks. The mechanized urban transportation systems of the 1880s meant that even the working classes were no longer dependent on neighborhood taverns but could make their way to athletic events, amusement parks, and dance halls. Likewise, railroads could take people to the beaches on weekends.

Social Darwinism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

In the second half of the nineteenth century, scientific the- ories were sometimes wrongly applied to achieve other ends. The application of Darwin's principle of organic evolution to the social order came to be known as social Darwinism.

Captain James Cook (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

It was not until the explorations of Australia by Captain James Cook between 1768 and 1771 that Britain took an active interest in the East.

Commodore Matthew Perry (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

Japan avoided Western intrusion until 1853-1854, when American naval forces under Commodore Matthew Perry forced the Japanese to grant the United States trading and diplomatic privileges. Japan, however, managed to avoid China's fate.

Jean-Francois Millet (1814-1875) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Jean-Francois Millet (1814-1875) was preoccupied with scenes from rural life, especially peasants laboring in the fields, al- though his Realism still contained an element of Romantic sentimentality. In The Gleaners, his most famous work, three peasant women gather grain in a field, a centuries-old practice that for Millet showed the symbiotic relationship between humans and nature. Millet made landscape and country life an important subject matter for French artists, but he, too, was criticized by his contemporaries for crude subject matter and unorthodox technique.

Giovanni Giolitti (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Liberals had even greater problems in Italy. A certain amount of stability was achieved from 1903 to 1914 when the liberal leader Giovanni Giolitti served intermittently as prime minister. Giolitti was a master of using trasformismo, or trans- formism, a system in which old political groups were transformed into new government coalitions by political and economic bribery. In the long run, however, Giolitti's devious methods made Italian politics even more corrupt and unmanageable. When urban workers turned to vio- lence to protest their living and working conditions, Giolitti tried to appease them with social welfare legisla- tion and universal male suffrage in 1912. To strengthen his popularity, he also aroused nationalistic passions by conquering Libya. Despite his efforts, however, worker unrest continued, and in 1914 government troops had to be used to quell rioting workers.

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was a good example of the ''new woman.'' Breaking with tradition, she attended medical school at the University of Rome. Although often isolated by the male students, she persisted and in 1896 became the first Italian woman to receive a medical degree. Three years later, she undertook a lecture tour in Italy on the subject of the ''new woman,'' whom she characterized as a woman who followed a rational, scientific perspective. In keeping with this ideal, Montessori put her medical background to work in a school for mentally handicapped children. She devised new teaching materials that enabled these children to read and write and became convinced, as she later wrote, ''that similar methods applied to normal students would de- velop or set free their personality in a marvelous and surprising way.'' Subsequently, she established a system of childhood education based on natural and spontaneous activities in which students learned at their own pace. By the 1930s, hundreds of Montessori schools had been es- tablished in Europe and the United States. As a professional woman and an unwed mother, Montessori also embodied some of the freedoms of the "new woman."

Marxist ideas (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Marx and Engels began the Manifesto with the statement that ''the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles.'' Throughout history, oppressed and oppressor have ''stood in constant opposition to one another.'' In an earlier struggle, the feudal classes of the Middle Ages were forced to accede to the emerging middle class or bour- geoisie. As the bourgeoisie took control in turn, its ideas became the dominant views of the era, and government became its instrument. Marx and Engels declared, ''The executive of the modern State is but a committee for managing the common affairs of the whole bourgeoisie.'' In other words, the government of the state reflected and defended the interests of the industrial middle class and its allies. Although bourgeois society had emerged victorious out of the ruins of feudalism, Marx and Engels insisted that it had not triumphed completely. Now once again the members of the bourgeoisie were antagonists in an emerging class struggle, but this time they faced the proletariat, or the industrial working class. The struggle would be fierce, but eventually, so Marx and Engels pre- dicted, the workers would overthrow their bourgeois masters. After this victory, the proletariat would form a dictatorship to reorganize the means of production. Then a classless society would emerge, and the state—itself an instrument of the bourgeoisie—would wither away since it no longer represented the interests of a particular class. Class struggles would then be over. Marx believed that the emergence of a classless society would lead to progress in science, technology, and in- dustry and to greater wealth for all. After the failure of the revolutions of 1848, Marx went to London, where he spent the rest of his life. He con- tinued his writing on political economy, especially his famous work, Das Kapital (Capital), only one volume of which he completed. After his death, the remaining vol- umes were edited by his friend Engels. One of the reasons Das Kapital was not finished was Marx's own preoccu- pation with organizing the working-class movement. In The Communist Manifesto, Marx had defined the com- munists as ''the most advanced and resolute section of the working-class parties of every country.'' Their ad- vantage was their ability to understand ''the line of march, the conditions, and the ultimate general results of the proletarian movement.'' Marx saw his role in this light and participated enthusiastically in the activities of the International Working Men's Association. Formed in 1864 by British and French trade unionists, this ''First International'' served as an umbrella organization for working-class interests. Marx was the dominant person- ality on the organization's General Council and devoted much time to its activities. Internal dissension within the ranks soon damaged the organization, and it failed in 1872. Although it would be revived in 1889, the fate of socialism by that time was in the hands of national socialist parties.

Mass education (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Mass education was a product of the mass society of the late nineteenth century. Being ''educated'' in the early nineteenth century meant attending a secondary school or possibly even a university. Secondary schools emphasized a Classical education based on the study of Greek and Latin. Secondary and university education was primarily for the elite, the sons of government officials, nobles, or wealthier middle-class families. After 1850, secondary education was expanded as more middle-class families sought employment in public service and the professions or entry into elite scientific and technical schools. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, European states showed little interest in primary education. Only in the German states was there a state-run system for it. In 1833, the French government created a system of state- run secular schools by instructing local government to establish an elementary school for both boys and girls. None of these primary schools required attendance, however, which tended to be irregular at best. In rural society, children were still expected to work in the fields. In industrializing countries like Britain and France, both employers and parents were eager to maintain the practice of child labor.

Music and dance halls (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Music and dance halls appeared in the second half of the nineteenth century. The first music hall in London was constructed in 1849 for a lower-class audience. As is evident from one Londoner's observation, music halls were primarily for males. By the 1880s, there were five hundred music halls in London. Promoters gradually made them more respect- able and broadened their fare to entice both women and children to attend the programs. The new dance halls, which were all the rage by 1900, were more strictly oriented toward adults. Contemporaries were often shocked by the sight of young people engaged in sexually suggestive dancing.

Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

One example of this new nationalistic spirit may be found in the Scandinavian composer Edvard Grieg (1843-1907), who remained a dedicated supporter of Norwegian nationalism throughout his life. Grieg's nationalism expressed itself in the lyric melodies found in the folk music of his homeland. Among his best- known works is the Peer Gynt Suite (1876), incidental music to a play by Henrik Ibsen. Grieg's music paved the way for the creation of a national music style in Norway.

Vera Zasulich (1849-1919) (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

One who advocated the use of violence to counteract the violent repression of the tsarist regime was Vera Zasulich (1849-1919). Daughter of a poor noble- man, she worked as a clerk before joining Land and Freedom, an underground populist organization advo- cating radical reform. In 1878, Zasulich shot and wounded the governor-general of Saint Petersburg. Put on trial, she was acquitted by a sympathetic jury. Encouraged by Zasulich's successful use of violence against the tsarist regime, another group of radicals, known as the People's Will, succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in 1881. His son and successor, Alexander III (1881-1894), turned against reform and returned to the traditional methods of repression.

Ausgleich, or Compromise, of 1867 (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

Only when military disaster struck again in the Austro-Prussian War did the Austrians deal with the fiercely nationalistic Hungarians. The result was the negotiated Ausgleich,, or Compromise, of 1867, which created the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each part of the empire now had a constitution, its own bicameral legislature, its own gov- ernmental machinery for domestic affairs, and its own capital (Vienna for Austria and Buda—soon to be united with Pest, across the river—for Hungary). Holding the two states together were a single monarch (Francis Joseph was emperor of Austria and king of Hungary) and a common army, foreign policy, and system of finances. In domestic affairs, the Hungarians had become an inde- pendent nation. The Ausgleich did not, however, satisfy the other nationalities that made up the multinational Austro-Hungarian Empire. The Dual Monarchy simply enabled the German-speaking Austrians and Hungarian Magyars to dominate the minorities, especially the Slavic peoples (Poles, Croats, Czechs, Serbs, Slovaks, Slovenes, and Little Russians), in their respective states. As the Hungarian nationalist Louis Kossuth remarked, ''Dualism is the alliance of the conservative, reactionary and any apparently liberal elements in Hungary with those of the Austrian Germans who despise liberty, for the oppression of the other nationalities and races.''6 The nationalities problem persisted until the demise of the empire at the end of World War I.

Pantheism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Other Romantics carried this worship of nature further into pantheism by identifying the great force in nature with God. The Romantics would have nothing to do with the deist God of the Enlightenment, the remote creator of the world-machine.

The Salvation Army (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Other religious groups also made efforts to win support for Christianity among the working-class poor and to restore religious practice among the urban working classes. Sects of evangelical missionaries were especially successful; a prime example is the Salvation Army, founded in London in 1865 by William Booth, the army's first ''general.'' The Salvation Army established food centers, shelters where the homeless could sleep, and ''rescue homes'' for women, but all these had a larger purpose, as Booth admitted: ''It is primarily and mainly for the sake of saving the soul that I seek the salvation of the body.''

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), expelled from school for advocating atheism, set out to reform the world. His Prometheus Unbound, completed in 1820, is a portrait of the revolt of human beings against the laws and customs that oppress them. He drowned in a storm in the Mediterranean.

Victorian Age (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

Politically, this was an era of uneasy stability as the aristocratic and upper-middle-class representatives who dominated Parliament blurred party lines by their internal strife and shifting positions. One political figure who stood out was Henry John Temple, Lord Palmerston (1784-1865), who was prime minister for most of the period from 1855 to 1865. Although a Whig, Palmerston was without strong party loyalty and found it easy to make political compromises. He was not a reformer, however, and opposed expanding the franchise. He said, ''We should by such an arrangement increase the number of Bribeable Electors and overpower Intelligence and Property by Ignorance and Poverty."

George Eastman (7 TSI) (KC 3.2)

Produced the first Kodak camera for the mass market in 1888

Zollverein (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

Prussia had formed the Zollverein, a German customs union, in 1834. By eliminating tolls on rivers and roads among member states, the Zollverein had stimulated trade and added to the prosperity of its member states. By 1853, all the German states except Austria had joined the Prussian-dominated customs union. A number of middle-class liberals now began to see Prussia in a new light; some even looked openly to Prussia to bring about the unification of Germany.

Count Otto von Bismarck (1815- 1898) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

Prussian prime minister and German chancellor who was instrumental in the unification of Germany.

Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Published in 1848 "The Communist Manifesto"; In 1847, Marx and Engels joined a tiny group of pri- marily German socialist revolutionaries known as the Communist League. By this time, both Marx and Engels were enthusiastic advocates of the radical working-class movement and agreed to draft a statement of their ideas for the league. The resulting Communist Manifesto, pub- lished in German in January 1848, appeared on the eve of the revolutions of 1848. One would think from the opening lines of the preface that the pamphlet alone had caused this revolutionary upheaval. In fact, The Communist Manifesto was known to only a few of Marx's friends. Although its closing words were clearly intended to rouse the working classes to action, they passed unnoticed in 1848. The work, however, became one of the most influential political treatises in modern European history. According to Engels, Marx's ideas were partly a syn- thesis of French and German thought. The French pro- vided Marx with ample documentation for his assertion that a revolution could totally restructure society. They also provided him with several examples of socialism. From the German idealistic philosophers such as Hegel, Marx took the idea of dialectic: everything evolves, and all change in history is the result of conflicts between antagonistic elements. Marx was particularly impressed by Hegel, but he disagreed with Hegel's belief that history is determined by ideas manifesting themselves in historical forces. Instead, said Marx, the course of history is determined by material forces.

Wilfred Laurier (1841-1919) (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Real unity was difficult to achieve, however, because of the distrust be- tween the English-speaking majority and the French-speaking Canadians, living primarily in Quebec. Wilfred Laurier (1841-1919), who became the first French Canadian prime minister in 1896, was able to reconcile the two groups. During his administration, industrialization boomed, especially the production of textiles, furniture, and railway equipment. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants, pri- marily from Europe, also flowed into Canada. Many set- tled on lands in the west, thus helping populate Canada's vast territories.

The Ten Hours Act of 1847 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2, 3.3)

Reduced the workday for children between thirteen and eighteen to ten hours. Women were also now included in the ten-hour limit.

Modernism (Christian) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Rejection of the new was not the churches' only re- sponse, however. A religious movement called Modernism included an attempt by the churches to reinterpret Christianity in the light of new developments. The modernists viewed the Bible as a book of useful moral ideas, encouraged Christians to become involved in social re- forms, and insisted that the churches must provide a greater sense of community. The Catholic Church condemned Modernism in 1907 and had driven it underground by the beginning of World War I.

Robert Owen (1771-1858) (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Robert Owen (1771-1858), the British cotton manufacturer, also believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. At New Lanark in Scotland, he was suc- cessful in transforming a squalid factory town into a flourishing, healthy community. But when he attempted to create a self-contained cooperative community at New Harmony, Indiana, in the United States in the 1820s, bickering within the community eventually destroyed his dream. One of Owen's disciples, a wealthy woman named Frances Wright, bought slaves in order to set up a model community at Nashoba, Tennessee. The community failed, but Wright continued to work for women's rights.

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Romantic poetry gave full expression to one of the most important characteristics of Romanticism: love of nature, especially evident in the works of William Wordsworth (1770-1850). His experience of nature was almost mystical as he claimed to receive "authentic tidings of invisible things." To Wordsworth, nature contained a mysterious force that the poet could perceive and learn from. Nature served as a mirror into which humans could look to learn about themselves. Nature was, in fact, alive and sacred

Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Sentiment and individualism came together in the Romantics' stress on the heroic. The Romantic hero was a solitary genius who was ready to defy the world and sacrifice his life for a great cause. In the hands of the British writer Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881), however, the Romantic hero did not destroy himself in ineffective protests against society but transformed society instead. In his historical works, Carlyle stressed that historical events were largely determined by the deeds of such heroes.

The Boy Scouts (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Since the sons of the middle-class family were expected to follow careers like their father's, they were sent to schools where they were kept separate from the rest of society until the age of sixteen or seventeen. Sport was used in the schools to ''toughen boys up,'' and their leisure activities centered around both national military concerns and character building. This combination was especially evident in the establishment of the Boy Scouts in Britain in 1908. Boy Scouts provided organized recreation for boys between the ages of twelve and eighteen; adventure was combined with the discipline of earning merit badges and ranks in such a way as to instill ideals of patriotism, self-sacrifice, and masculinity. The emphasis on manliness stemmed not only from military concerns but also from conceptions of masculinity formed during the late nineteenth century as the middle and upper classes looked for ways to control sexual licentiousness in the form of venereal disease or prosti- tution. Boy Scouts and The Scout magazine promoted an image of manliness with stories of youthful heroes who demonstrated their self-control by conquering the chal- lenges of the wilderness. Thus, the Boy Scouts sought to reinforce Victorian and Edwardian codes of masculinity in an effort to counter the possible dangers that female domination of the home posed for male development. As one scout leader wrote, ''The REAL Boy Scout is not a sissy. [He] adores his mother [but] is not hitched to [her] apron strings.'' Founded by Robert Baden-Powell (1857-1941).

Socialist parties (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Socialist parties also emerged in other European states, although none proved as successful as the German Social Democrats. France had a variety of socialist parties, in- cluding a Marxist one. The leader of French socialism, Jean Jaures (1859-1914), was an independent socialist who looked to the French revolutionary tradition rather than Marxism to justify revolutionary socialism. In 1905, the French socialist parties succeeded in unifying themselves into a single, mostly Marxist-oriented socialist party. Social democratic parties on the German model were founded in Belgium, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, and the Netherlands before 1900. The Marxist Social Democratic Labor Party had been organized in Russia by 1898. As the socialist parties grew, agitation for an interna- tional organization that would strengthen their position against international capitalism also grew. In 1889, leaders of the various socialist parties formed the Second International, which was organized as a loose association of national groups. Although the Second International took some coordinated actions—May Day (May 1), for example, was made an international labor day to be marked by strikes and mass labor demonstrations—differences often wreaked havoc at the organization's congresses. Two issues proved particularly divisive: revisionism and nationalism.

Evolutionary socialism / revisionism (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Some Marxists believed in a pure Marxism that accepted the imminent collapse of capitalism and the need for socialist ownership of the means of production. The guiding light of the German Social Democrats, August Bebel, confided to another so- cialist that ''every night I go to sleep with the thought that the last hour of bourgeois society strikes soon.'' Earlier, Bebel had said, ''I am convinced that the fulfillment of our aims is so close, that there are few in this hall who will not live to see the day.'' But a severe challenge to this orthodox Marxist position arose in the form of evolutionary socialism, also known as revisionism. Most prominent among the evolutionary socialists was Eduard Bernstein (1850- 1932), a member of the German Social Democratic Party who had spent years in exile in Britain, where he had been influenced by moderate English socialism and the British parliamentary system. In 1899, Bernstein challenged Marxist orthodoxy with his book Evolutionary Socialism in which he argued that some of Marx's ideas had turned out to be quite wrong. The capitalist system had not broken down, said Bernstein. Contrary to Marx's assertion, the middle class was actually expanding, not declining. At the same time, the proletariat was not sinking further down; instead, its position was improving as workers experienced a higher standard of living. In the face of this reality, Bernstein discarded Marx's emphasis on class struggle and revolution. The workers, he asserted, must continue to organize in mass political parties and even work together with the other advanced elements in a nation to bring about change. With the extension of the right to vote, workers were in a better position than ever to achieve their aims through democratic channels. Evo- lution by democratic means, not revolution, would achieve the desired goal of socialism. German and French socialist leaders, as well as the Second International, condemned evolutionary socialism as heresy and opportunism. But many socialist parties, including the German Social Democrats, while spouting revolutionary slogans, followed Bernstein's revisionist, gradualist approach.

Economic imperialism (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

Some historians have emphasized an economic motivation for imperialism. There was a great demand for natural resources and products not found in Western countries, such as rubber, oil, and tin. Instead of just trading for these products, European in- vestors advocated direct control of the areas where the raw materials were found. The large surpluses of capital that bankers and industrialists were accumulating often encouraged them to seek higher rates of profit in under- developed areas. All of these factors combined to create an economic imperialism whereby European finance dominated the economic activity of a large part of the world. This economic imperialism, however, was not necessarily the same thing as colonial expansion. Businesses invested where it was most profitable, not necessarily where their own countries had colonial empires. For example, less than 10 percent of French foreign investments before 1914 went to French colonies; most of the rest went to Latin American and European countries. Even the British had more trade with Belgium than with all of Africa in the 1890s. It should also be remembered that much of the colonial territory that was acquired was mere wasteland from the perspective of industrialized Europe and cost more to administer than it producedeconomically. Only the search for national prestige could justify such losses. Followers of Karl Marx were especially eager to argue that imperialism was economically motivated because they associated imperialism with the ultimate demise of the capitalist system. Marx had hinted at this argument, but it was one of his followers, the Russian V. I. Lenin, who in Imperialism, the Highest Stage of World Capitalism developed the idea that capitalism leads to imperialism. According to Lenin, as the capitalist system concentrates more wealth in ever-fewer hands, the possibility for investment at home is exhausted, and capitalists are forced to invest abroad, establish colo- nies, and exploit small, weak nations. In his view, then, the only cure for imperialism was the destruction of capitalism.

Industrialization of Russia (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Starting in the 1890s, Russia experienced a massive surge of state-sponsored industrialism under the guiding hand of Sergei Witte (1849-1915), the minister for finance from 1892 to 1903. Count Witte saw industrial growth as crucial to Russia's national strength. Believing that railroads were a powerful weapon in eco- nomic development, Witte pushed the government toward a program of massive railroad construction. By 1900, some 35,000 miles of railroads had been built, including large parts of the 5,000-mile trans-Siberian line between Moscow and Vladivostok, on the Pacific Ocean. Witte also encouraged a system of protective tariffs to help Russian industry and persuaded Tsar Nicholas II (1894-1917) that foreign capital was essential for rapid industrial development. Witte's program made possible the rapid growth of a modern steel and coal industry in Ukraine, making Russia by 1900 the fourth-largest producer of steel behind the United States, Germany, and Great Britain. With industrialization came factories, an industrial working class, industrial suburbs around Saint Petersburg and Moscow, and the pitiful working and living conditions that accompanied the beginnings of industrialization everywhere. Socialist thought and socialist parties devel- oped, although repression in Russia soon forced them to go underground and become revolutionary. The Marxist Social Democratic Party, for example, held its first congress in Minsk in 1898, but the arrest of its leaders caused the next one to be held in Brussels in 1903, attended by Russian emigres. The Social Revolutionaries worked to overthrow the tsarist autocracy and establish peasant socialism. Having no other outlet for their opposition to the regime, they advocated political terrorism and attempted to assassinate government officials and members of the ruling dynasty. The growing opposition to the tsarist re- gime finally exploded into revolution in 1905.

Indian National Congress (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

Such smug racial attitudes made it difficult for British rule, no matter how beneficent, ever to be ultimately accepted and led to the rise of an Indian nationalist movement. By 1883, when the Indian National Congress was formed, moderate, educated Indians were beginning to seek self-government. By 1919, in response to British violence and British insensitivity, Indians were demanding complete independence.

Joseph Lister (1827-1912) (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

Surgeons had already achieved a new professionalism by the end of the eighteenth century (see Chapter 17), but the discovery of germs and the introduction of anesthesia created a new environ- ment for surgical operations. Surgeons had traditionally set broken bones, treated wounds, and amputated limbs, usually as a result of injuries in war. One major obstacle to more successful surgery was the inevitable postoperative infection, which was especially rampant in hospitals. Joseph Lister (1827-1912), who developed the anti-septic principle, was one of the first people to deal with this problem. Following the work of Pasteur, Lister per- ceived that bacteria might enter a wound and cause in- fection. His use of carbolic acid, a newly discovered disinfectant, proved remarkably effective in eliminating infections during surgery. Lister's discoveries dramatically transformed surgery wards as patients no longer succumbed regularly to what was called ''hospital gangrene.'' The second great barrier to large-scale surgery stemmed from the inability to lessen the pain of the patient. Alcohol and opiates had been used for centuries during surgical operations, but even their use did not allow unhurried operative maneuvers. After experiments with numerous agents, sulfuric ether was first used successfully in an op- eration at the Massachusetts General Hospital in 1846. Within a year, chloroform began to rival ether as an anesthetic agent.

Team sports (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Team sports had also developed into yet another form of mass leisure by the late nineteenth cen- tury. Sports were by no means a new activity. Unlike the old rural games, however, they were no longer chaotic and spontaneous activities but became strictly organized, with written rules and officials to enforce them. The rules were the products of organized athletic groups, such as the English Football Association (1863) and the American Bowling Congress (1895). The new sports were not just for fun; like other forms of middle-class recreation, they were intended to provide training for people, especially adolescents. Not only could the participants develop individual skills, but they could also acquire a sense of teamwork useful for military ser- vice. These characteristics were already evident in the British public schools (which were really private boarding schools) in the 1850s and 1860s when such schools as Harrow, Uppingham, and Loretto placed organized sports at the center of the curriculum (see the box on p. 728). At Loretto, for example, education was supposed to instill ''First—Character. Second—Physique. Third—Intelligence. Fourth—Manners. Fifth—Information.''

Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

The Allies also took advantage of Germany's preoccu- pation in Europe and lack of naval strength to seize German colonies in Africa. But there too the war did not end quickly. The first British shots of World War I were actually fired in Africa when British African troops moved into the German colony of Togoland near the end of August 1914. But in East Africa, the German commander Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck managed to keep his African troops fighting one campaign after another for four years; he did not sur- render until two weeks after the armistice ended the war in Europe.

The Boer War (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

The Boer War began in 1899 and dragged on until 1902 as the Boers proved to be an effective opponent. Due to the Boers' use of guerrilla tactics, the British sustained high casualties and immense ex- penses in securing victory. Almost 450,000 British and imperial forces were needed to defeat 87,000 Boers at a cost of 22,000 British deaths. Mass newspapers in Britain reported on the high casualties, costs, and brutalities against Boer women and children, causing a public outcry and arousing antiwar sentiment at home. Despite Britain's victory, the cost of the Boer War demonstrated that increased military and monetary investment would be needed to maintain the British Empire. British policy toward the defeated Boers was remark- ably conciliatory. Transvaal and the Orange Free State had representative governments by 1907, and in 1910, the Union of South Africa was created. Like Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, it became a fully self-governing dominion within the British Empire.

The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 (1 INT, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

The Bosnian Crisis of 1908-1909 initiated a chain of events that eventually spun out of control. Since 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina had been under the protection of Austria, but in 1908, Austria took the drastic step of annexing these two Slavic-speaking territories. Serbia became outraged at this action because it dashed the Serbs' hopes of creating a large Serbian kingdom that would include most of the southern Slavs. This was why the Austrians had annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. To the Austrians, a large Serbia would be a threat to the unity of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, with its large Slavic population. The Russians, as protectors of their fellow Slavs and desiring to increase their own authority in the Balkans, supported the Serbs and opposed the Austrian action. Backed by the Russians, the Serbs prepared for war against Austria. At this point, William II intervened and demanded that the Russians accept Austria's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina or face war with Germany. Weakened from their defeat in the Russo-Japanese War in 1904-1905, the Russians backed down. Humiliated, they vowed revenge. European attention returned to the Balkans in 1912 when Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro, and Greece organized the Balkan League and defeated the Ottomans in the First Balkan War. When the victorious allies were unable to agree on how to divide the conquered Ottoman provinces of Macedonia and Albania, the Second Balkan War erupted in 1913. Greece, Serbia, Romania, and the Ottoman Empire attacked and defeated Bulgaria. As a result, Bulgaria obtained only a small part of Macedonia, and most of the rest was divided between Serbia and Greece. Yet Serbia's aspirations remained unfulfilled. The two Balkan wars left the inhabitants embittered and created more tensions among the great powers. One of Serbia's major ambitions had been to acquire Albanian territory that would give it a port on the Adriatic. At the London Conference, arranged by Austria at the end of the two Balkan wars, the Austrians had blocked Serbia's wishes by creating an independent Albania. The Germans, as Austrian allies, had supported this move. In their frustration, Serbian nationalists increasingly por- trayed the Austrians as monsters who were keeping the Serbs from becoming a great nation. As Serbia's chief supporters, the Russians were also upset by the turn of events in the region. A feeling had grown among Russian leaders that they could not back down again in the event of a confrontation with Austria or Germany in the Balkans. One Russian military journal even stated early in 1914, ''We are preparing for a war in the west. The whole nation must accustom itself to the idea that we arm ourselves for a war of annihilation against the Germans.'' Austria-Hungary had achieved another of its aims, but it was still convinced that Serbia was a mortal threat to its empire and must at some point be crushed. Meanwhile, the French and Russian governments renewed their alli- ance and promised each other that they would not back down at the next crisis. Britain drew closer to France. By the beginning of 1914, the two armed camps viewed each other with suspicion. An American in Europe observed, ''The whole of Germany is charged with electricity. Ev- erybody's nerves are tense. It only needs a spark to set the whole thing off.'' The German ambassador to France noted at the same time that ''peace remains at the mercy of an accident.'' The European ''age of progress'' was about to come to an inglorious and bloody end.

Pope Pius IX (1846-1878) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The Catholic Church under Pope Pius IX (1846-1878) also took a rigid stand against modern ideas. In 1864, Pope Pius issued a papal encyclical called the Syllabus of Errors in which he stated that it is ''an error to believe that the Roman Pontiff can and ought to reconcile himself to, and agree with, prog- ress, liberalism, and modern civilization.'' He condemned nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, and freedom of speech and press.

The Curies and Planck (7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

The French scientist Marie Curie (1867-1934) and her husband Pierre (1859-1906) discovered that the element radium gave off rays of radiation that apparently came from within the atom itself. Atoms were not simply hard, material bodies but small worlds containing such subatomic particles as electrons and protons that behaved in seemingly random and inexplicable fashion. Inquiry into the disintegrative process within atoms became a central theme of the new physics. Building on this work, in 1900, a Berlin physicist, Max Planck (1858-1947), rejected the belief that a heated body radiates energy in a steady stream but maintained instead that energy is radiated discontinuously, in irregular packets that he called ''quanta.'' The quantum theory raised fundamental questions about the subatomic realm of the atom. By 1900, the old view of atoms as the basic building blocks of the material world was being seriously questioned, and Newtonian physics was in trouble.

Franz Liszt (1811-1886) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The Hungarian-born composer Franz Liszt (1811-1886) best exemplifies the achievements of the New German School. A child prodigy, he established himself as an outstanding concert artist by the age of twelve. Liszt's performances and his dazzling personality made him the most highly esteemed virtuoso of his age. He has been called the greatest pianist of all time and has been credited with introducing the concept of the modern piano recital. Liszt's compositions consist mainly of piano pieces, although he composed in other genres as well, including sacred music. He invented the term symphonic poem to refer to his orchestral works, which did not strictly obey traditional forms and were generally based on a literary or pictorial idea. Under the guidance of Liszt and the New German School, Romantic music reached its peak.

Impressionism (music) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The Impressionist movement in music followed its artistic counterpart by some thirty years. Impressionist music stressed elusive moods and haunting sensations and is distinctive in its delicate beauty and elegance of sound. The composer most tangibly linked to the Impressionist movement was Claude Debussy (1862-1918), whose musical compositions were often in- spired by the visual arts. One of Debussy's most famous works, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun (1894), was actually inspired by a poem, ''Afternoon of a Faun,'' written by his friend, the Symbolist poet Stephane Mallarme. But Debussy did not tell a story in music; rather, Prelude to the Afternoon of a Faun re-created in sound the overall feeling of the poem. Said Mallarme upon hearing Debussy's piece, ''I was not expecting anything like this. This music prolongs the emotion of my poem, and evokes the scene more vividly than color.'' Other composers adopted stylistic idioms that imitated presumably primitive forms in an attempt to express less refined and therefore more genuine feelings. A chief exponent of musical primitivism was Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971), one of the twentieth century's most important composers, both for his compo- sitions and for his impact on other composers. He gained international fame as a ballet composer and together with the Ballet Russe, under the direction of Sergei Diaghilev (1872-1929), revolutionized the world of music with a series of ballets. The three most significant ballets Stravinsky composed for Diaghilev's company were The Firebird (1910), Petrushka (1911), and The Rite of Spring (1913). All three were based on Russian folk tales. The Rite of Spring proved to be a revolutionary piece in the development of music. At its premiere on May 29, 1913, the pulsating rhythms, sharp dissonances, and unusual dancing overwhelmed the Paris audience and caused a riot at the theater. Like the intellectuals of his time, Stravinsky sought a new understanding of irrational forces in his music, which became an important force in inaugurating a modern musical movement.

Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which allowed slavery in the Kansas and Nebraska terri- tories to be determined by popular sovereignty, created a firestorm in the North and led to the creation of a new sectional party. The Republicans were united by anti- slavery principles and were especially driven by the fear that the ''slave power'' of the South would attempt to spread the slave system throughout the country.

David Lloyd George (1863-1945) (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

The Liberals, who gained control of the House of Commons in that year and held the government from 1906 to 1914, perceived that they would have to enact a program of social welfare or lose the support of the workers. The policy of reform was especially advanced by David Lloyd George (1863-1945), a brilliant orator from Wales who had been deeply moved by the misery of Welsh coal miners and served as chancellor of the Exchequer from 1908 to 1915. The Liberals abandoned the classic principles of laissez-faire and voted for a series of social reforms. The National Insurance Act of 1911 provided benefits for workers in case of sickness and unemploy- ment, to be paid for by compulsory contributions from workers, employers, and the state. Additional legislation provided a small pension for retirees over seventy and compensation for workers injured on the job. To pay for the new program, Lloyd George increased the tax burden on the wealthy classes. Though both the benefits of the program and the tax increases were modest, they were the first hesitant steps toward the future British welfare state. Liberalism, which had been based on the principle that the government that governs least governs best, had been transformed. In the effort to achieve social reform, Lloyd George was also forced to confront the power of the House of Lords. Composed of hereditary aristocrats, the House of Lords took a strong stance against Lloyd George's effort to pay for social reform measures by taxes, however modest, on the wealthy. In 1911, the Liberals pushed through a law that restricted the ability of the House of Lords to impede legislation enacted by the House of Commons. After 1911, the House of Lords became largely a debating society.

The Poor Law of 1834 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

The Poor Law of 1834 was based on the theory that giving aid to the poor and unemployed only encouraged laziness and increased the number of paupers. The Poor Law tried to remedy this by making paupers so wretched they would choose to work. Those unable to support themselves were crowded together in workhouses where living and working conditions were intentionally miserable so that people would be encouraged to find profitable employment.

American Federation of Labor (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

The United States had become the world's richest na- tion and greatest industrial power. Yet serious questions remained about the quality of American life. In 1890, the richest 9 percent of Americans owned an incredible 71 percent of all the wealth. Labor unrest over unsafe working conditions, strict work discipline, and periodic cycles of devastating unemployment led workers to organize. By the turn of the century, one national organization, the American Federation of Labor, emerged as labor's dominant voice. Its lack of real power, however, was reflected in its membership figures. In 1900, it included only 8.4 percent of the American industrial labor force.

Battle of Jutland (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

The United States tried to remain neutral in the Great War but found it more difficult to do so as the war dragged on. Although there was considerable sentiment for the British side in the conflict, the immediate cause of American involvement grew out of the naval conflict between Germany and Great Britain. Only once did the German and British naval forces engage in direct combat—at the Battle of Jutland on May 31, 1916, when the Germans won an inconclusive victory.

Assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia, on June 28, 1914, was carried out by a Bosnian activist who worked for the Black Hand, a Serbian terrorist organization dedicated to the creation of a pan-Slavic kingdom. Although the Austrian government did not know whether the Serbian government had been directly involved in the archduke's assassination, it saw an opportunity to ''render Serbia impotent once and for all by a display of force,'' as the Austrian foreign minister put it. Fearful of Russian intervention on Serbia's behalf, Austrian leaders sought the backing of their German allies. Emperor William II and his chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, responded with the in- famous ''blank check,'' their assurance that Austria-Hungary could rely on Germany's ''full support,'' even if ''matters went to the length of a war between Austria-Hungary and Russia.'' Much historical debate has focused on this ''blank check'' extended to the Austrians. Did the Germans realize that an Austrian-Serbian war could lead to a wider war? If so, did they actually want one? Historians are still divided on the answers to these questions. Led by Franz Conrad von Hotzendorf, chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff, who thought war with Serbia was both necessary and inevitable, Austrian leaders had already decided by July 14 to send Serbia an ultimatum that threatened war. But the Austrians decided to wait until the end of the official French state visit to Russia before issuing the ultimatum. On July 23, the day the French president left Russia, Austrian leaders issued their ulti- matum to Serbia. Their demands were so extreme that Serbia had little choice but to reject some of them in order to preserve its sovereignty. Austria then declared war on Serbia on July 28. Although Austria had hoped to keep the war limited to Serbia and Austria in order to ensure its success in the Balkans, these hopes soon vanished.

Failed trench breakthrough attempts (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

The attacks rarely worked; the machine gun put hordes of men advancing unprotected across open fields at a severe disadvantage. In 1916 and 1917, millions of young men were killed in the search for the elusive breakthrough. In the German offensive at Verdun in 1916, the British campaigns on the Somme in 1916 and at Ypres in 1917, and the French attack in Champagne in 1917, the senselessness of trench warfare became all too obvious. In ten months at Verdun, 700,000 men lost their lives over a few square miles of terrain.

Darwinian ideas (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

The basic idea of Dar- win's book was that all plants and animals had evolved over a long period of time from earlier and simpler forms of life, a principle known as organic evolution. Darwin was important in explaining how this natural process worked. He took the first step from Thomas Malthus's theory of population: in every species, ''many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive.'' This results in a ''struggle for existence.'' Darwin believed that ''as more individuals are produced than can possibly survive, there must in every case be a struggle for existence, either one individual with another of the same species, or with the individuals of distinct species, or with the physical conditions of life.'' Those who succeeded in this struggle for existence had adapted better to their environment, a process made possible by the appearance of ''variants.'' Chance variations that occurred in the pro- cess of inheritance enabled some organisms to be more adaptable to the environment than others, a process that Darwin called natural selection: ''Owing to this struggle [for existence], variations, however slight, . . . if they be in any degree profitable to the individuals of a species, in their infinitely complex relations to other organic beings and to their physical conditions of life, will tend to the preservation of such individuals, and will generally be inherited by the offspring.'' Those that were naturally selected for survival (''survival of the fit'') survived. The unfit did not and became extinct. The fit who survived propagated and passed on the variations that enabled them to survive until, from Darwin's point of view, a new separate species emerged. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin discussed plant and animal species only. He was not concerned with humans themselves and only later applied his theory of natural selection to humans. In The Descent of Man, published in 1871, he argued for the animal origins of human beings: ''man is the co-descendant with other mammals of a common progenitor.'' Humans were not an exception to the rule governing other species. Darwin's ideas were highly controversial at first. Some people fretted that Darwin's theory made human beings ordinary products of nature rather than unique beings. Others were disturbed by the implications of life as a struggle for survival, of ''nature red in tooth and claw.'' Was there a place in the Darwinian world for moral values? For those who believed in a rational order in the world, Darwin's theory seemed to eliminate purpose and design from the universe. Gradually, however, Darwin's theory was accepted by scientists and other intellectuals. In the process of accepting Darwin's ideas, some people even tried to apply them to society, yet another example of science's increasing prestige.

Realism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The belief that the world should be viewed realistically, frequently expressed after 1850, was closely related to the materialistic outlook. The term Realism was first em- ployed in 1850 to describe a new style of painting and soon spread to literature. The literary Realists of the mid-nineteenth century were distinguished by their deliberate rejection of Romanticism. The literary Realists wanted to deal with ordinary charac- ters from real life rather than Romantic heroes in unusual settings. They also sought to avoid flowery and senti- mental language by using careful observation and accurate description, an approach that led them to eschew poetry in favor of prose and the novel. Realists often combined their interest in everyday life with a searching examination of social questions.

The French Third Republic (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

The defeat of France by the Prussian army in 1870 brought the downfall of Louis Napoleon's Second Empire. French republicans initially set up a provisional government, but the victorious Otto von Bismarck intervened and forced the French to choose a government by universal male suffrage. The French people rejected the republicans and overwhelmingly favored the monarchists, who won 400 of the 630 seats in the new National Assembly. In response, on March 26, 1871, radical republicans formed an independent republican government in Paris known as the Commune. But the National Assembly refused to give up its power and decided to crush the revolutionary Commune. When vicious fighting broke out in April, many working-class men and women stepped forth to defend the Commune. At first, women's activities were the traditional ones: caring for the wounded soldiers and feeding the troops. Gradually, however, women expanded their activities to include taking care of weapons, working as scouts, and even setting up their own fighting brigades. Louise Michel (1830-1905), a schoolteacher, emerged as one of the leaders of the Paris Commune. She proved tireless in forming committees for the defense of the revolutionary Commune. All of these efforts were in vain, however. In the last week of May, government troops massacred thousands of the Commune's defenders.Estimates are that 20,000 were shot; another 10,000 (including Louise Michel) were shipped to the French penal colony of New Caledonia in the South Pacific. The brutal repression of the Commune bequeathed a legacy of hatred that continued to plague French politics for decades. The split between the middle and working classes, begun in the revolutionary hostilities of 1848-1849, had widened immensely. The harsh pun- ishment of women who participated in the revolutionary activity also served to discourage any future efforts by working-class women to improve their conditions. Although a majority of the members of the monarchist- dominated National Assembly wished to restore a monarchy to France, inability to agree on who should be king caused the monarchists to miss their opportunity and led in 1875 to an improvised constitution that established a republican form of government as the least divisive compromise. This constitution established a bicameral legislature with an upper house, the Senate, elected indirectly and a lower house, the Chamber of Deputies, chosen by universal male suffrage; a president, selected by the legislature for a term of seven years, served as executive of the government. The Constitution of 1875, intended only as a stopgap measure, solidified the republic—the Third Republic— which lasted sixty-five years. New elections in 1876 and 1877 strengthened the hands of the republicans who managed by 1879 to institute ministerial responsibility and establish the power of the Chamber of Deputies. The prime minister or premier and his ministers were now responsible not to the president but to the Chamber of Deputies. Although the government's moderation gradually en- couraged more and more middle-class and peasant support, the position of the Third Republic remained precarious because monarchists, Catholic clergy, and professional army officers were still its enemies. A major crisis in the 1880s, however, actually served to strengthen the republican government. General Georges Boulanger (1837-1891) was a popular military officer who attracted the public attention of all those discontented with the Third Republic: the monarchists, Bonapartists, aristocrats, and nationalists who favored a war of revenge against Germany. Boulanger appeared as the strong man on horseback, the savior of France. By 1889, just when his strength had grown to the point where many expected a coup d'etat, he lost his nerve and fled France, a completely discredited man. In the long run, the Boulanger crisis served to rally support for the resilient republic.

Internal-combustion engine and related inventions (7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

The development of the internal combustion engine had a similar effect. The first internal combustion engine, fired by gas and air, was produced in 1878. It proved unsuitable for widespread use as a source of power in transportation until the de- velopment of liquid fuels—petroleum and its distilled derivatives. An oil-fired engine was made in 1897, and by 1902, the Hamburg-Amerika Line had switched from coal to oil on its new ocean liners. By the end of the nineteenth century, some naval fleets had been converted to oil burners as well.The development of the internal combustion engine gave rise to the automobile and the airplane. The invention of a light engine by Gottlieb Daimler in 1886 was the key to the development of the automobile. In 1900, world production stood at nine thousand cars; by 1906, Americans had overtaken the initial lead of the French. It was an American, Henry Ford (1863-1947), who revolutionized the car industry with the mass production of the Model T. By 1916, Ford's factories were producing 735,000 cars a year. Air trans- portation began with the Zeppelin airship in 1900. In 1903, at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first flight in a fixed-wing plane powered by a gasoline engine. It took World War I to stimulate the aircraft industry, however, and the first regular passenger air service was not established until 1919.

Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The early life experiences of the German painter Caspar David Friedrich (1774-1840) left him with a lifelong preoc- cupation with God and nature. Friedrich painted land- scapes with an interest that transcended the mere presentation of natural details. His portrayal of mountains shrouded in mist, gnarled trees bathed in moonlight, and the stark ruins of monasteries surrounded by withered trees all conveyed a feeling of mystery and mysticism. For Friedrich, nature was a manifestation of divine life, as is evident in Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon. To Friedrich, the artistic process depended on one's inner vision. He advised artists, ''Shut your physical eye and look first at your picture with your spiritual eye; then bring to the light of day what you have seen in the darkness.''

Zionism (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

The emancipation of the nineteenth century had presented vast opportunities for some Jews but dilemmas for others. Did emancipation mean full assimilation, and did assimilation mean the disruption of traditional Jewish life? Many Jews paid the price willingly, but others questioned its value and advocated a different answer, a return to Palestine. For many Jews, Palestine, the land of ancient Is- rael, had long been the land of their dreams. During the nineteenth century, as nationalist ideas spread and Italians, Poles, Irish, Greeks, and others sought national emancipation, so did the idea of national independence capture the imagination of some Jews. A key figure in the growth of political Zionism was Theodor Herzl (1860-1904). In 1896, he published a book called The Jewish State in which he maintained that ''the Jews who wish it will have their state.'' Financial support for the development of settlements in Palestine came from wealthy Jewish banking families who wanted a refuge in Palestine for persecuted Jews. Establishing settlements was difficult, though, because Palestine was then part of the Ottoman Empire and Ottoman authorities were opposed to Jewish immigration. Despite the warnings, however, the First Zionist Congress, which met in Switzerland in 1897, proclaimed as its aim the creation of a ''home in Palestine secured by public law'' for the Jewish people. One thousand Jews migrated to Palestine in 1901, and the number rose to three thousand annually between 1904 and 1914; but on the eve of World War I, the Zionist dream remained just that.

George Stephenson (7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

The engines built by George Stephenson and his son proved superior, and it was in their workshops in Newcastle-upon-Tyne that the locomotives for the first modern railways in Britain were built. George Stephenson's Rocket was used on the first public railway line, which opened in 1830, extending 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester. Rocket sped along at 16 miles per hour. Within twenty years, locomotives had reached 50 miles per hour, an incredible speed to contemporary passengers. During the same period, new companies were formed to build additional railroads as the infant industry proved successful not only technically but also financially. In 1840, Britain had almost 2,000 miles of railroads; by 1850, 6,000 miles of railroad track crisscrossed much of the country.

William Gladstone (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

The first Liberal administration of William Gladstone, from 1868 to 1874, was responsible for a series of impressive reforms. Legislation and government orders opened civil service positions to competitive exams rather than patronage, introduced the secret ballot for voting, and abolished the practice of purchasing military commissions. The Education Act of 1870 attempted to make elementary schools available for all children. These reforms were typically liberal. By eliminating abuses and enabling people with talent to compete fairly, they sought to strengthen the nation and its institutions

Women's colleges (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

The first colleges for women were really teacher-training schools. In Britain, the women's colleges of Queen's and Bedford were established in the 1840s to provide teacher training for middle-class spinsters who needed to work. Barbara Bodichon (1827-1891), a pioneer in the development of female education, established her own school where girls were trained for economic independence as well as domesticity. Not until the beginning of the twentieth century, how- ever, were women permitted to enter the male-dominated universities. In France, 3 percent of university students in 1902 were women; by 1914, their number had increased to 10 percent of the total.

Social Democratic Party of Germany (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

The growth of industrialization led to even greater expansion for the Social Democratic Party. Despite the enactment of new welfare legislation to favor the working classes, William II was no more successful than Bismarck at slowing the growth of the Social Democrats. By 1912, it had become the largest single party in the Reichstag. At the same time, the party increasingly became less revolutionary and more revisionist in its outlook. Nevertheless, its growth frightened the middle and upper classes, who blamed labor for their own problems.

Conscription and militarism (4 SOP) (KC 4.1)

The growth of large mass armies after 1900 not only heightened the existing tensions in Europe but made it inevitable that if war did come, it would be highly de- structive. Conscription had been established as a regular practice in most Western countries before 1914 (the United States and Britain were major exceptions). European mili- tary machines had doubled in size between 1890 and 1914. With its 1.3 million men, the Russian army had grown to be the largest, but the French and Germans were not far be- hind with 900,000 each. The British, Italian, and Austrian armies numbered between 250,000 and 500,000 soldiers. Most European land armies were filled with peasants, since many young, urban working-class males were unable to pass the physical examinations required for military service. Militarism, however, involved more than just large armies. As armies grew, so did the influence of military leaders, who drew up vast and complex plans for quickly mobilizing millions of men and enormous quantities of supplies in the event of war. Fearful that changes in these plans would create chaos in the armed forces, military leaders insisted that their plans could not be altered. In the crises during the summer of 1914, the generals' lack of flexibility forced European political leaders to make decisions for military instead of political reasons.

The Boxer Rebellion (1 INT, 2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.5)

The humiliation of China by the Western powers led to much antiforeign violence, but the Westerners used this lawlessness as an excuse to extort further concessions from the Chinese. A major outburst of violence against foreigners occurred in the Boxer Rebellion in 1900-1901. ''Boxers'' was the popular name given to Chinese who be- longed to a secret organization called the Society of Har- monious Fists, whose aim was to push the foreigners out of China. The Boxers murdered foreign missionaries, Chinese who had converted to Christianity, railroad workers, for- eign businessmen, and even the German envoy to Beijing. Response to the killings was immediate and overwhelming. An allied army consisting of British, French, German, Russian, American, and Japanese troops attacked Beijing, restored order, and demanded more concessions from the Chinese government. The imperial government was so weakened that the forces of the revolutionary leader Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925), who adopted a program of ''nation- alism, democracy, and socialism,'' overthrew the Manchu dynasty in 1912. The new Republic of China remained weak and ineffective, and China's travails were far from over.

Auguste Comte (1798-1857) (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

The importance of science in the nineteenth century perhaps made it inevitable that a scientific approach would be applied to the realm of human activity. The at- tempt to apply the methods of science systematically to the study of society was perhaps most evident in the work of the Frenchman Auguste Comte (1798-1857). His major work, System of Positive Philosophy, was published between 1837 and 1842 but had its real impact after 1850. Comte created a system of ''positive knowledge'' based on a hierarchy of all the sciences. Mathematics was the foundation on which the physical sciences, earth sciences, and biological sciences were built. At the top was sociol- ogy, the science of human society, which for Comte in- corporated economics, anthropology, history, and social psychology. Comte saw sociology's task as a difficult one. The discovery of the general laws of society would have to be based on the collection and analysis of data on humans and their social environment. Although his schemes were often complex and dense, Comte played an important role in the growing popularity of science and materialism in the mid-nineteenth century.

Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859) (4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

The leader of the Congress of Vienna was the Austrian foreign minister, Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859). He was an experienced diplomat who was also conceited and self-assured.

Realist writers (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The leading novelist of the 1850s and 1860s, the Frenchman Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880), perfected the Realist novel. His Madame Bovary (1857) was a straightforward description of barren and sordid small-town life in France. Emma Bovary, a woman of some vitality, is trapped in a marriage to a drab provincial doctor. Impelled by the images of romantic love she has read about in novels, she seeks the same thing for herself in adulterous affairs. Unfulfilled, she is ultimately driven to suicide, unrepentant to the end for her lifestyle. Flaubert's contempt for bourgeois society was evident in his portrayal of middle-class hypocrisy and smugness. William Thackeray (1811-1863) wrote Britain's proto- typical Realist novel, Vanity Fair: A Novel Without a Hero, in 1848. Thackeray deliberately flouted the Romantic conventions. A novel, Thackeray said, should ''convey as strongly as possible the sentiment of reality as opposed to a tragedy or poem, which may be heroical.'' Perhaps the greatest of the Victorian novelists was Charles Dickens (1812-1870), whose realistic novels focusing on the lower and middle classes in Britain's early industrial age became extraordinarily successful. His descriptions of the urban poor and the brutalization of human life were vividly realistic.

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

The major breakthrough toward a scientific medicine occurred with the discovery of micro- organisms, or germs, as the agents causing disease. The germ theory of disease was largely the work of Louis Pasteur (1822-1895). Pasteur was not a doctor but a chemist who approached medical problems in a scientific fashion. In 1857, Pasteur went to Paris as director of scientific studies at the Ecole Normale, where experiments he conducted proved that microorganisms of various kinds were responsible for the process of fermentation, thereby launching the science of bacteriology. Government and private industry soon perceived the inherent practical value of Pasteur's work. His examina- tion of a disease threatening the wine industry led to the development in 1863 of a process—subsequently known as pasteurization—for heating a product to destroy the organisms causing spoilage. In 1877, Pasteur turned his attention to human diseases. His desire to do more than simply identify disease-producing organisms led him in 1885 to a preventive vaccination against rabies. In the 1890s, the principle of vaccination was extended to diphtheria, typhoid fever, cholera, and plague, creating a modern immunological science. The work of Pasteur and the others who followed him in isolating the specific bacteriological causes of numerous diseases had a far-reaching impact. By providing a rational means of treating and preventing infectious diseases, they transformed the medical world. Both the practice of surgery and public health experienced a renaissance.

The New German School (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The mid-nineteenth century witnessed the development of a new group of musicians known as the New German School. They emphasized emotional content rather than abstract form and championed new methods of using music to express literary or pictorial ideas.

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The most popular exponent of social Darwinism was the British philosopher Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Using Darwin's terminology, Spencer argued that societies were organisms that evolved through time from a struggle with their environment. Progress came from ''the struggle for survival,'' as the ''fit''—the strong— advanced while the weak declined. The state should not intervene in this natural process.

Medical schools (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

The new scientific develop- ments also had an important impact on the training of doctors for professional careers in health care. Although there were a few medical schools at the beginning of the nineteenth century, most medical instruction was still done by a system of apprenticeship. In the course of the nineteenth century, virtually every Western country founded new medical schools, but attempts to impose uniform standards on them through certifying bodies met considerable resistance. Entrance requirements were vir- tually nonexistent, and degrees were granted after several months of lectures. Professional organizations founded around midcentury, such as the British Medical Associa- tion in 1832, the American Medical Association in 1847, and the German Doctors' Society in 1872, attempted to elevate professional standards but achieved little until the end of the century. The establishment of the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in 1893, with its four-year graded curriculum, clinical training for advanced students, and use of laboratories for teaching purposes, provided a new model for medical training that finally became standard practice in the twentieth century.

Professional sports (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

The new team sports rapidly became professionalized. In Britain, soccer had its Football Association in 1863 and rugby its Rugby Football Union in 1871. In the United States, the first national association to recognize profes- sional baseball players was formed in 1863. By 1900, the National League and American League had a monopoly over professional baseball. The development of urban transportation systems made possible the construction of stadiums where thousands could attend, making mass spectator sports a big business. In 1872, some 2,000 peo- ple watched the British Soccer Cup Final. By 1885, the crowd had increased to 10,000 and by 1901 to 100,000. Professional teams became objects of mass adulation by crowds of urbanites who compensated for their lost sense of identity in mass urban areas by developing these new loyalties. Spectator sports even reflected class differences. Upper-class soccer teams in Britain viewed working-class teams as vicious and prone to ''money-grubbing, tricks, sensational displays, and utter rottenness.'' The sports cult of the late nineteenth century was mostly male oriented. Many men believed that females were not particularly suited for ''vigorous physical activity,'' although it was permissible for middle-class women to indulge in less active sports such as croquet and lawn tennis. Eventually, some athletics crept into women's colleges and girls' public schools in England.

Emile Zola (1840-1902) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The novels of the French writer Emile Zola (1840-1902) provide a good example of Naturalism. Against a backdrop of the urban slums and coalfields of northern France, Zola showed how alcoholism and different environments affected people's lives. He had read Darwin's Origin of Species and had been impressed by its emphasis on the struggle for survival and the impor- tance of environment and heredity. These themes were central to his Rougon-Macquart, a twenty-volume series of novels on the ''natural and social history of a family.'' Zola maintained that the artist must analyze and dissect life as a biologist would a living organism. He said, ''I have simply done on living bodies the work of analysis which surgeons perform on corpses.''

Kulturkampf (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.2)

The policies of Otto von Bismarck, who served as chancellor of the new German state until 1890, often served to prevent the growth of more democratic institutions. At first Bismarck worked with the lib- erals to achieve greater central- ization of Germany through common codes of criminal and commercial law. The liberals also joined Bismarck in his at- tack on the Catholic Church, the so-called Kulturkampf, or ''struggle for civilization.'' Like Bismarck, middle-class liberals distrusted Catholic loyalty to the new Germany. Bismarck's strong-arm tactics against the Catholic clergy and Catholic institutions proved counterpro- ductive, however, and Bismarck welcomed an opportunity in 1878 to abandon the attack on Catholicism by making an abrupt shift in policy.

Impressionism (painting) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The preamble to modern painting can be found in Impressionism, a movement that originated in France in the 1870s when a group of artists rejected the studios and museums and went out into the countryside to paint nature directly. Their subjects included figures from daily life, street scenes of Paris, and nature. Instead of adhering to the conventional modes of painting and subject matter, the Impressionists sought originality and distinction from past artworks. Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) was one of Impressionism's founders. on objects in nature. Pissarro's ideas are visibly portrayed in the work of Claude Monet (1840-1926). He was especially enchanted with water and painted many pictures in which he attempted to capture the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere, especially evident in Impression, Sunrise. But the Impressionists did not just paint scenes from nature. Streets and cabarets, rivers, and busy boulevards—wherever people congregated for work and leisure—formed their subject matter. Another important Impressionist painter was Berthe Morisot (1841-1895), who broke with the practice of women being only amateur artists and became a professional painter. Her dedication to the new style of painting won her the disfavor of the traditional French academic artists. Morisot believed that women had a special vision, which was, as she said, ''more delicate than that of men.'' Her special touch is evident in the lighter colors and flowing brushstrokes of Young Girl by the Window. Near the end of her life, Morisot lamented the refusal of men to take her work seriously: ''I don't think there has ever been a man who treated a woman as an equal, and that's all I would have asked, for I know I'm worth as much as they."

Modernism (literature) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The revolution in physics and psychology was paralleled by a revolution in literature and the arts. Before 1914, writers and artists self-consciously rejected the traditional literary and artistic styles that had dominated European cultural life since the Renaissance. The changes that they produced have since been called Modernism.

Ernst Renan (1823-1892) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The scientific spirit also encouraged a number of bib- lical scholars to apply critical principles to the Bible, leading to the so-called higher criticism. One of its leading exponents was Ernst Renan (1823-1892), a French Catholic scholar. In his Life of Jesus, Renan ques- tioned the historical accuracy of the Bible and presented a radically different picture of Jesus. He saw Jesus not as the son of God but as a human being whose value lay in the example he provided by his life and teaching.

Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) and Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

The second half of the nineteenth century was a golden age for Russian literature. The nineteenth-century realistic novel reached its high point in the works of Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) and Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881). Tolstoy's great- est work was War and Peace, a lengthy novel played out against the historical background of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812. It is realistic in its vivid descriptions of military life and character portrayal. Each person is delin- eated clearly and analyzed psychologically. Upon a great landscape, Tolstoy imposed a fatalistic view of history that ultimately proved irrelevant in the face of life's enduring values of human love and trust. Dostoevsky combined narrative skill and acute psychological and moral observation with profound insights into human nature. He maintained that the major problem of his age was a loss of spiritual belief. Western people were attempting to gain salvation through the construc- tion of a materialistic paradise built only by human reason and human will. Dostoevsky feared that the failure to incorporate spirit would result in total tyranny. His own life experiences led him to believe that only through suf- fering and faith could the human soul be purified, views that are evident in his best-known works, Crime and Punishment and The Brothers Karamazov.

Materialism (3 CID, 7 TSI) (KC 3.6)

The steadily increasing and often dramatic material gains generated by science and technology led to a growing faith in the benefits of science. The popularity of scientific and technological achievement produced a widespread acceptance of the scientific method, based on observation, experiment, and logical analysis, as the only path to objective truth and objective reality. This in turn undermined the faith of many people in religious revela- tion and truth. It is no accident that the nineteenth century was an age of increasing secularization, particu- larly evident in the growth of materialism, the belief that everything mental, spiritual, or ideal was simply a result of physical forces. Truth was to be found in the concrete material existence of human beings and not, as the Romantics imagined, in revelations gained by feeling or intuitive flashes. The importance of materialism was strikingly evident in the most important scientific event of the nineteenth century, the development of the theory of organic evolution according to natural selection. On the theories of Charles Darwin could be built a picture of humans as material beings that were simply part of the natural world.

Steam engine (7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

The steam engine revolutionized the production of cotton goods and allowed the factory system to spread to other areas of production, thereby securing whole new industries. The steam engine thus ensured the triumph of the Industrial Revolution.

Pan-German League (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

The tensions in German society created by the conflict between modernization and traditionalism were also manifested in a new, radicalized, right-wing politics. A number of pressure groups arose to support nationalistic goals. Groups such as the Pan-German League stressed strong German nationalism and advocated imperialism as a tool to overcome social divisions and unite all classes. They were also anti-Semitic and denounced Jews as the destroyers of the national community.

Mass tourism (2 ECD, 3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

The upper and middle classes had cre- ated the first market for tourism, but as wages increased and workers were given paid vacations, tourism became another form of mass leisure. Thomas Cook (1808-1892) was a British pioneer of mass tourism. Secretary to a Brit- ish temperance group, Cook had been responsible for organizing a railroad trip to temperance gatherings in 1841. This experience led him to offer trips on a regular basis after he found that he could make substantial profits by renting special trains, lowering prices, and increasing the number of passengers. In 1867, he offered tours to Paris and by the 1880s to Switzerland. Of course, overseas tours were for the industrial and commercial middle classes, but soon, thanks to savings clubs, even British factory workers were able to take weekend excursions.

German anti-Semitism (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

These achievements represented only one side of the picture, however. In Austrian politics, for example, the Christian Socialists combined agitation for workers with a virulent anti-Semitism. They were most powerful in Vienna, where they were led by Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna from 1897 to 1910. Imperial Vienna at the turn of the century was a brilliant center of European culture, but it was also the home of an insidious German nationalism that blamed Jews for the corruption of Ger- man culture. It was in Vienna between 1907 and 1913 that Adolf Hitler later claimed to have found his world- view, one that was largely based on violent German na- tionalism and rabid anti-Semitism. Germany, too, had its right-wing anti-Semitic parties, such as Adolf Stocker's Christian Social Workers. These parties used anti-Semitism to win the votes of traditional lower-middle-class groups who felt threatened by the new economic forces of the times. These German anti-Semitic parties were based on race. In medieval times, Jews could convert to Christianity and escape from their religion. To modern racial anti-Semites, Jews were racially stained; this could not be altered by conversion. One could not be both a German and a Jew. Hermann Ahlwardt, an anti-Semitic member of the German Reichstag, made this clear in a speech to that body. After 1898, the political strength of the German anti-Semitic parties began to decline.

Naturalism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Throughout much of the late nineteenth century, literature was dominated by Naturalism. Naturalists accepted the material world as real and felt that literature should be realistic. By addressing social problems, writers could contribute to an objective understanding of the world. Although Naturalism was a continuation of Realism, it lacked the underlying note of liberal optimism about people and society that had been prevalent in the 1850s. The Naturalists were pessimistic about Europe's future and often portrayed characters caught in the grip of forces beyond their control.

German Social Democratic Party (SPD) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Under the direction of its two Marxist leaders, Wilhelm Liebknecht (1826-1900) and August Bebel (1840-1913), the German Social Democratic Party (SPD) espoused revolutionary Marxist rhetoric while or- ganizing itself as a mass political party competing in elections for the Reichstag (the German parliament). Once in the Reichstag, SPD delegates worked to enact legisla- tion to improve the condition of the working class. As August Bebel explained, ''Pure negation would not be ac- cepted by the voters. The masses demand that something should be done for today irrespective of what will happen on the morrow.'' Despite government efforts to destroy it, the SPD continued to grow. In 1890, it received 1.5 million votes and thirty-five seats in the Reichstag. When it received 4 million votes in the 1912 elections, it became the largest single party in Germany.

Boers/Afrikaners (3 CID) (KC 3.5)

What the descendants of the Dutch colonists were called in South Africa under British rule.

Count Istvan Tisza (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

While subjugating their nationalities, the ruling Magyars in Hungary developed a move- ment for complete separation from Austria. In 1903, when they demanded that the Hungarian army be separated from the imperial army, Emperor Francis Joseph (as king of Hungary) responded quickly and forcefully. He threatened to impose universal male suffrage on Hungary, a move that would challenge Magyar domination of the minorities. Hungarian leaders fell into line, and the new Hungarian parliamentary leader, Count Istvan Tisza, cooperated in maintaining the Dual Monarchy. Magyar rule in Hungary, he realized, was inex- tricably bound up with the Dual Monarchy; its death would only harm the rule of the Magyar landowning class.

Mass-circulation newspapers (2 ECD, 3 CID) (KC 3.2)

With the dramatic increase in literacy after 1871 came the rise of mass-circulation newspapers, such as the Evening News (1881) and Daily Mail (1896) in London, which sold millions of copies a day. Known as the ''yellow press'' in the United States, these newspapers shared some common characteristics. They were written in an easily understood style and tended toward the sensational. Unlike eighteenth-century newspapers, which were full of serious editorials and lengthy political analyses, these tabloids provided lurid details of crimes, jingoistic diatribes, gossip, and sports news. There were other forms of cheap literature as well. Specialty magazines, such as the Family Herald for the entire family, and women's magazines began in the 1860s. Pulp fiction for adults included the extremely popular westerns with their innumerable variations on conflicts between cowboys and Indians. Literature for the masses was but one feature of the new mass culture; another was the emergence of new forms of leisure.

Mass politics (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Within the major European states, considerable progress was made toward achieving such liberal practices as con- stitutions and parliaments, but it was largely in western European states that mass politics became a reality. Reforms encouraged the expansion of political democracy through voting rights for men and the creation of mass political parties. At the same time, however, these developments were strongly resisted in parts of Europe where the old political forces remained strong

Women peace movements (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Women reformers took on other issues besides suffrage. In many countries, women supported peace movements. Bertha von Suttner (1843- 1914) became the head of the Austrian Peace Society and protested against the growing arms race of the 1890s. Her novel Lay Down Your Arms became a best seller and brought her the Nobel Peace Prize in 1905. Lower-class women also took up the cause of peace. In 1911, a group of female workers marched in Vienna and demanded, ''We want an end to armaments, to the means of murder and we want these millions to be spent on the needs of the people.''

Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Yet another response of the Christian churches to modern ideas was compromise, an approach especially evident in the Catholic Church during the pontificate of Leo XIII (1878-1903). Pope Leo permitted the teaching of evolution as a hypothesis in Catholic schools and also responded to the chal- lenges of modernization in the economic and social spheres. In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum, issued in 1891, he upheld the individual's right to private property but at the same time criticized ''naked'' capitalism for the poverty and degradation in which it had left the working classes. Much in socialism, he declared, was Christian in principle, but he condemned Marxist socialism for its materialistic and antireligious foundations. The pope recommended that Catholics form socialist parties and labor unions of their own to help the workers.

Henry Cort (7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

A better quality of iron was not possible until the 1780s, when Henry Cort developed a process called puddling in which coke was used to burn away impurities in pig iron (the product of smelting iron ore with coke) to produce an iron of high quality called wrought iron. Wrought iron, with its lower carbon content, was malleable and able to withstand strain. A boom then ensued in the British iron industry. In 1740, Britain produced 17,000 tons of iron; in the 1780s, almost 70,000 tons; by the 1840s, more than 2 million tons; and by 1852, almost 3 million tons, more than the rest of the world combined.

Chartism (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

A much more meaningful expression of the attempts of British workers to improve their condition developed in the movement known as Chartism—the ''first important political movement of working men or- ganized during the nineteenth century.'' Its aim was to achieve political democracy. Chartism took its name from the People's Charter, a document drawn up in 1838 by the London Working Men's Association. The charter demanded universal male suffrage, payment for members of Parliament, the elimination of property qualifications for members of Parliament, and annual sessions of Parliament. Women, too, joined in the movement. Chartist groups in many large towns often had female sections. Although some women were quite active in the movement, they were fighting to win political rights for their husbands, not for themselves, as the Chartist platform did not include the right to vote for women. Two national petitions incorporating the Chartist de- mands gained millions of signatures and were presented to Parliament in 1839 and 1842. Chartism attempted to encourage change through peaceful, constitutional means, although there was an underlying threat of force, as is evident in the Chartist slogan, ''Peacefully if we can, forcibly if we must.'' In 1842, Chartist activists organized a general strike on behalf of their goals, but it had little success. Despite the pressures exerted by the Chartists, both national petitions were rejected by the members of Parliament, who were not at all ready for political democracy. After 1848, Chartism as a movement had largely played itself out. It had never really posed a serious threat to the British establishment, but it had not been a total failure either. Its true significance stemmed from its ability to arouse and organize millions of working-class men and women, to give them a sense of working-class consciousness that they had not really possessed before. This political education of working people was important to the ultimate acceptance of all the points of the People's Charter in the future.

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

After a successful revolution had deposed Queen Isabella II, the throne of Spain was offered to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, a distant relative of the Hohenzollern king of Prussia. Bismarck welcomed this possibility for the same reason that the French objected to it. If Leopold were placed on the throne of Spain, France would be virtually encircled by members of the Hohenzollern dynasty. French objections caused King William I to force his relative to withdraw his candidacy. Bismarck was disappointed with the king's actions, but at this point, the French over- reached. Not content with their diplomatic victory, they pushed William I to make a formal apology to France and promise never to allow Leopold to be a candidate again. When Bismarck received a telegram from the king in- forming him of the French request, Bismarck edited it to make it appear even more insulting to the French, knowing that the French would be angry and declare war. The French reacted as Bismarck expected they would and de- clared war on Prussia on July 15, 1870. Unfortunately for the French, a ''light heart'' was not enough. They proved no match for the better-led and better-organized Prussian forces. The southern German states honored their military alliances with Prussia and joined the war effort against the French. The Prussian armies advanced into France, and at Sedan on September 2, 1870, an entire French army and Napoleon III himself were ca tured. The Second French Empire col- lapsed, but the war was not yet over. After four months of bitter resistance, Paris fi- nally capitulated on January 28, 1871, and an official peace treaty was signed in May. France had to pay an indemnity of 5 billion francs (about $1 billion) and give up the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to the new German state, a loss that angered the French and left them burning for revenge.

British and French prisons (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

After examining the American prisons, both the French and the British constructed prisons on the Walnut Street model with separate cells that isolated prisoners from one another. At Petite Roquette in France and Pentonville in Britain, prisoners wore leather masks while they exercised and sat in separate stalls when in chapel. Solitary confinement, it was believed, forced prisoners to examine their consciences, led to greater remorse, and increased the possibility that they would change their evil ways. As prison populations increased, however, solitary con- finement proved expensive and less feasible. The French even returned to their custom of sending prisoners to French Guiana to handle the overload. Prison reform and police forces were geared toward one primary end, the creation of a more disciplined society. Disturbed by the upheavals associated with revolutions and the social discontent wrought by industrialization and urbanization, the ruling elites sought to impose some order on society.

Early inventions (2 ECD, 7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

Already in the eighteenth century, Great Britain had surged ahead in the production of cheap cotton goods using the traditional methods of the cottage industry. The development of the flying shuttle had sped the process of weaving on a loom, enabling weavers to double their output. This caused shortages of yarn, however, until James Hargreaves's spinning jenny, perfected by 1768, enabled spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities. Richard Arkwright's water frame spinning machine, powered by water or horse, and Samuel Crompton's so-called mule, which combined aspects of the water frame and the spinning jenny, increased yarn production even more. Edmund Cartwright's power loom, invented in 1787, allowed the weaving of cloth to catch up with the spinning of yarn. Even then, early power looms were grossly inefficient, enabling home-based hand-loom weavers to continue to prosper, at least until the mid-1820s. After that, they were gradually replaced by the new machines.

Economic liberalism (3 CID) (KC 3.4)

Also called classical economics, economic liberalism had as its primary tenet the concept of laissez-faire, the belief that the state should not inter- rupt the free play of natural economic forces, especially supply and demand. Government should not restrain the economic liberty of the individual and should restrict itself to only three primary functions: defense of the country, police protection of individuals, and the con- struction and maintenance of public works too expensive for individuals to undertake. If individuals were allowed economic liberty, ultimately they would bring about the maximum good for the maximum number and benefit the general welfare of society.

Resistance to Kossuth (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

Although Emperor Ferdinand I (1835-1848) and Austrian officials had made concessions to appease the revolutionaries, they awaited an opportunity to reestablish their firm control. As in the German states, the con- servatives were increasingly encouraged by the divisions between radical and moderate revolutionaries and played on the middle-class fear of a working-class social revolu- tion. Their first success came in June 1848 when a military force under General Alfred Windischgratz ruthlessly suppressed the Czech rebels in Prague. In October, the death of the minister for war at the hands of a Viennese mob gave Windischgratz the pretext for an attack on Vienna. By the end of the month, the radical rebels there had been crushed. In December, the feeble- minded Ferdinand I agreed to abdicate in favor of his nephew, Francis Joseph I (1848-1916), who worked vigorously to restore the imperial government in Hungary. The Austrian armies, however, were unable to defeat Kossuth's forces, and it was only through the intervention of Nicholas I, who sent a Russian army of 140,000 men to aid the Austrians, that the Hungarian revolution was fi- nally crushed in 1849. The revolutions in Austria had also failed. Autocratic government was restored; emperor and propertied classes remained in control, and the numerous nationalities were still subject to the Austrian government

Joseph Malford William Turner (1775-1851) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Another artist who dwelt on nature and made landscape his major subject was the Englishman Joseph Malford William Turner (1775-1851). Turner was an incredibly prolific artist who produced more than 20,000 paintings, drawings, and watercolors. Turner's concern with nature manifested itself in innumerable landscapes and seascapes, sunrises and sunsets. He did not idealize nature or reproduce it with realistic accuracy, however. He sought instead to convey its moods by using a skilled interplay of light and color to suggest natural effects. In allowing his objects to melt into their surroundings, he anticipated the Impressionist painters of the second half of the nineteenth century. John Constable, a contemporary English Romantic painter, described Turner's paintings as ''airy visions, painted with tinted steam.''

Individualism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Another important characteristic of Romanticism was individualism, an interest in the unique traits of each person. The Romantics' desire to follow their inner drives led them to rebel against middle-class conventions. Long hair, beards, and outrageous clothes served to reinforce the individualism that young Romantics were trying to express.

Repeal of the Corn Laws (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

Another piece of liberal legislation involved the repeal of the Corn Laws. This was primarily the work of the manufacturers Richard Cobden and John Bright, who formed the Anti-Corn Law League in 1838 to help workers by lowering bread prices. But abolishing the Corn Laws would also aid the industrial middle classes, who, as economic liberals, favored the principles of free trade. Repeal came in 1846 when Robert Peel (1788-1850), leader of the Tories, persuaded some of his associates to support free trade principles and abandon the Corn Laws.

Principle of intervention (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

At Troppau, Metternich proposed a protocol that established the principle of intervention. The principle of intervention meant that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate mon- archs to their thrones. Britain refused to agree to the principle, arguing that it had never been the intention of the Quadruple Alliance to interfere in the internal affairs of other states, except in France. Ignoring the British re- sponse, Austria, Prussia, and Russia met in a third con- gress at Laibach in January 1821 and authorized the sending of Austrian troops to Naples. These forces crushed the revolt, restored Ferdinand I to the throne, and then moved north to suppress the rebels in Piedmont. At the fourth postwar conference, held at Verona in October 1822, the same three powers authorized France to invade Spain to crush the revolt against Ferdinand VII. In the spring of 1823, French forces restored the Bourbon monarch. The success of this policy of intervention came at a price, however. The Concert of Europe had broken down when the British rejected Metternich's principle of inter- vention. And although the British had failed to thwart allied intervention in Spain and Italy, they were successful in keeping the Continental powers from interfering with the revolutions in Latin America.

Tsar Alexander I (1801- 1825) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

At the beginning of the nineteenth century, Russia was overwhelmingly rural, agricultural, and autocratic. The Russian tsar was still regarded as a divine-right monarch. Alexander I (1801- 1825) had been raised in the ideas of the Enlightenment and initially seemed willing to make reforms. With the aid of his liberal adviser Michael Speransky, he relaxed censorship, freed political prisoners, and reformed the educational system. He refused, however, to grant a constitution or free the serfs in the face of oppo- sition from the nobility. After the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander became a reactionary, and his government reverted to strict and arbitrary censorship. Soon opposition to Alexander arose from a group of secret societies. One of these societies, known as the Northern Union, was composed of young aristocrats who had served in the Napoleonic wars and had become aware of the world outside Russia as well as intellectuals alienated by the censorship and lack of academic freedom in Russian universities.

Romanticism (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

At the end of the eighteenth century, a new intellectual movement known as Romanticism emerged to challenge the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason in dis- covering truth. The Romantics tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as sources of knowing. As one German Romantic put it, "It was my heart that counseled me to do it, and my heart cannot err."

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Beethoven (1770-1827) is one of the few composers to singlehandedly transform the art of music. Set ablaze by the events in France, a revolutionary mood burned brightly across Europe, and Beethoven, like other creative personalities, yearned to communicate his cherished beliefs. For Beethoven, music had to reflect his deepest inner feelings. Born in Bonn, Beethoven came from a family of mu- sicians who worked for the electors of Cologne. He became an assistant organist at the court by the age of thirteen and soon made his way to Vienna, the musical capital of Europe, where he studied briefly under Haydn. Beginning in 1792, this city became his permanent residence. During his first major period of composing (1792- 1800), his work was largely within the classical framework of the eighteenth century, and the influences of Haydn and Mozart are apparent. But with the composition of the Third Symphony (1804), also called the Eroica, which was originally intended for Napoleon, Beethoven broke through to the elements of Romanticism in his use of uncontrolled rhythms to create dramatic struggle and uplifted resolutions. E. T. A. Hoffman, a contemporary composer and writer, said, ''Beethoven's music opens the flood gates of fear, of terror, of horror, of pain, and arouses that longing for the eternal which is the essence of Romanticism. He is thus a pure Romantic composer.'' Beethoven went on to write a vast quantity of works, but in the midst of this productivity and growing fame, he was more and more burdened by his growing deafness. One of the most moving pieces of music of all time, the chorale finale of his Ninth Symphony, was composed when Beethoven was totally deaf.

Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Beethoven served as a bridge from the classical era to Romanticism; after him came a number of musical geniuses who composed in the Romantic style. The Frenchman Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) was one of the most outstanding. His father, a doctor in Grenoble, intended that his son should also study medicine. The young Berlioz eventually rebelled, however, maintaining to his father's disgust that he would be ''no doctor or apothecary but a great composer.'' Berlioz managed to fulfill his own expectations, achieving fame in Germany, Russia, and Britain, although the originality of his work kept him from receiving much recognition in his native France. Berlioz was one of the founders of program music, which was an attempt to use the moods and sound effects of instrumental music to depict the actions and emotions inherent in a story, an event, or even a personal experi- ence. This development of program music was evident in his most famous piece, the first complete program sym- phony, known as the Symphonie Fantastique. In this work, Berlioz used music to evoke the passionate emotions of a tortured love affair, including a fifth movement in which he musically creates an opium-induced nightmare of a witches' gathering.

United States' nationalism and liberalism (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

Bitter conflict erupted between the Federalists and the Republicans. Led by Alexander Hamilton (1757-1804), the Federalists favored a financial program that would establish a strong central government. The Republicans, guided by Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) and James Madison (1751-1836), feared centralization and its consequences for popular liberties. These divisions were intensified by European rivalries because the Federalists were pro-British and the Republicans pro-French. The successful conclusion of the War of 1812 brought an end to the Federalists, who had opposed the war, while the surge of national feeling gen- erated by the war served to heal the nation's divisions. Another strong force for national unity came from the Supreme Court while John Marshall (1755-1835) was chief justice from 1801 to 1835. Marshall made the Supreme Court into an important national institution by asserting the right of the Court to overrule an act of Congress if the Court found it to be in violation of the Constitution. Under Marshall, the Supreme Court contributed further to es- tablishing the supremacy of the national government by curbing the actions of state courts and legislatures. The election of Andrew Jackson (1767-1845) as presi- dent in 1828 opened a new era in American politics, the era of mass democracy. The electorate was expanded by drop- ping traditional property qualifications; by the 1830s, suf- frage had been extended to almost all adult white males. During the period from 1815 to 1850, the traditional lib- eral belief in the improvement of human beings was also given concrete expression. Americans developed detention schools for juvenile delinquents and new penal institutions, both motivated by the liberal belief that the right kind of environment would rehabilitate those in need of it.

James Watt (1736- 1819) (7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

Created an engine powered by steam that could pump water from mines three times as quickly as previous engines. In 1782, Watt enlarged the possibilities of the steam engine when he developed a rotary engine that could turn a shaft and thus drive machinery. Steam power could now be applied to spinning and weaving cotton, and before long, cotton mills using steam engines were multiplying across Britain. Because steam engines were fired by coal, they did not need to be located near rivers; entrepreneurs now had greater flexibility in their choice of location

Britain's Agricultural Revolution (2 ECD) (KC 3.1)

Eighteenth century. The changes in the methods of farming and stock breeding that characterized this agricultural transformation led to a significant increase in food production. British agriculture could now feed more people at lower prices with less labor. Unlike people in the rest of Europe, even ordinary British families did not have to use most of their income to buy food, giving them the potential to purchase manufactured goods. At the same time, rapid population growth in the second half of the eighteenth century provided a pool of surplus labor for the new factories of the emerging British industry. Rural workers in cottage industries also provided a potential labor force for industrial enterprises.

The Coal Mines Act of 1842 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2, 3.3)

Eliminated the employment of boys under ten and women in mines. Eventually, men too would benefit from the move to restrict factory hours.

Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) was the most famous French Romantic artist. Largely self-taught, he was fascinated by the exotic and had a passion for color. Both characteristics are visible in The Death of Sardanapalus. Significant for its use of light and its patches of interrelated color, this portrayal of the world of the last Assyrian king was criticized at the time for its garishness. Delacroix rejoiced in combining theat- ricality and movement with a daring use of color. Many of his works reflect his own belief that ''a painting should be a feast to the eye.''

King Victor Em- manuel II (1861-1878) of the house of Savoy (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

First king of the unified Kingdom of Italy

Friedrich List (1789-1846) (2 ECD, 4 SOP) (KC 3.1)

Governments on the Continent also used tariffs to further industrialization. After 1815, cheap British goods flooded Continental markets. The French responded with high tariffs to protect their fledgling industries. The most systematic argument for the use of tariffs, however, was made by a German writer, Friedrich List (1789-1846), who emigrated to America and re- turned to Germany as a U.S. consul. In his National System of Political Economy, written in 1844, List advocated a rapid and large-scale program of industrialization as the surest path to develop a nation's strength. To assure that path to industrialization, he felt that a nation must use protective tariffs. If countries followed the British policy of free trade, then cheaper British goods would inundate national markets and destroy infant industries before they had a chance to grow. Germany, he insisted, could not compete with Britain without protective tariffs.

Richard Trevithick (7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

In 1804, Richard Trevithick pioneered the first steam-powered locomotive on an industrial rail line in southern Wales. It pulled 10 tons of ore and seventy people at 5 miles per hour. Better locomotives soon followed.

King Louis XVIII of France of the House of Bourbon (r. 1814-1824) (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

In 1814, the Bourbon family was restored to the throne of France in the person of Louis XVIII (1814-1824). Louis understood the need to accept some of the changes brought to France by the revolu- tionary and Napoleonic eras. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code with its recognition of the principle of equality before the law (see Chapter 19). The property rights of those who had purchased confiscated lands during the Revolution were preserved. A bicameral (two-house) legislature was established, consisting of the Chamber of Peers, chosen by the king, and the Chamber of Deputies, chosen by an electorate restricted to slightly fewer than 100,000 wealthy people. Louis's grudging moderation, however, was opposed by liberals eager to extend the revolutionary reforms and by a group of ultraroyalists who criticized the king's will- ingness to compromise and retain so many features of the Napoleonic era. The ultras hoped to return to a monar- chical system dominated by a privileged landed aristocracy and to restore the Catholic Church to its former position of influence.

Britain's Great Exhibition of 1851 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 6 NEI, 7 TSI) (KC 3.1)

In 1851, the British organized the world's first industrial fair. It was housed at Kensington in London in the Crystal Palace, an enormous structure made entirely of glass and iron, a tribute to British engineering skills. Covering 19 acres, the Crystal Palace contained 100,000 exhibits that showed the wide variety of products created by the Industrial Revolution. Six million people visited the fair in six months. Though most of them were Britons who had traveled to London by train, foreign visitors were also prominent. The Great Exhibition displayed Britain's wealth to the world; it was a gigantic symbol of British success. Even trees were brought inside the Crystal Palace as a visible symbol of how the Industrial Revolution had achieved human domination over nature. In addition to demonstrating Britain's enormous industrial growth, the Crystal Palace exhibition also represented British imperial power. Goods from India were a highlight of the exhibition, and the East India Company drew attention to its role in India with exhibits of cotton, tea, and flax. But it was the display of Indian silks, jewels, shawls, and an elephant canopy that captured the attention of the British press and visitors. Despite the public interest in the ornate and intricate works from India, many British commentators, such as the scientist William Whewell, were less complimentary. They characterized the Indian handmade goods as typical of a system in which ''tens of thousands'' worked for a few despots. Moreover, these goods were examples of the ''wasteful and ridiculous excess'' of the labor-intensive production practices in the East, which could not compare to enlightened British labor practices. By the year of the Great Exhibition, Great Britain had become the world's first industrial nation and its wealthiest. Britain was the ''workshop, banker, and trader of the world.'' It produced one-half of the world's coal and manufactured goods; its cotton industry alone in 1851 was equal in size to the industries of all other European countries combined. The quantity of goods produced was growing at three times the rate in 1780. Britain's certainty about its mission in the world in the nineteenth century was grounded in its incredible material success.

King William I (1861-1888) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

In 1861, King Frederick William IV died and was suc- ceeded by his brother. King William I (1861-1888) had definite ideas about the Prussian army because of his own military training. He and his advisers believed that the army was in dire need of change if Prussia was to remain a great power. The king planned to double the size of the army and institute three years of compulsory military service for all young men. Middle-class liberals in the parliament, while willing to have reform, feared compulsory military service because they believed the government would use it to inculcate obedience to the monarchy and strengthen the influence of the conservative-military clique in Prussia. When the Prussian legislature rejected the new military budget submitted to parliament in March 1862, William I appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von Bismarck (1815- 1898). Bismarck, regarded even by the king as too conservative, came to determine the course of modern German history. Until 1890, he dominated both German and European politics.

Congress of Vienna (4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

In March 1814, even before Napoleon had been defeated, his four major enemies—Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia—had agreed to remain united, not only to defeat France but also to ensure peace after the war. After Napoleon's defeat, this Quadruple Alliance restored the Bourbon monarchy to France in the person of Louis XVIII and agreed to meet at a congress in Vienna in September 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement. Metternich claimed that he was guided at Vienna by the principle of legitimacy. To reestablish peace and stability in Europe, he considered it necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. This had already been done in France and Spain with the restoration of the Bourbons, as well as in a number of the Italian states where rulers had been returned to their thrones. Elsewhere, however, the principle of legitimacy was largely ignored and completely overshadowed by more practical considerations of power. The diplomats at Vienna believed they were forming a new balance of power that would prevent any one country from dominating Europe. The peace arrangements of 1815 were the beginning of a conservative reaction determined to contain the liberal and nationalist forces unleashed by the French Revolution.

King Ferdinand VII of Spain of the House of Bourbon (1814-1833) (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

In Spain, another Bourbon dynasty had been restored in the person of Ferdinand VII in 1814. Ferdinand (1814- 1833) had agreed to observe the liberal constitution of 1812, which allowed for the functioning of an elected parliamentary assembly known as the Cortes. But the king soon reneged on his promises, tore up the constitution, dissolved the Cortes, and persecuted its members, which led a combined group of army officers, upper-middle-class merchants, and liberal intellectuals to revolt. The king capitulated in March 1820 and promised once again to restore the constitution and the Cortes. But Metternich's policy of intervention came to Ferdinand's rescue. In April 1823, a French army moved into Spain and forced the revolutionary government to flee Madrid. By August of that year, the king had been restored to his throne.

Robert Owen (1771-1858) (2 ECD, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

In the 1820s and 1830s, the union movement began to focus on the creation of national unions. One of the leaders in this effort was a well-known cotton magnate and social reformer, Robert Owen (1771-1858). Owen came to believe in the creation of voluntary associations that would demonstrate to others the benefits of coop- erative rather than competitive living. Although Owen's program was not directed specifically to trade unionists, his ideas had great appeal to some of their leaders. Under Owen's direction, plans emerged for the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union, which was formed in February 1834. As a national federation of trade unions, its primary purpose was to coordinate a general strike for the eight-hour working day. Rhetoric, however, soon outpaced reality, and by the summer of that year, the lack of real working-class support led to the federation's total collapse, and the union movement re- verted to trade unions for individual crafts. The largest and most successful of these unions was the Amalgamated Society of Engineers, formed in 1850. Its provision of generous unemployment benefits in return for a small weekly payment was precisely the kind of practical gains these trade unions sought. Larger goals would have to wait.

Socialism (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

In the first half of the nineteenth century, the pitiful conditions found in the slums, mines, and factories of the Industrial Revolution gave rise to another ideology for change known as socialism. The term eventually became associated with a Marxist analysis of human so- ciety (see Chapter 22), but early socialism was largely the product of political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions and believed that human cooperation was superior to the competition that characterized early industrial capitalism. To later Marxists, such ideas were impractical dreams, and they contemptuously labeled the theorists utopian socialists. The term has endured to this day. The utopian socialists were against private property and the competitive spirit of early industrial capitalism. By eliminating these things and creating new systems of social organization, they thought that a better environment for humanity could be achieved. Early socialists proposed a variety of ways to accomplish that task.

King Frederick William III (1797-1840) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

Initially, Germans who favored liberal principles and German unity looked to Prussia for leadership. During the Napoleonic era, King Frederick William III (1797-1840), following the advice of his two chief ministers, Baron Heinrich von Stein and Prince Karl von Hardenberg, instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon. The reforms included the abolition of serfdom, municipal self-government through town councils, the expansion of primary and secondary schools, and universal military conscription to form a national army. The reforms, however, did not i clude the creation of a legislative assembly or representative government as Stein and Hardenberg wished. After 1815, Frederick William grew more reactionary and was content to follow Metternich's lead. Though reforms had made Prussia strong, it remained largely an absolutist state with little interest in German unity.

The Great Famine / Irish Potato Famine (2 ECD) (KC 3.1)

Ireland was one of the most oppressed areas in western Europe. The predominantly Catholic peasant population rented land from mostly absentee British Protestant landlords whose primary concern was collecting their rents. Irish peasants lived in mud hovels in desperate poverty. The cultivation of the potato, a nutritious and relatively easy food to grow that produced three times as much food per acre as grain, gave Irish peasants a basic staple that enabled them to survive and even expand in numbers. As only an acre or two of potatoes was sufficient to feed a family, Irish men and women married earlier than elsewhere and started having children earlier as well. This led to significant growth in the population. Between 1781 and 1845, the Irish population doubled from 4 million to 8 million. Probably half of this population depended on the potato for survival. In the summer of 1845, the potato crop in Ireland was struck by blight due to a fungus that turned the potatoes black. Between 1845 and 1851, the Great Famine decimated the Irish population. More than a million died of starvation and disease, and almost 2 million emigrated to the United States and Britain. Of all the European nations, only Ireland had a declining population in the nineteenth century. But other countries, too, faced problems of dire poverty and declining standards of living as their populations exploded.

Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

It seemed reasonable that Piedmont would now assume the leading role in the cause of national unity. The little state seemed unlikely to supply the needed leadership, however, until the new king, Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878), named Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) as his prime minister in 1852. Cavour was a liberal-minded nobleman who had made a fortune in agriculture and went on to make even more money in banking, rail- roads, and shipping. Cavour was a moderate who favored constitutional government. In 1858, Cavour came to an agreement with Napoleon III. The emperor agreed to ally with Piedmont in driving the Austrians out of Italy.

Burschenschaften (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

Liberal and national movements in the German states seemed largely limited to university professors and stu- dents. The latter began to organize Burschenschaften, student societies dedicated to fostering the goal of a free, united Germany. Their ideas and their motto, ''Honor, Liberty, Fatherland,'' were in part inspired by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who had organized gymnastic societies during the Napoleonic wars to pro- mote the regeneration of German youth. Jahn encouraged Germans to pursue their Germanic heritage and urged his followers to disrupt the lectures of professors whose views were not nationalistic. From 1817 to 1819, the Burschenschaften pursued a variety of activities that alarmed German governments. At an assembly held at the Wartburg Castle in 1817, marking the three hundredth anniversary of Luther's Ninety-Five Theses, the crowd burned books written by conservative authors. When a deranged student assassinated a reactionary playwright, Metternich had the diet of the Germanic Confederation draw up the Karlsbad Decrees of 1819. These closed the Burschenschaften, provided for cen- sorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision and control. Thereafter, except for a minor flurry of activity from 1830 to 1832, Metternich and the cooperative German rulers maintained the conservative status quo.

Lord Byron (1788-1824) (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Lord Byron (1788-1824) dramatized himself as the melancholy Romantic hero that he had described in his work, Childe Harold's Pilgrimage. He participated in the movement for Greek independence and died in Greece fighting the Ottomans.

Napoleon III (1852-1870) of France (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

Louis Napoleon was a patient man. For three years, he persevered in winning the support of the French people, and when the National Assembly rejected his wish to re- vise the constitution and be allowed to stand for reelec- tion, Louis used troops to seize control of the government on December 1, 1851. After restoring universal male suffrage, Louis Napoleon asked the French people to restructure the government by electing him president for ten years (see the box on p. 672). By an overwhelming majority, 7.5 million yes votes to 640,000 no votes, they agreed. A year later, on November 21, 1852, Louis Na- poleon returned to the people to ask for the restoration of the empire. This time, 97 percent responded affirmatively, and on December 2, 1852, Louis Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III (the first Napoleon had abdicated in favor of his son, Napoleon II, on April 6, 1814). The Second Empire had begun.

King Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) (4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

Louis-Philippe (1830-1848) was soon called the bour- geois monarch because political support for his rule came from the upper middle class. Louis-Philippe even dressed like a member of the middle class in business suits and hats. Constitutional changes that favored the interests of the upper bourgeoisie were instituted. Financial qualifications for voting were reduced yet remained sufficiently high that the number of voters increased only from 100,000 to barely 200,000, guaranteeing that only the wealthiest people would vote. To the upper middle class, the bourgeois monarchy represented the stopping place for political progress. To the lesser bourgeoisie and the Parisian working class, who had helped overthrow Charles X in 1830, it was a severe disappointment because they had been completely ex- cluded from political power. The rapid expansion of French industry in the 1830s and 1840s gave rise to an industrial working class concentrated in certain urban areas. Terrible working and living conditions and the pe- riodic economic crises that created high levels of unem- ployment led to worker unrest and sporadic outbursts of violence. Even in the legislature—the Chamber of Deputies— there were differences of opinion about the bourgeois monarchy and the direction it should take. Two groups rapidly emerged, both composed of upper-middle-class representatives. The Party of Movement, led by Adolphe Thiers, favored ministerial responsi- bility, the pursuit of an active foreign policy, and limited expansion of the franchise. The Party of Resistance was led by Francois Guizot, who believed that France had finally reached the ''perfect form'' of government and needed no further institutional changes. After 1840, the Party of Resistance dominated the Chamber of Deputies. Guizot cooperated with Louis- Philippe in suppressing ministerial responsibility and pursuing a policy favoring the interests of the wealthier manufacturers and tradespeople.

David Ricardo (1772-1823) (3 CID) (KC 3.4)

Malthus's ideas were further developed by David Ricardo (1772-1823). In Principles of Political Economy, written in 1817, Ricardo developed his famous ''iron law of wages.'' Following Malthus, Ricardo argued that an increase in population means more workers; more workers in turn cause wages to fall below the subsistence level. The result is misery and starvation, which then reduce the population. Consequently, the number of workers declines, and wages rise above the subsistence level again, which in turn encourages workers to have larger families as the cycle is repeated. According to Ricardo, raising wages arbitrarily would be pointless since it would accomplish little but perpetuate this vicious circle.

Romanticism and the past (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Many Romantics possessed a passionate interest in the past. This historical focus was manifested in many ways. In Germany, the Grimm brothers collected and published local fairy tales, as did Hans Christian Andersen in Denmark. The revival of medieval Gothic architecture left European countrysides adorned with pseudo-medieval castles and cities bedecked with grandiose neo-Gothic cathedrals, city halls, parliamentary buildings, and even railway stations. Literature, too, reflected this historical consciousness. The novels of Walter Scott (1771-1832) became European best sellers in the first half of the nineteenth century. Ivanhoe, in which Scott tried to evoke the clash between Saxon and Norman knights in medieval England, became one of his most popular works.

Cholera (5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Many middle-class citizens were quite willing to support the public health reforms of men like Chadwick because of their fear of cholera. Outbreaks of this deadly disease had ravaged Europe in the early 1830s and late 1840s and were especially rampant in the overcrowded cities. As city authorities and wealthier residents became convinced that filthy conditions helped spread the disease, they began to support the call for new public health measures.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

Meanwhile, in southern Italy, a new leader of Italian unification had come to the fore. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882), a dedicated Italian patriot who had sup- ported Mazzini and the republican cause of Young Italy, raised an army of a thousand Red Shirts, as his volunteers were called because of their distinctive dress, and on May 11, 1860, landed in Sicily, where a revolt had broken out against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies. Although his forces were greatly outnumbered, Gar- ibaldi's daring tactics won the day. By the end of July 1860, most of Sicily had been pacified under Garibaldi's control. In August, Garibaldi and his forces crossed over to the mainland and began a victorious march up the Italian peninsula. Naples and the Two Sicilies fell in early September. At this point, Cavour re- entered the scene. Aware that Garibaldi planned to march on Rome, Cavour feared that such a move would bring war with France as the defender of papal interests. Moreover, Garibaldi and his men favored a democratic republican- ism; Cavour did not and acted quickly to preempt Garibaldi. The Piedmontese army invaded the Papal States and, bypassing Rome, moved into the kingdom of Naples. Ever the patriot, Garibaldi chose to yield to Cavour's fait accompli rather than provoke a civil war and retired to his farm.

Conservatism (3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

Metternich and his kind were representatives of the ideology known as conservatism. As a modern political philosophy, conservatism dates from 1790 when Edmund Burke (1729-1797) wrote his Reflections on the Revolution in France in reaction to the French Revolution, especially its radical republican and democratic ideas No one generation has the right to destroy this partnership; each generation has the duty to preserve and transmit it to the next. Burke advised against the violent overthrow of a government by revolution, but he did not reject all change. Sudden change was unacceptable but that did not mean that there should never be gradual or evolutionary improvements. Burke's conservatism, however, was not the only kind. The Frenchman Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) was the most influential spokesman for a counterrevolutionary and authoritarian conservatism. De Maistre espoused the restoration of hereditary monarchy, which he regarded as a divinely sanctioned institution. Despite their differences, most conservatives held to a general body of beliefs. They favored obedience to po- litical authority, believed that organized religion was crucial to social order, hated revolutionary upheavals, and were unwilling to accept either the liberal demands for civil liberties and representative governments or the nationalistic aspirations generated by the French revo- lutionary era. The community took precedence over in- dividual rights; society must be organized and ordered, and tradition remained the best guide for order. After 1815, the political philosophy of conservatism was sup- ported by hereditary monarchs, government bureaucra- cies, landowning aristocracies, and revived churches, be they Protestant or Catholic. The conservative forces ap- peared dominant after 1815, both internationally and domestically.

Archduke Maximilian of Austria (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

Napoleon III was considerably less accomplished at dealing with foreign policy, especially his imperialistic adventure in Mexico. Seeking to dominate Mexican markets for French goods, the emperor sent French troops to Mexico in 1861 to join British and Spanish forces in protecting their interests in the midst of the upheaval caused by a struggle between liberal and conservative Mexican factions. Although the British and Spanish withdrew their troops after order had been restored, French forces remained, and in 1864, Napoleon III installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria, his handpicked choice, as the new emperor of Mexico. When the French troops were needed in Europe, Maximilian became an emperor without an army. He surrendered to liberal Mexican forces in May 1867 and was executed in June. His execution was a blow to the prestige of the French emperor.

Nationalism (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

Nationalism was an even more powerful ideology for change in the nineteenth century. Nationalism arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs. This community constitutes a ''nation,'' and it, rather than a dynasty, city-state, or other political unit, becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty. Nationalism did not become a popular force for change until the French Revolution. From then on, nationalists came to believe that each nationality should have its own government. Thus, a divided people such as the Germans wanted national unity in a German nation-state with one central government. Subject peoples, such as the Hungarians, wanted national self-determination, or the right to establish their own autonomy rather than be subject to a German minority in a multinational empire. Nationalism threatened to upset the existing political order, both internationally and nationally. A united Germany or united Italy would upset the balance of power established in 1815. By the same token, an independent Hungarian state would mean the breakup of the Austrian Empire. Because many European states were multinational, conservatives tried hard to repress the radical threat of nationalism. At the same time, in the first half of the nineteenth century, nationalism and liberalism became strong allies. Most liberals believed that liberty could be realized only by peoples who ruled themselves. Many nationalists believed that once each people obtained its own state, all nations could be linked together into a broader community of all humanity.

Examples of kinship patters in early factory employment (2 ECD, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Of 136 employees in Robert Peel's factory at Bury in 1801, 95 were members of the same twenty-six families. The impetus for this family work often came from the family itself. The factory owner Jedediah Strutt was op- posed to child labor under age ten but was forced by parents to take children as young as seven.

Flora Tristan (1803-1844) (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

One female utopian socialist, Flora Tristan (1803-1844), even attempted to foster a ''utopian synthesis of socialism and feminism.'' She traveled through France preaching the need for the liberation of women. Her Worker's Union, published in 1843, advocated the application of Fourier's ideas to reconstruct both family and work. Flora Tristan, like the other utopian socialists, was largely ignored by her contemporaries. Although criticized for their impracticality, the utopian social- ists at least laid the groundwork for later attacks on capitalism that would have a far-reaching result. In the first half of the nineteenth century, however, socialism remained a fringe movement largely overshadowed by liberalism and nationalism.

Charles Fourier (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

One group of early socialists sought to create voluntary associations that would demonstrate the ad- vantages of cooperative living. Charles Fourier (1772-1838) proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries. These were self- contained cooperatives, each consisting ideally of 1,620 people. Communally housed, the inhabitants of the phalanstery would live and work together for their mutual benefit. Work assignments would be ro- tated frequently to relieve workers of undesirable tasks. Fourier was unable to gain financial backing for his pha- lansteries, however, and his plan remained untested.

Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890) (4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

One of the best of a new breed of urban reformers was Edwin Chadwick (1800-1890). With a background in law, Chadwick became obsessed with eliminating the poverty and squalor of the metropolitan areas. He became a civil servant and was soon appointed to a number of govern- ment investigatory commissions. As secretary of the Poor Law Commission, he initiated a passionate search for de- tailed facts about the living conditions of the working classes. After three years of investigation, Chadwick summarized the results in his Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain, published in 1842. In it, he concluded that ''the various forms of epidemic, endemic, and other disease'' were directly caused by the ''atmospheric impurities produced by decomposing animal and vegetable substances, by damp and filth, and close overcrowded dwellings [prevailing] amongst the population in every part of the kingdom.'' Such conditions, he argued, could be eliminated. As to the means: ''The primary and most important measures, and at the same time the most practicable, and within the recognized province of public administration, are drainage, the removal of all refuse of habitations, streets, and roads, and the improvement of the supplies of water.'' In other words, Chadwick was advocating a system of modern sanitary reforms consisting of efficient sewers and a supply of piped water. Six years after his report and largely due to his efforts, Britain's first Public Health Act created the National Board of Health, empowered to form local boards that would establish modern sanitary systems.

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) (3 CID) (KC 3.4)

One of the most prominent advocates of liberalism in the nineteenth century was the English philosopher John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). On Liberty, his most famous work, published in 1859, has long been regarded as a classic statement on the liberty of the individual (see the box above). Mill argued for an ''absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects'' that needed to be protected from both government censorship and the tyranny of the majority. Mill was also instrumental in expanding the meaning of liberalism by becoming an enthusiastic supporter of women's rights. When his attempt to include women in the voting reform bill of 1867 failed, Mill published an essay titled On the Subjection of Women, which he had written earlier with his wife, Harriet Taylor. He argued that ''the legal subordination of one sex to the other'' was wrong. Differences between women and men, he claimed, were due not to different natures but simply to social practices. With equal education, women could achieve as much as men. On the Subjection of Women would become an important work in the nineteenth-century movement for women's rights.

Liberalism (3 CID) (KC 3.4)

One of these ideologies was liberalism, which owed much to the Enlightenment of the eighteenth century and to the American and French Revolutions at the end of that century. In addition, liberalism became even more sig- nificant as the Industrial Revolution made rapid strides because the developing industrial middle class largely adopted the doctrine as its own. There were divergences of opinion among people classified as liberals, but all began with the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible. This opinion is evident in both economic and political liberalism.

The Poor Law Commission (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Our knowledge of the pathetic conditions in the early industrial cities is largely derived from an abundance of social investigations. Such investigations began in France in the 1820s. In Britain, the Poor Law Commission produced detailed reports. The investigators were often struck by the physically and morally debilitating effects of urban industrial life on the poor. They observed, for ex- ample, that young working-class men were considerably shorter and scrawnier than the sons of middle-class families and much more subject to disease. They were especially alarmed by what they considered the moral consequences of such living conditions: prostitution, crime, and sexual immorality, all of which they saw as effects of living in such squalor.

Schutzmannschaft (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

Police systems were organized throughout the Western world during the nineteenth century. After the revolutions of 1848 in Germany, a state-financed police force called the Schutzmannschaft, modeled after the London police, was established for the city of Berlin. The Schutzmann- schaft began as a civilian body, but already by 1851, the force had become organized more along military lines and was used for political purposes. Its military nature was reinforced by the force's weaponry, which included swords, pistols, and brass knuckles. One observer noted that ''a German policeman on patrol is armed as if for war.''

Political liberalism (3 CID) (KC 3.4)

Politically, liberals came to hold a common set of beliefs. Chief among them was the protection of civil liberties or the basic rights of all people, which included equality before the law; freedom of assembly, speech, and press; and freedom from arbitrary arrest. All of these freedoms should be guaranteed by a written document, such as the American Bill of Rights or the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. In addition to religious toleration for all, most liberals advocated separation of church and state. The right of peaceful opposition to the government in and out of parliament and the making of laws by a representative assembly (legislature) elected by qualified voters constituted two other liberal demands. Many liberals believed, then, in a constitutional monarchy or constitutional state with limits on the powers of government to prevent despotism and in written constitutions that would help guarantee these rights. Many liberals also advocated ministerial responsibility, which would give the legislative branch a check on the power of the executive because the king's ministers would answer to the legislature rather than to the king. Liberals in the first half of the nineteenth century also believed in a limited suffrage. Although all people were entitled to equal civil rights, they should not have equal political rights. The right to vote and hold office would be open only to men who met certain property qualifications. As a political philosophy, liberalism was tied to middle-class men, especially industrial middle-class men who favored the extension of voting rights so that they could share power with the landowning classes. They had little desire to let the lower classes share that power. Liberals were not democrats.

The Peterloo Massacre (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

Popular discontent grew after 1815 because of severe economic difficulties. The Tory government's response to falling agricultural prices was the Corn Law of 1815, a measure that imposed extraordinarily high tariffs on for- eign grain. Though the tariffs benefited the landowners, the price of bread rose substantially, making conditions for the working classes more difficult. Mass protest meetings took a nasty turn when a squadron of cavalry attacked a crowd of 60,000 demonstrators at Saint Peter's Fields in Manchester in 1819. The deaths of eleven people, called the Peterloo Massacre by government detractors, led Parliament to take even more repressive measures. The government restricted large public meetings and the dissemination of pamphlets among the poor. At the same time, by making minor reforms in the 1820s, the Tories managed to avoid meeting the demands for electoral reforms—at least until 1830.

"The Sorrows of the Young Werther" by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

Romantic writers emphasized emotion, sentiment, and inner feelings in their works. An important model for Romantics was the tragic figure in The Sorrows of the Young Werther, a novel by the great German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), who later rejected Romanticism in favor of Classicism. Werther was a Romantic figure who sought freedom in order to fulfill himself. Misunderstood and rejected by society, he continued to believe in his own worth through his inner feelings, but his deep love for a girl who did not love him finally led him to commit sui- cide. After Goethe's Sorrows of the Young Werther, nu- merous novels and plays appeared whose plots revolved around young maidens tragically carried off at an early age (twenty-three was most common) by disease (usually tu- berculosis, at that time a protracted disease that was usually fatal) to the sorrow and despair of their male lovers.

Simon Bolivar of Venezuela (1783-1830) (4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.5)

Simon Bolivar has long been regarded as the George Washington of Latin America. Born into a wealthy Vene- zuelan family, he was introduced as a young man to the ideas of the Enlightenment. While in Rome to witness the coronation of Napoleon as king of Italy in 1805, he committed himself to free his people from Spanish con- trol. When he returned to South America, Bolivar began to lead the bitter struggle for independence in Venezuela as well as other parts of northern South America. Although he was acclaimed as the ''liberator'' of Venezuela in 1813 by the people, it was not until 1821 that he definitively defeated Spanish forces there. He went on to liberate Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Already in 1819, he had become president of Venezuela, at the time part of a federation that included Colombia and Ecuador. After San Martin had left South America, Bolivar took on the task of crushing the last significant Spanish army at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. By then, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile had all become free states. In 1823, the Central American states became independent and in 1838-1839 divided into five republics (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua). Earlier, in 1822, the prince regent of Brazil had declared Brazil's independence from Portugal.

Strikes (2 ECD, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Some trade unions were even willing to strike to attain their goals. Bitter strikes were carried out by hand-loom weavers in Glasgow in 1813, cotton spinners in Manchester in 1818, and miners in Northumberland and Durham in 1810. Such blatant illegal activity caused Parliament to repeal the Combination Acts in 1824, accepting the argument of some members that the acts themselves had so alienated workers that they had formed unions. Unions were now tolerated, but other legislation enabled authorities to keep close watch over their activities.

The Factory Act of 1833 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2, 3.3)

Strengthened earlier labor legislation. All textile factories were now included. Children between the ages of nine and thirteen could work only eight hours a day; those between thirteen and eighteen, twelve hours. Factory inspectors were appointed with the power to fine those who broke the law. Another piece of legislation in 1833 required that children between nine and thirteen have at least two hours of elementary education during the working day.

Louis Kossuth (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

The Austrian Empire also had its social, political, and nationalist grievances and needed only the news of the revolution in Paris to encourage it to erupt in flames in March 1848. The Hungarian liberals under Louis Kossuth agitated for ''commonwealth'' status; they were willing to keep the Habsburg monarch but wanted their own legislature.

British police (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

The British, fearful of the powers exercised by military or secret police in authoritarian Continental states, had long resisted the creation of a professional police force. Instead, Britain depended on a system of unpaid constables recruited by local authorities. Often these local constables were incapable of keeping order, preventing crimes, or apprehending criminals. Such jobs could also be dangerous. The failure of the local constables led to a new approach. Between September 1829 and May 1830, three thousand uniformed police officers appeared on the streets of Lon- don. They came to be known as bobbies after Sir Robert Peel, who had introduced the legislation that created the force. As is evident from the first instruction book for the new British police, their primary goal was to prevent crime: ''Officers and police constables should endeavour to distinguish themselves by such vigilance and activity as may render it impossible for any one to commit a crime within that portion of the town under their charge.''11 The municipal authorities soon found, however, that the police were also useful for imposing order on working-class ur- ban inhabitants. On Sundays, they were called on to clean up after Saturday night's drinking bouts. As demands for better pay and treatment led to improved working conditions, British police began to develop a sense of professionalism.

Carbonari (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.4)

The Congress of Vienna had established nine states in Italy, including Pied- mont (part of the kingdom of Sardinia) in the north, ruled by the house of Savoy; the kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily); the Papal States; a handful of small duchies ruled by relatives of the Austrian emperor; and the important northern provinces of Lombardy and Venetia, which were now part of the Austrian Empire. Much of Italy was under Austrian domination, and all the states had extremely reactionary governments eager to smother any liberal or nationalist sentiment. Nevertheless, secret societies motivated by nationalistic dreams and known as the Carbonari (''charcoal burners'') continued to conspire and plan for revolution.

Crimean War (1854-1856) (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

The Crimean War was yet another attempt to answer the Eastern Question: Who would be the chief beneficiaries of the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire? War erupted between Russia and the Ottoman Empire in 1853 when the Russians demanded the right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine, a priv- ilege that had already been extended to the French. When the Ottomans refused, the Russians occupied Moldavia and Wallachia. Failure to resolve the dispute by negotiations led the Ottoman Empire to declare war on Russia on October 4, 1853. The following year, on March 28, Great Britain and France declared war on Russia. By the Treaty of Paris, signed in March 1856, Russia was forced to give up Bessarabia at the mouth of the Danube and accept the neutrality of the Black Sea. In addition, the principalities of Mol- davia and Wallachia were placed under the protection of all five great powers. The Crimean War proved costly to both sides. More than 250,000 soldiers died in the war, with 60 percent of the deaths coming from disease (especially cholera). Even more would have died on the British side if it had not been for the efforts of Florence Nightingale (1820-1910). Her insistence on strict sanitary conditions saved many lives and helped make nursing a profession of trained, middle- class women. The Crimean War broke up long-standing European power relationships and effectively destroyed the Concert of Europe. Austria and Russia, the two chief powers maintaining the status quo in the first half of the nine- teenth century, were now enemies because of Austria's unwillingness to support Russia in the war. Russia, defeated, humiliated, and weakened by the obvious failure of its serf-armies, withdrew from European affairs for the next two decades to set its house in order. Great Britain, disillusioned by its role in the war, also pulled back from Continental affairs. Austria, paying the price for its neutrality, was now without friends among the great powers. Not until the 1870s were new combinations formed to replace those that had disappeared, and in the meantime, the European international situation remained fluid. Leaders who were willing to pursue the ''politics of reality'' found themselves in a situation rife with opportunity. It was this new international situation that made possible the unification of Italy and Germany.

The Danish War (1864) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

The Danish War arose over the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1863, contrary to international treaty, the Danish government moved to incorporate the two duchies into Denmark. German nationalists were outraged since both duchies had large German populations and were regarded as German states. The diet of the Germanic Confederation urged its member states to send troops against Denmark, but Bis- marck did not care to subject Prussian policy to the Austrian- dominated German parliament. Instead, he persuaded the Austrians to join Prussia in declaring war on Denmark on February 1, 1864. The Danes were quickly defeated and surrendered Schleswig and Holstein to the victors. Austria and Prussia then agreed to divide the administration of the two duchies; Prussia took Schleswig while Austria administered Holstein. The plan was Bismarck's. By this time, Bismarck had come to the realization that for Prussia to expand its power by dominating the northern, largely Protestant part of the Germanic Confederation, Austria would have to be excluded from German affairs or, less likely, be willing to accept Prussian domination of Germany. The joint administration of the two duchies offered plenty of opportunities to create friction with Austria and provide a reason for war if it came to that. While he pursued negotiations with Austria, he also laid the foundations for the isolation of Austria.

Louis Blanc (1813-1882) (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

The Frenchman Louis Blanc (1813-1882) offered yet another early socialist approach to a better society. In The Organization of Work, he main- tained that social problems could be solved by government assistance. Denouncing competition as the main cause of the economic evils of his day, he called for the establish- ment of workshops that would manufacture goods for public sale. The state would finance these workshops, but the workers would own and operate them.

Examples of secular institutions established to educate working classes (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

The London Mechanics' Institute, established in Britain, and the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in the Field of Natural Sciences, Technical Science, and Political Economy, founded in Germany, are but two examples of this ap- proach to the ''dangerous classes.''

Tsar Nicholas I (1825-1855) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

The Northern Union favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom. The sudden death of Alexander in 1825 offered them their opportunity. Although Alexander's brother Constantine was the legal heir to the throne, he had renounced his claims in favor of his brother Nicholas. Constantine's abdication had not been made public, however, and during the ensuing con- fusion in December 1825, the military leaders of the Northern Union rebelled against the accession of Nicholas. This so-called Decembrist Revolt was soon crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas, and its leaders were execute The revolt transformed Nicholas I (1825-1855) from a conservative into a reactionary determined to avoid another rebellion. He strengthened both the bureaucracy and the secret police. The political police, known as the Third Section of the tsar's chancellery, were given sweeping powers over much of Russian life. They deported suspicious or dangerous persons, maintained close surveillance of foreigners in Russia, and reported regularly to the tsar on public opinion. Matching Nicholas's fear of revolution at home was his fear of revolution abroad. There would be no revolution in Russia during the rest of his reign; if he could help it, there would be none in Europe either. Contemporaries called him the Policeman of Europe because of his willingness to use Russian troops to crush revolutions.

The Reform Act of 1832 (2 ECD, 3 CID, 4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

The Reform Act gave explicit recognition to the changes wrought in British life by the Industrial Revolution. It disenfranchised fifty-six rotten boroughs and enfranchised forty-two new towns and cities and reapportioned others. This gave the new industrial urban communities some voice in government. A property qualification (of £10 annual rent) for voting was retained, however, so the number of voters increased only from 478,000 to 814,000, a figure that still meant that only one in every thirty people was represented in Parliament. Thus, the Reform Act of 1832 primarily benefited the upper middle class; the lower middle class, artisans, and industrial workers still had no vote. Moreover, the change did not significantly alter the composition of the House of Commons. One political leader noted that the Commons chosen in the first election after the Reform Act seemed ''to be very much like every other Parliament.'' Nevertheless, a significant step had been taken. The industrial middle class had been joined to the landed interests in ruling Britain.

Germanic Confederation (4 SOP, 5 SOD, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

The Vienna settlement in 1815 had recognized the existence of thirty-eight sovereign states in what had once been the Holy Roman Empire. Austria and Prussia were the two great powers; the other states varied considerably in size. Together these states formed the Germanic Confederation, but the confederation had little power. It had no real executive, and its only central organ was the federal diet, which needed the consent of all member states to take action, making it virtually powerless. Nev- ertheless, it also came to serve as Metternich's instrument to repress revolutionary movements within the German states.

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) (3 CID) (KC 3.4)

The case against government interference in economic matters was greatly enhanced by Thomas Malthus (1766-1834). In his major work, Essay on the Principles of Population, Malthus argued that popula- tion, when unchecked, increases at a geometric rate while the food supply correspondingly increases at a much slower arithmetic rate. The result will be severe overpop- ulation and ultimately starvation for the human race if this growth is not held in check. According to Malthus, nature imposes a major restraint: ''Unwholesome occu- pations, severe labor and exposure to the seasons, ex- treme poverty, bad nursing of children, great towns, excesses of all kinds, the whole train of common disease, and epidemics, wars, plague and famine.'' Thus, misery and poverty were simply the inevitable result of the law of nature; no government or individual should interfere with its operation.

Italy's risorgimento (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

The failure of revolutionary uprisings in Italy in 1830-1831 had encouraged the Italian movement for unification to take a new direction. The leadership of Italy's risorgimento (''resurgence'') passed into the hands of Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), a dedicated Italian nationalist who founded an organization known as Young Italy in 1831. This group set as its goal the creation of a united Italian republic. In The Duties of Man, Mazzini urged Italians to dedicate their lives to the Italian nation: ''O my Brother! Love your Country. Our Country is our home.'' A number of Italian women also took up Mazzini's call. Especially notable was Cristina Belgioioso, a wealthy aristocrat who worked to bring about Italian unification. Pursued by the Austrian authorities, she fled to Paris and started a newspaper espousing the Italian cause. The dreams of Mazzini and Belgioioso seemed on the verge of fulfillment when a number of Italian states rose in revolt in 1848. Beginning in Sicily, rebellions spread northward as ruler after ruler granted a constitution to his people. Citizens in Lombardy and Venetia also rebelled against their Austrian overlords. The Venetians declared a republic in Venice. The king of the northern Italian state of Piedmont, Charles Albert (1831-1849), took up the call and assumed the leadership for a war of liberation from Austrian domination. His invasion of Lombardy proved unsuccessful, however, and by 1849, the Austrians had reestablished complete control over Lombardy and Ven- etia. Counterrevolutionary forces also prevailed through- out Italy. French forces helped Pope Pius IX regain control of Rome. Elsewhere Italian rulers managed to recover power on their own. Only Piedmont was able to keep its liberal constitution.

The Second Napoleonic Empire (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

The government of Napoleon III was clearly authoritarian in a Bonapartist sense. Louis Napoleon had asked, ''Since France has carried on for fifty years only by virtue of the administrative, military, judicial, religious and financial organization of the Consulate and Empire, why should she not also adopt the political institutions of that period?'' As chief of state, Napoleon III controlled the armed forces, police, and civil service. Only he could introduce legislation and declare war. The Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative government since its members were elected by universal male suffrage for six-year terms. But they could neither initiate legislation nor affect the budget. In the midst of this economic expansion, Napoleon III undertook a vast reconstruction of the city of Paris. Under the direction of Baron Haussmann, the medieval Paris of narrow streets and old city walls was destroyed and replaced by a modern Paris of broad boulevards, spacious buildings, circular plazas, public squares, an underground sewage system, a new public water supply, and gaslights. In the 1860s, as op- position to some of the emperor's policies began to mount, Napoleon III liberalized his regime. In a plebiscite in May 1870 on whether to accept a new constitution that might have inaugurated a parliamentary regime, the French people gave Napoleon another resounding victory. This triumph was short-lived, however. Foreign policy failures led to growing criticism, and war with Prussia in 1870 turned out to be the death blow for Napoleon III's regime.

Samuel Slater (2 ECD) (KC 3.1)

The initial application of machinery to production was accomplished, as in Continental Europe, by borrowing from Great Britain. A British immigrant, Samuel Slater, established the first textile factory using water-powered spinning machines in Rhode Island in 1790. By 1813, factories were being established with power looms copied from British models. Soon thereafter, however, Americans began to equal or surpass British technical inventions. The Harpers Ferry arsenal, for example, built muskets with interchangeable parts. Because all the individual parts of the muskets were identical (for example, all triggers were the same), the final product could be put together quickly and easily; this enabled Americans to avoid the more costly system in which skilled workers fitted together in- dividual parts made separately. The so-called American system reduced costs and revolutionized production by saving labor, important to a society that had few skilled artisans.

King Charles X of France of the House of Bourbon (r. 1824-1830) (4 SOP) (KC 3.4)

The initiative passed to the ultraroyalists in 1824 when Louis XVIII died and was succeeded by his brother, the count of Artois, who became Charles X (1824-1830). In 1825, Charles granted an indemnity to aristocrats whose lands had been confiscated during the Revolution. Moreover, the king pursued a religious policy that encouraged the Catholic Church to reestablish control over the French educational system. Public outrage, fed by liberal newspapers, forced the king to compromise in 1827 and even to accept the principle of ministerial responsibility—that the ministers of the king were re- sponsible to the legislature. But in 1829, he violated his commitment. A protest by the deputies led the king to dissolve the legislature in 1830 and call for new elections. France was on the brink of another revolution.

King Charles X of France and the July Revolution (4 SOP) (KC 3.3)

The new elections Charles X had called in 1830 produced another victory for the French liberals; at this point, the king decided to seize the initiative. On July 26, 1830, Charles issued a set of edicts (the July Ordinances) that imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduced the electorate in preparation for new elections. Charles's actions produced an immediate rebellion—the July Revolution. Barricades went up in Paris as a provisional government led by a group of moderate, propertied liberals was hastily formed and appealed to Louis-Philippe, the duke of Orleans, a cousin of Charles X, to become the constitutional king of France. Charles X fled to Britain; a new monarchy had been born.

Various British capitalists (2 ECD, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

The new industrial entrepreneurs were from incredibly diverse social origins. Many of the most successful came from a mercantile background. Three London merchants, for example, founded a successful ironworks in Wales that owned eight steam engines and employed five thousand men. In Britain, land and domestic industry were often interdependent. Joshua Fielden, for example, acquired sufficient capital to establish a factory by running a family sheep farm while working looms in the farmhouse. Intelligent, clever, and ambitious apprentices who had learned their trades well could also strike it rich. William Radcliffe's family engaged in agriculture and spinning and weaving at home; he learned quickly how to succeed. By 1801, Radcliffe was operating a factory employing a thousand workers. Members of dissenting religious minorities were often prominent among the early industrial leaders of Britain. The Darbys and Lloyds, who were iron manufacturers; the Barclays and Lloyds, who were bankers; and the Trumans and Perkins, who were brewers, were all Quakers. These were expensive trades and depended on the financial support that coreligionists in religious minorities provided for each other. Most historians believe that a major reason members of these religious minorities were so prominent in business was that they lacked other opportunities. Legally excluded from many public offices, they directed their ambitions into the new industrial capitalism. It is interesting to note that in Britain in particular, aristocrats also became entrepreneurs. The Lambtons in Northumberland, the Curwens in Cumberland, the Nor- folks in Yorkshire, and the Dudleys in Staffordshire all invested in mining enterprises. This close relationship between land and industry helped Britain assume the leadership role in the early Industrial Revolution.

The Greek Revolt / Greek War of Independence (4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.4)

The principle of intervention proved to be a double-edged sword. Designed to prevent revolution, it could also be used to support revolution if the great powers found it in their interest to do so. In 1821, the Greeks revolted against their Ottoman Turkish masters. Although subject to Muslim control for four hundred years, the Greeks had been allowed to maintain their language and their Greek Orthodox faith. A revival of Greek national sentiment at the beginning of the nineteenth century added to the growing desire for liberation. The Greek revolt was soon transformed into a noble cause by an outpouring of European sentiment for the Greeks' struggle. In 1827, a combined British and French fleet went to Greece and defeated a large Ottoman armada. A year later, Russia de- clared war on the Ot- toman Empire and invaded its European provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia. By the Treaty of Adrianople in 1829, which ended the Russian-Turkish war, the Russians re- ceived a protectorate over the two prov- inces. By the same trea- ty, the Ottoman Empire agreed to allow Russia, France, and Britain to decide the fate of Greece. In 1830, the three powers de- clared Greece an independent kingdom, and two years later, a new royal dynasty was established. The revolution had been successful only because the great powers them- selves supported it. Until 1830, the Greek revolt was the only successful one in Europe; the conservative domination was still largely intact.

Poor Law Act of 1834 (2 ECD, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2, 3.3)

The problem of poverty among the working classes was also addressed in Britain by government action in the form of the Poor Law Act of 1834, which established workhouses where jobless poor people were forced to live. The intent of this policy, based on the assumption that the poor were responsible for their own pitiful conditions, was ''to make the workhouses as like prisons as possible . . . to establish therein a discipline so severe and repulsive as to make them a terror to the poor.'' Within a few years, despite sporadic opposition, more than 200,000 poor people were locked up in workhouses, where family members were separated, forced to live in dormitories, given work assignments, and fed dreadful food. Children were often recruited from parish work- houses as cheap labor in factories.

Frankfurt Assembly (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

This Frankfurt Assembly was dominated by well- educated, articulate, middle-class delegates, many of them professors, lawyers, and bureaucrats. When it came to na- tionalism, many were ahead of the times and certainly ahead of the governments of their respective states. From the beginning, the assembly aroused controversy by claim- ing to be the government for all of Germany. Then it be- came embroiled in a sticky debate over the composition of the new German state. Supporters of a Grossdeutsch (GROHS-doich) (''Big German'') solution wanted to include the German province of Austria, while proponents of a Kleindeutsch (KLYN-doich) (''Small German'') solution fa- vored excluding Austria and making the Prussian king the emperor of the new German state. The problem was solved when the Austrians withdrew, leaving the field to the sup- porters of the Kleindeutsch solution. Their victory was short- lived, however, as Frederick William IV gruffly refused the assembly's offer of the title of ''emperor of the Germans'' in March 1849 and ordered the Prussian delegates home. The Frankfurt Assembly soon disbanded. Although some members spoke of using force, they had no real means of compelling the German rulers to accept the constitution they had drawn up. The attempt of the German liberals at Frankfurt to create a German state had failed.

French police (3 CID, 4 SOP, 5 SOD) (KC 3.2)

This new approach to policing made its first appearance in France in 1828 when Louis-Maurice Debelleyme, the prefect of Paris, proclaimed, ''The essential object of our municipal police is the safety of the inhabitants of Paris. Safety by day and night, free traffic movement, clean streets, the supervision of and precaution against accidents, the maintenance of order in public places, the seeking out of offenses and their perpetrators.'' In March 1829, the new police, known as serjents, became visible on Paris streets. They were dressed in blue uniforms to make them easily recognizable by all citizens. They were also lightly armed with a white cane during the day and a saber at night, underscoring the fact that they were a civilian, not a military, body. Initially, there were not many of the new police officers. Paris had eighty-five by August 1829 and only five hundred in 1850. Before the end of the century, their number had increased to four thousand.

Gothic literature (3 CID) (KC 3.6)

To the history-mindedness of the Romantics could be added an attraction to the bizarre and unusual. In an exaggerated form, this preoccupation gave rise to so-called Gothic literature, chillingly evident in the short stories of horror by the American Edgar Allan Poe (1808-1849) and in Frankenstein by Mary Shelley (1797-1851). Shelley's novel was the story of a mad scientist who brings into being a humanlike monster who goes berserk. Some Romantics even sought the un- usual in their own lives by pursuing extraordinary states of experience in dreams, nightmares, frenzies, and sui- cidal depression or by experimenting with cocaine, opium, and hashish to produce altered states of consciousness.

Luddites (2 ECD, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

Trade unionism was not the only type of collective action by workers in the early decades of the Industrial Revolution. The Luddites were skilled crafts- people in the Midlands and northern England who in 1812 attacked the machines that they believed threatened their livelihoods. These attacks failed to stop the indus- trial mechanization of Britain and have been viewed as utterly naive. Some historians, however, have also seen them as an intense eruption of feeling against unre- strained industrial capitalism. The inability of 12,000 troops to find the culprits provides stunning evidence of the local support they received in their areas.

Jose de San Martin of Argentina (1778-1850) (4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.5)

While Bolivar was busy liberating northern South America from the Spanish, Jose de San Martin was concentrating his efforts on the southern part of the continent. Son of a Spanish army officer in Argentina, San Martin went to Spain and pursued a military career in the Spanish army. In 1811, after serving twenty-two years, he learned of the liberation movement in his native Argentina, abandoned his military career in Spain, and returned to his homeland in March 1812. Argentina had already been freed from Spanish control, but San Martin believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any nation was to remain free. In January 1817, he led his forces over the high Andes Mountains, an amazing feat in itself. Two-thirds of his pack mules and horses died during the difficult journey. Many of the soldiers suffered from lack of oxygen and severe cold while crossing mountain passes more than 2 miles above sea level. The arrival of San Martin's troops in Chile surprised the Spaniards, whose forces were routed at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12, 1817. In 1821, San Martin moved on to Lima, Peru, the center of Spanish authority. Convinced that he was unable to complete the liberation of all of Peru, San Martin welcomed the arrival of Bolivar and his forces. Highly disappointed, San Martin left South America for Europe, where he remained until his death outside Paris in 1850.

The Austro-Prussian War (1866) (3 CID, 4 SOP, 6 NEI) (KC 3.3)

With the Austrians isolated, Bismarck used the joint occupation of Schleswig-Holstein to goad the Austrians into a war on June 14, 1866. Many Europeans, including Napoleon III, expected a quick Austrian victory, but they overlooked the effectiveness of the Prussian military re- forms of the 1860s. The Prussian breech-loading needle gun had a much faster rate of fire than the Austrian muzzleloader, and a superior network of railroads enabled the Prussians to mass troops quickly. At Koniggratz (Sadowa) on July 3, the Austrian army was defeated. Looking ahead, Bismarck refused to create a hostile enemy by burdening Austria with a harsh peace as the Prussian king wanted. Austria lost no territory except Venetia to Italy but was excluded from German affairs. The German states north of the Main River were orga- nized into the North German Confederation, controlled by Prussia. The southern German states, largely Catholic, remained independent but were coerced into signing military agreements with Prussia. In addition to Schleswig and Holstein, Prussia annexed Hanover and Hesse-Cassel because they had openly sided with Austria.

Female socialists (3 CID, 5 SOD) (KC 3.3)

With their plans for the recon- struction of society, utopian socialists attracted a number of female supporters who believed that only a reordering of society would help women. Zoe Gatti de Gamond, a Belgian follower of Fourier, established her own phalanstery, which was supposed to provide men and women with the same educational and job opportunities. As part of collective living, men and women were to share responsibilities for child care and housecleaning. The ideas of the comte de Saint-Simon, which combined Christian values, scientific thought, and socialist utopianism, proved especially at- tractive to a number of women who participated in the growing activism of women in politics that had been set in motion during the French Revolution. Saint-Simon's ideal cooperative society recognized the principle of equality between men and women, and a number of working-class women, including Suzanne Voilquin, Claire Demar, and Reine Guindorf, published a newspaper dedicated to the emancipation of women.