AP European History Chapter 13-28

Thomas Hobbes

He wrote *" The Leviathan"* explaining that humans need the government as they will revert ti savage ways without laws to follow.

Reforms and Revolutions before 1848

In 1815 the congress of Vienna put together places & people are not happy about it so this results in rebellions in Spain, Latin America, etc. that are mostly put down

Marriage and Sexuality in the 16th Century *pg 417-420*

It would be better to be a catholic woman because if you didn't want to marry you could at least become a nun (hard to become a nun and go to a nunnery if your not upper-class). Principal that women are weak to men from moral fiber, original sin (Eve ate the apple). The husband needs to look after the wife. Luther believed that women were only good for marriage and childbirth and motherhood. Protestants allow divorce but it is still not seen very much if not at all. Unmarried women begin being suspect of witchery if they were not married.

The Legacy of the Open Field System * pg 554-555*

More than 80% of people are farmers only making a substantial living for survival, making it likely for there to be extreme famine to the point of food riots. At first, people used the *Open-Field System* in which the whole village would work together to farm the land, in return the crop would be split up "evenly" between each farmer (got random plots of crop from different pieces of land). There was also the *common* at this time, which would be a forest which farmers could get their timber from. However, even if a peasant wasn't a serf, they were still forced to pay heavy fees from the nobles ( the nobles had the mills and materials needed for harvest and to produce the bread), this would make it extremely hard to break even. Also, planting wheat year after year caused the soil to be extremely depleted. This caused farmers to be forced to put away pieces of land called the *fallow* for the next year, this caused a huge portion of potential crop to be lost. However, much changed after the discovery of different plants that *put nitrogen back into the soil* (beans, clovers, potatoes) causing the need for fallows to disappear. Things people planted, such as clover, that couldn't be eaten were given to the livestock to graze upon, thus raising the amount of meat, dairy and fertilizer produced.

The Baron D' Montesquieu *pg 531-533*

Most famous for a work of political philosophy called, *"The Spirit of Laws"* (1748), talks about laws themselves. Says laws in general is human reason, but natural laws apply to everyone. To prevent abuse of law was to check power, (checks and balances), breaks down gov. little by little (king should have check, common people need their own legislature, etc.) W/ the rule of Louis XV & XVI comes the spreading of nobles in salons, etc. Nobles begin to challenge the power of the king, etc. The *parliaments* (courts of justice established on principle that people have the right to be judged by your equal peers, had the power to refuse law). Montesquieu is part of this group.

Ivan III *pg 498*

Takes over next, refuses to pay tribute Mongols send an army and they lose, greatly expands Russia, takes Novgarad, marries the daughter of the last Byzantine empire, linking both sides, making him the first Tsar. Begins Russian Absolutism, many obligations are put on the peasants who try to run away to form *cossacks*, starts building St. Basil's. Dies in 1505.

The Example of Japan *pg 806-807*

The *Emperor* is seen as a religious figure while the *Shogun* ruled militarily, soon the *Meiji Restoration* occurs where a group of Samurai give the Japanese emperor power in 1867, then feudalism is gotten rid of, legal system based on classes is destroyed, social equality as well as freedom of movement is declared, a powerful military and navy is created based on Britain's and is now used to crush resistance, people are payed to go and study in the U.S. to gain more info, they also use this army to open up Korea and attack China (take what is now Taiwan). Come in conflict w/ Russia in *Russo-Japanese War.*

The Austrian Habsburgs *pg 495*

Takes over Hungary, Hungarians are *Magyars*, a proud nobility, resists control from Austrians. Austrians will now have to put down rebellions, hard to stop. One of these rebellions are led by *Rákóczy*, very hard to put down, is eventually put down.

Christian Church in the Early Sixteenth Century *pg 408-411*

(Causes, what happens, results), people are still loyal to the church at this point but at the same time there are issues. Uneducated clergy, pluralism (the clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice, or office, at the same time and enjoying the income from each.), there is some anticlericalism, or opposition to the clergy, ( don't need to know about the great schism). There were some earlier ideas for change from people like *John Wycliff* who had ideas for reform, but because a lot of people were still with the church, the Catholic Church was able to execute him. Then comes *Martin Luther* whom, after having a religious "awakening", and becomes a monk. He isn't really listened to until the scandal with arch bishop Albert whom wanted two church positions at once, this was illegal so he makes a deal with Pope Leo, they agree that if Albert could give 100,000 ducats to the church the Pope would allow it. Albert refuses but Leo offers to do it as a loan he could pay off later, Albert agrees and begins paying it off by selling indulgences. He does, Martin Luther responds by posting the 95 thesis on the church door. Martin receives a letter to repent from Pope Leo, he refuses. Charles V soon comes to power, invites Martin Luther to the Diet of Worms, says to repent, he refuses and has to be snuck out of the diet.

Tycho Brahe *pg 522-525*

(Denmark) A noble mathematician with anger issues, fascinated with the heavens, he is good friends w/ the king who builds him a laboratory, he had no telescope, he could never make sense of his findings, passes his work to *Johannes Kepler*.

Spread of Protestantism in Scandinavia *pg 422-425*

(In Scandinavia)- Denmark owns Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. The king, *Christian III*, becomes a Lutheran. Sweden tries to break away from Scandinavia, rebellion led by *Gustav Vasa* soon established the Vasa dynasty, becomes a Lutheran in order to dissolve all wealth in the churches.

Jacques Cartier *pg 457*

(Sailed between 1534-1541). He made several voyages searching for the passage to the wealth of Asia. His exploration was also cut short at the great rapids called "La Chine"

The Birth of the Global Economy *pg 470*

(both Northern and Southern Hemisphere are involved in trade now). Many products being trade. There is an exchange in the 16th century, when the Dutch come in, challenge the Portuguese, take some areas, etc. The natives are not from the gov. itself, but by a compony which is unusual. Also some in the west hemisphere.

Indulgences

(johann tetzel sold them) , Selling of forgiveness by the Catholic Church. It was common practice when the church needed to raise money. The practice led to the Reformation. If you buy it- all sins relieved.

Beginning Chapter 24

750-777

Constitutionalism *pg 506*

A principal that elected representatives are bound by a written constitution that describes the rights of the people and the framework of the government.

Mary Tudor *pg 425*

Takes over after Edward VI in 1553, only rules for five years. She is Edward's half sister, oldest of the siblings. She was raised Catholic and wanted the country to be Catholic. After finding out she was infertile she goes on a killing rampage, killing many protestants. She gains the name "Bloody Mary".

Neoclassicism

A style of art and architecture that emerged in the later 18th century. Part of a general revival of interest in classical cultures, Neoclassicism was characterized by the utilization of themes and styles from ancient Greece and Rome. Some painters from this period are *David* whom created paintings of the revolution, etc. One or his famous paintings being *"Marat"*, depicting a man with skin issues being murdered in a bathtub.

Plato *pg 521-522*

A supporter of *art* not science, he was an idealist, we recognize something as that thing because of that idea of what it is, *Neo-platonism* becomes popular, it is beauty and aesthetics that separates us from animals.

Debt-Peonage

A system of employment where the employer places their employees in debt quickly, and pay them so little that they can never pay off the debts they accumulated, this debt is passed down through the man's sons.

Encomienda System

A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery.

Warfare and the Growth of Army Size *pg 485-486*

Armies are growing larger as states are becoming sovereign and becoming bureaucracies that help establish systems in order for resources to be obtained to have a larger army. Nobles ( who want glory) buy their way into officer positions where you need to bring all of your own resources. Good rulers to undermine aristocrats.

Technology to Make Expedition Possible *pg 449-451*

At first there are *galleys* but *caravels* are soon developed which are larger, can hold more cargo, are more durable (in rough waters), have canons, *three mast sailing ship*. Navigation technology as well as money was also needed.

Stable Financial Structures

Banking & insurance are both the heart of financial industry. (Modern 17th century banking really develops first in the Netherlands). Britain soon becomes the center of banking. Insurance is also important & develops in Britain before France ( the Dutch develop it first).

The Storming of Bastille *pg 627-628*

Bastille was a prison that was rarely used & an arsenal that had guns & ammunition was there, the guards were around 80 years old & retired soldiers. A mob comes in & demands the gates be open, the gov. refuses & shooting breaks out, 98 people die, a canon is found and the gov. promises surrender if the soldiers could be freed w/out harm. Gates are opened, soldiers are killed & gov.'s head is put on a pike. Citizens appoint *Marquise de Lafayette* to be the commander of the cities armed forces. Riots end. Louis accepts the idea of having a National Assembly. However there is still violence in the country side.

Michael Romanov

Becomes Tsar at 16, established Romanov Dynasty, more obligations on peasants rather than nobility, soon they become serfs and rebel in 1610 led by *Stenka Razen (Cossack)*, led rebellions from the optimistic educated people, many noble deaths before his death and the shutting down of the rebellions.

Ivan I

Becomes prince of Moscow, sees rebelling town of Keever, gets army from Mongols, takes tribute and extra for themselves to buy land. Ivan I offers to build a church, and they do, making Moscow the capital.

The European Presence in Africa Before 1880 *pg 795*

Before 1880, there was almost no European presence in Africa. The Portuguese were in Cape Town, the French in Northern Africa, and there were also some small areas for slave trade.

The Social Impact *pg 828-829*

Before WWI there were elites in society that were the first to go and fight (most likely to become a lieutenant and die), people who were kept at home were the skilled workers to create more products for war. The need for workers meant a greater need for labor unions, marks a great leap in prestige, women were seen as very important for the economy, leading to *women getting the vote after the war (U.S.),* but also creates more tensions between men & women as women feel more independent now.

Premarital Sex and Community Controls *pg 588-590*

Before and after 1750 there was a lot of *premarital sex*, but a lot of people got married when they accidentally got pregnant because of *community controls* which was when the people took it upon themselves to uphold the social standards by publicly humiliating & hating all those who did not live up to this standard. There was premature birth control (pulling out, condoms, etc.) but it usually didn't work.

Raw Materials

The *iron industry* is expanding & Britain has access to the ores needed to to make iron through trading (Scandinavia & Germany) (France also has access & coal). Britain has a lot of coal. There was also the *coal industry* although neither Britain nor France & produced cotton, *colonies such as India or Egypt produce cotton* (advantage in Britain).

Relativism

The doctrine that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context, and are not absolute.

The World Market *783-784*

The dominant country of the market was Britain, they retained free trade, leading the world's trade going through England (no tariffs). W/ the repeal of the corn laws, Britain is also greatly helped, increase in transportation & comminution also helps Britain (railroads, steam turbine engines, telegraph, etc). There is also a great rush to collect colonies.

Jeffery Tull *pg 555*

The editor of a *farming journal*, published new agricultural ideas in his papers to spread new ideas.

Race in the Enlightenment *pg 537-541*

The enlightenment's relations to science & taxonomy create a sense of *superiority*, many people begin to believe there is a superior race, white people (European), many buy into this philosophy while others do not.

Technology & Energy

The first important technologies come from Britain in the form of cotton industries beginning in 1733 w/ *The Flying Shuttle* invented by *John Key* that speeds up the weaving process ultimately creating a crisis as not enough thread could be produced. Then comes the *spinning Jenny* invented by *James Hargreaves* that spun everything much faster. Then came the *water frame*, the first machine to be built that ran on water power & produces thread, invented by *Richard Arkwright*. Then the *mule* was invented by *Samuel Compton* as a cross between the spinning jenny & the water frame that leads to another crisis as now there is too much thread. This causes *Cartwright* to invent the *power loom* in 1785.

Japan & the U.S. *pg. 786-787*

The first people are the Portuguese who make influences in Japan (gov. at the time was where there was an emperor & a war leader, the shogun, that actually ran things). People would hire samurai for protection. Japan sealed itself off from the rest of the world. When the U.S. decided to extend their power in 1753, a fleet is sent to open Japan led by *Matthew Perry.* The Japanese refuse at first, but the U.S. threatens them w/ canons so Japan gives in, signs a treaty, and allows trade.

English Colonies *pg 463*

The first permanent English colony was in Jamestown. People leave for gold instead of planting crops, somehow survive. (evidence of cannibalism) & eventually begin planting. In 1620 the pilgrims land on Plymouth rock, but the colonies begin to break away due to religious differences. The last of the English colonies was Georgia in the 18th century.

City-states and the Balance of Power *pg 376-378*

These areas are some of the first where modern governmental ideas emerge ( Venice, Milan, Naples, Florence, etc.). There are different types of governments & families establishing control. The ideas of a republic remains in Florence but this isn't really how it's governed. In *1494* France invades Italy where Italian status proves to very vulnerable. From the invasion also emerges *Savonarola* who says that what we see from this new society of corruption of faith meaning God will punish us. This is right around the time of invasion so people begin to believe him & burn things Savonarola is denouncing the pope who is friends with the *Medici Family* who burn him at the stake.

The Great Migration *pg 788-790*

What we see is the enormous members of people leaving their homelands mostly go to the U.S., many people leave as a result of population increase putting a strain on resources. There are three things to know, *1. the # of people leaving after WWI increases greatly. 2. different countries show different patterns of movement. 3. people went to many different places.*

The Sexual Division of Labor *pg 679-680*

When Indust. rev. occurs a division of sex is created by the end of the 19th century. The new view is that the man should work & the woman should stay home. If the woman was to work they would make less than the man as the man would be "supporting the family." Factories were divided in gender & women were taken out of the coal mines as it was believed that having the two genders too close to each other would lead only to sex.

Enlightenment Absolutism

When an absolute ruler believes in enlightenment, the they are in a position to spread ideas.

John Locke

"Second Treasure of Civil Government" (justification of revolution), says we need government as even though our nature can be "civil" that doesn't mean it will be that way.

Ferdinand Magellan *pg 456-457*

(*Portuguese* but sailed for Spain), sent by *Charles V* in 1519, he sailed to look for new routes to the spices in the Moluccans off the coast he eventually sails into a river and has to turn back. He soon makes it to the *strait of Magellan* (rough strait) & ends up in the Philippines breaks out & Magellan is killed. The crew's numbers were greatly decreased so they turn back w/ two ships now instead of five & around 270 men. One ship is captured by the Portuguese while the other returns to Spain w/ only 18 men left (Spain would eventually colonize the Philippines & trade). Demonstrating how the world was round & vastness of the Pacific.

Enlightenment Economics

*Adam Smith* was a professor in philosophy (Scottish), wrote the *"Wealth of Nations"* (1776). At the time, economic system is mercantilism. Smith challenges this system and uses *Spain* as an example of how it can fail. Instead he says *wealth should be based upon how much you can produce*, more and more people start to make the start to make the same thing until the cost of production is lower than price it is sold at, many businesses fail. But as long as demand stays then some businesses stay stable. The consumer profits from this.

The Advent of the public Health Movement *pg 718-720*

*Chadwick* first studies the affects of diseases and believes the issue is w/ the water supply, he wants to use clean water to push out the sewage to prevent the disease, he also wanted to use cheap iron pipes, His evidence is ignored at first until a *cholera epidemic in 1846.* Local legislatures then gave cities the right to collect taxes to have these sewage systems built, they were built after another cholera epidemic in Britain.

Spain *pg 453-456*

*Christopher Columbus* was the explorer who sailed under Spain who "founded the new rule". A lot of people don't like him cause the spread disease & his crew killed a lot of people, he first denies travel by John but in 1492 he traveled to Spain & is heard out by Ferdinand, a team of experts is called, they say this is impossible, they would not know how long the voyage would take and therefore not know how much supplies would be needed. Columbus believes he could do it through *talomy* estimates to find the circumference of the Earth (he is very wrong, estimates that *Asia extends a lot further than it actually does*). The experts do this w/out estimates, coming up w/ a proof to find the circumference (pretty close estimate), Columbus is denied by Ferdinand but Isabella funds his voyage anyway & is given three ships (Nina, Pinta & Santa Maria), he lands in the Bahamas thinking it was Asia but has actually found the New World, finds new materials & animals. He is then sent on a *Second Voyage* which turns out to be a disaster as he is put in charge. Workers do not listen to Columbus & look for gold & treating the natives horribly instead of farming land, Columbus is sent back to Spain & imprisoned then he is allowed on a third voyage. Meanwhile Portugal also finds new lands, this creates tensions & fears for war, the Pope steps in and the *Treaty of Tordesillas* is signed.

Metternich & Conservation *pg 689-691*

*Edmund Burke* was a statesman, writer and member of the British parliament who writes, *"Reflections of Revolution in France"* when his friend said France was about to become a great government. Edmund then wrote him back w/ a very long letter that eventually becomes a book. (wisdom comes from experience, respect traditions, gov. is needed), Edmund worries about the national assembly, tradition=conservatism. Significant shift in religion.

Foreign Reactions to Revolution

*Edmund Burke* was an author at the time who writes *"Reflections of the Revolution of France."* One author who attacked his ideas was *Mary Wollstonecraft* (mother of modern feminism) who wrote *"A Vindication of the Rights of Women"* (talks about how women deserve=rights to men, etc.)

The fall of the Inca Empire *pg 462-463*

*Fransisco Pizarro* lands in the Inca Empire during the ending of a war between them & Atahualpa (Atahualpa has won), the Incas immediately do not trust the Spaniards, but they are ambushed by them within a couple of years and are subdued, the Spanish finding great wealth, such as in *Mount Potosi* (Toxic mountain of silver).

Beginning Chapter 14

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Beginning Chapter 16

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Freudian Psychology *pg 859*

*Freud* believes he is a scientist, (he is not) but has huge insights on human psychology, he says there is another level on how we behave, the *subconscious,* he finds that humans had a lot of physical problems but for no physical reason, he argues that we are still animal w/ animal drives that tell us to do certain things, *id* being the strongest drive, *the sexual drive,* & Freud encourages this, we also have the *superego,* our conscious or moral understandings that go against the animal drives because we are social animals w/ social rules. W/ this clash comes the *ego* that has you trying to burn off this sexual energy called the *libido* and Freud says at some point we will break & throw ourselves off cliffs like lemmings (not true). W/ W.W.I. people begin to believe his ideas, one student, *Jung* argued that Freud was obsessed w/ sexuality because of an affair w/ his sister-in-law. There is also a collective subconscious, he says, & every culture had different ideas but this subconscious holds us together. Freud also wrote, *" Civilization & its Discontents"*, a depressing book that states if you could get over irrational ideas we could be happy but this would never happen.

Biology & Chemistry *pg 529-530*

*Galen*, a Greek Physician who dissected both living and dead human begins, claims the human body when *the four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile & yellow bile) are alright then the body is alright, says the life force is the liver.* W/ the closing of the middle ages comes *Paracelsus* (1493-1541) who experimented w/ drugs and such (before, there was only blood letting), herbs chemicals, etc., this was organized work. Then there was *William Harvey* who challenged Gallen & figures out that if you did not have a circulatory system you would have exploded (scientific method). *Sir Robert Boyle* comes next and can be argued to be one of the first chemists, creates the first *"vacuum"*, discovers *"Boyle's Law"- The relationship between the pressure and the volume of a gas constant temperature; when volume increases, pressure decreases.*

Japanese Empire & the War in the Pacific *pg 914-916*

*Japan, after the depression hit, decided it would solve it's problems by expanding, in 1931 the Japanese (who have already taken Korea in 1910) decide to take some of China as well. The League of Nations says "no" but Japan says "how bout I do it anyway?"* but they can't hold China so in various cities they begin to slaughter people w/ the excuse of "taking Asia for the Asians." Japan is not doing well in 1941, so they invade southwest Asia even though Hitler wants to get Russia. Japan wants *Indonesia* as it has oil. The U.S. now takes economic action w/ an embargo w/ oil, this hurts Japan greatly and on December 7th 1941, they bomb Pearl Harbor is desperation & the U.S. declares war on Japan, then Hitler declares war on the U.S. (big mistake).

Giuseppe Mazzini *pg 694-695*

*Johann von Herder* believed nationalism was based on *tradition* (music, stories, art, literature), he did not believe you needed special political units. *Mazzini* wrote *"The Duties of Man,"* however, wrote that your first duties were to *serve humanity* as God gave you a country, separated humans into distinct places & each nation had it's own special genus. He also believes that the issue that governments were evil & *going against God* like in Italy which is broken up so the Italians can't work together. The gov. can do good & bad.

The Birth of Marxian Socialism *pg 696-697*

*Karl Marx* was a German educated in philosophy & turned to Germanism but in the turmoil of the first half of the 19th century, Marx develops a theory about socialism (dismissed utopian socialism by saying it was not scientific) he claims *economics* is the driving force for history, this idea was formed through one of his professors, *Hegel* who developed the *dialectic* which states history moves through a struggle of ideas (idealist). At any time history would be developed from an idea, Hegel calls this the *thesis*, when something different occurs it creates an *antithesis*, when the ideas clash it creates a *synthesis.* There are three classes according to Marx- the *aristocracy* (wealth from the land), the *bourgeoisie (middle class, wealth from capital), and the *proletariats* (wealth from labor). Marx says the Proletariats were the most important part as you can't have land or capital w/out labor. He also says the Bourgeoisie taking over is inevitable but he still likes this & says that industrialization has produced massive wealth & the B. will become more & more aware of themselves until a huge revolution where the B. is overthrown by the P. & then history will be fulfilled. Marx's theory is wrong as he didn't anticipate the importance of unions & workers getting the vote.

Smallpox *pg 611-614*

*Lady Mary Wortley Montague* helped w/ the creation of a vaccine for the cure to smallpox, but this cure was dangerous as if it was measured incorrectly it could have bad side affects & the chance of the patient actually getting smallpox. Later, *cowpox* is created by *Edward Jenner* which produced sores similar to that of smallpox, but the disease was mild & not contagious.

Improvement in Urban Planning *pg 721-723*

*Louis Napoleon* is now emperor *Napoleon III* who decides to rebuild Paris. He hires *George Haussmann* to help, Haussmann completely transforms Paris, creating huge parks and spacing areas out such as the factories meaning the need for public transportation was great. This comes in the form of *electricity leading to trolley cars and subway systems.*

Capital

*Meaning something you produce in order to produce something else.* To have this you need to have the wealth to create capital & the people who want the product. Capital is stronger in Britain as they have wealth & people willing to invest.

Bismarck & Auto-Prussian War *pg 755-756*

*Otto von Bismarck,* an aristocratic nationalist wished for German unification. During the *Constitutional Crisis* in Germany (Frederick William IV went crazy & died) as *William I took over and believes there should be a stronger army. He creates a bill and presents it to parliament and they reject it, William I considers abdicating, the head of the army tells him not to and tells him he needs a strong prime minister, *Otto Von Bismarck.* Bismarck wants to unify Germany under *Prussia's* control so he will need a strong army. He re-introduces the bill and it is again rejected, so Bismarck ignores this rejection & gathers an army. The big issue is Austria, they could beat them unless Austria gains allies. Bismarck needs to prevent Austria from gaining allies, (won't be extremely hard as Austria remained neutral in the Crimean War, Russia hates them for this) Suddenly in 1843, a rebellion between Poland & Russia breaks out & the Polish soon flee. In France Bismarck says France can grab some territory while the Prussians attack the Russians. With the *Schleswig- Holstein* crisis in Denmark, the German confederation wants to protect Denmark so Prussia & Austria attack, win & both armies occupy the areas. Prussia surrounds the Austrians and soon the Austrians declare war, *The Austro-Prussian War* that only lasts 7 weeks & the Prussians win. The French don't expect Napoleon III to try and gain land so early and Bismarck kicks them out, he also gives Venezia to Italy while Austria loses the German Confederation (has to stay out of affairs).

General Trends *pg 766-767*

*Popular Politics* (vote is extended greatly) are now being created, as well as a growing loyalty to the state (nationalism). In the period of the early 20th century, people begin to feel tremendous loyalty to the gov. as a result of *Manhood Suffrage* that extends the vote, making people feel as though the gov. was on their side. The creation of Public Schools also pushes people towards feelings of Nationalism. W/ this *Patriotism* comes the question of what nationality is one person and are they "truly" this nationality.

The Widening War *pg 823-825*

*Rathenace* was hired to manage rations in Germany (works out terribly). Science is used to make things like *synthetic rubber & pull nitrates from the air as well as create the atomic bomb for the gov.* Men between 17-20 fight in the war while women work in the factories. Many people were expected to live off 1,000 calories a day, by the end of the war, Germany as well as other countries are extremely strict.

Hope in Foreign Policy *pg 873*

*The Dawes Plan* is created by *Dawes which would have reparations remain in effect but the money taken would be given to the U.S. which would then give it back to Germany (just should have ended it).* This plan works somewhat well. In the second half of the 1920s there is hope for foreign affairs. In 1925, *The Lo Camo Pact* where Germany and other countries would stay in their own boarders while *Italy or Britain* would fight if one territory invades the other. Then Germany joins the League of Nations & the *Kellogg- Bri and Pact* was made to prevent wars (wars soon occur anyway).

Socialism

- A backlash against the emergence of individualism and the fragmentation of society, and a move toward cooperation and a sense of community - The key ideas were economic planning, greater economic equality, and state regulation of property - Pretty much an economic system based on cooperation - Workers and utopian theorists were attracted to this idea - SIGNIFICANCE: Opposing philosophy to capitalism

Why the French Revolution Occurred

- Origins begin with Louis XVI's struggle for funding that ended up in calling the Estates General; Bourgeousie angry because cahiers and still don't have an active vote - Began with the Oath of the Tennis Court that caused the Bourgeousie to unite against the Estates in a National Assembly - Leads to Great Fear (revolt against aristocracy by peasants) that eventually give Laws Abolishing Feudalism and Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen; gives men equality before law and in privileges; - Gradual decline of king as constitutional monarchy is attempted to be instated - Later fix financial problems with assignants - Leads to Legislative Assembly that becomes more radical (with the Jacobin Club and the Mountains and the Girondists); other countries try to reinstate king - King beheaded for treason while France fights against Europe - SIGNIFICANCE: Gave rise to Napoleon and the Napoleonic Wars

Conservatism

- Response to Liberalism and Nationalism - Uses tradition and experience in governing - SIGNIFICANCE: Gives rise to governments using this philosophy; against the working class generally

Nationalism

- The idea that each people had its own genius and its own specific unity, which manifested itself especially in a common language and history, and often led to the desire for an independent political state - Liberals and democrats were attracted to this idea - SIGNIFICANCE: Most appealing idea, leads to widespread destructive revolutions.

Liberalism

- The principal ideas of this movement were equality and liberty - The supporters of this economic idea demanded representative government and equality before the law as well as individual freedoms such as: freedom of the press, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom from arbitrary arrest - Workers did not like this idea because they weren't allowed to vote, only people with property; poor people didn't like this idea either - Business groups and the middle class were attracted to this idea - Workers also wanted unions and the just price - SIGNIFICANCE: Leading idea of 19th Century; leads to uprisings in favor of equality

The Human Cost *pg 847*

10-13 million soldiers die on the battlefield, Serbia loses the most. 10 million civilians die right & after the war an influenza epidemic breaks out & kills another 20 million people. Those who did survive war were commonly maimed, either physically or mentally.

Michel de Montaigne *pg 473*

A French cultural philosopher, upper class, invented the essay, became a judge at one point then retired. Became secluded in order to think and learn. Lived through the war of the three Henrys, impact on his writing. Subscribes to philosophical *skepticism (school of thought founded on doubt that total certainty/knowledge is attainable) "Of Cannibals" rejected the notion that one culture was superior to the other. Impact of European discovery.*

Republicanism *pg 506*

A form of government in which power resides in the people and is exercised by their elected representatives.

New Imperialism

A frantic rush to plant the flag over as many people and as much territory as possible, creates a sphere of influence. A policy in which a strong nation seeks to dominate other countries politically, socially, & economically.

The South Sea Bubble *pg 511*

A horrible plan in order to wipe out debt from England. The business wanted to land in exchange for money to pay off the debt, doesn't work as the business isn't making enough and creates a pyramid scheme that soon fails.

Estates General *pg 625*

A legislative body in pre-Revolutionary France made up of representatives of each of the three classes or estates: it was called into session in 1789 for the first time since 1614.

New Music *pg 865*

A lot of the music was intertwined w/art, like *"The Rise of Spring"* by *Travinsky* or *"The Curtain"* by *Picasso. Alban Berg* also wrote an opera about a horrible murder, *Wozzeck.*

The New Factory Workers *pg 674-674*

A majority of people fear industrialization is making things worse. There are different groups who believe so. One are the *Romantics* who are worried indust. is destroying not only nature and beauty but also takes away from humanity. Then there were the *Luddites* who accuse machines are taking their jobs, they would break and sabotage machines. Then there were the *Doctors* whom feared about the health risks (brown lung). Then there were the Reformers such as *Friedrich Engels* who wrote, *" The Condition of the Working Class in England"* & how it is ruining family ideals. There were, however, many people whom liked the indust. revolution. One such person was *Andrew Ure* as he works for the factories himself. Then there is *Chadwick* who becomes a commissioner for the poor laws. He concludes that conditions as well as real wages had gone up and therefore, workers were better off.

Modern Philosophy *pg 854-856*

A new world view is now emerging w/ intellectuals but doesn't have much of an affect until W.W.I hits & many people begin to believe in this ideology. There are three elements to define this view; *1. irrationalism, we are not rational creatures, 2. This is a world that emphasizes uncertainty, there is a limit to what we can understand, 3. It is a world of pessimism, there are no answers, it all comes back to death.* Thus bringing us to modern philosophy that works in two ways, *1. Logical Positivism* that emerges at the end of W.W.I, one person, *Ludwig Wittgenstein* argues philosophy should concern itself w/ certainty but theres little we know about certainty so we should limit ourselves as we can only know so much. *2. Existentialism* that says existence proceeds essence ( history philosophers assume existence and try to find essence) & are also only concerned w/ humans, make your own meaning. *Friedrich Nietzsche* that writes many books stating that humans have a spark they should follow but society holds them back, he also says an *Ubermensch* (minority) would be strong enough to break through society & fulfill whats inside them. *Henri Bergson* was another famous philosopher that argues *immediate experience & intuition was just as important as rational and scientific thinking for understanding reality.* Another, *Georgesore* said myths can be life depending whether they are true or false as people believe and depend on these ideas. Writers like *Sartre* says existence perceives essence (we make our own truth), another man, *Camus* wrote a famous myth that that stated how we were meaningless.

Romanticism *pg 697-701*

A reaction against Classicism, emotions & feelings. Figures of this are *Rosseau, Goya (painter), Beethoven, etc. Stirumundrang movement in literature. some people consider GEOTHE one of the best German writers.* Industrialism has an impact on Romanticism as before, painters had to depend on *patrons* but now they can paint w/ their own emotions. In literature the *Sturm & Urang* movement occurs in Germany while in Britain there was the wordsworth and scott & collridge movements where there were things such as *lyrical ballads written by people like *Hugo or Madine Huro e Lucie Dupin*. Movements also happened in Russian literature, like w/ *Pushkin* who had ad affairs w/ politician's wives then wrote poems about them. There is also *Gerieau* who created a famous painting about *Medusa & Bastardoson & Delacroit.* There is also *Turner*. Music also reflects in individualism and nationality.

Motivations for European Expeditions *pg 445-448*

A religious fever, mostly from nobles, was to turn everyone Christian (taking down infidels & Muslims). They first travel to Spain as there is still a *Reconquista* between Islamic people & Spain which creates tremendous crusading feelings. There is a large desire for wealth from Asia. The myth of *Prestor John (wealthy Christian ruler, many people wanted to "find" him to get rich)*.

Fronde

A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and oppressive taxation.

Empiricism *pg 526*

A theory of inductive reasoning, one of the reasons why Bacon never got very far in science. The view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.

Racine

A tragedist, classical, rational, wrote plays, most famous comedy writer of the time was * Moliére*, satire.

The Treaty of Versailles *pg 841-843*

A treaty is needed & people go to Paris, the key countries to make these treaties are *France, Britain, & the U.S.* (Woodrow Wilson, a racist, rep. US., David Lloyd George rep. Britain & Clemenceau rep. France). Wilson makes many mistakes, the first being he showed up & many things are rushed. The peace is created based on a proposal Wilson makes, the *Fourteen Points,* first saying that as well as other things, (including wanting to establish *the League of Nations*) to keep the peace, peace would also not be vindictive. Many mistakes are made. In Germany, after signing peace, assume the 14 points. Would be the basis of treaty but the British & French want more. German territory begins to be taken away & given to different areas. Germany (now a republic) is left as a country but still potentially the most powerful. The Germans are bitter over this & feels humiliated (also the army is limited). In Easter Europe, Austrian Empire comes apart, Russia looses territory & new countries emerge (Finland, Poland, etc.). Italy is on the winning side & is promised a lot of territory, but gains little *Trieste* because the plan says they may only gain territory w/ Italians in it. The Germans are forced to sign the *War guilt Clause* to end the blockade that says they were responsible for war & would pay money. One big issue is that France still wants to cut up Germany so the U.S. & Britain sign a treaty saying they will protect France.

Descartes *pg 526-527*

A very lazy person, helps w/ development of *deductive reasoning*, dies in Sweden, his method of science was to find something completely true from doubting everything about him, and from this one completely true thing he will be able to know everything. *Says that the thing he can't doubt is his thinking, from being able to think he is able to prove he is alive.

Don Quixote

A work of classic literature of a hallucinative "knight", represents hallucinative Spain.

England *pg 399-400*

After *Henry IV* takes over he establishes controls over nobles, disarm the aristocracy and establishes a royal council. Between 1455 and 1471, adherents of the ducal houses of *York and Lancaster* caused the *War of the Roses* under his rule. Soon his son, *Henry VI* takes over and establishes control over the church and the monarchy just continues to decline. *The Yorkist Edward IV* takes over next to try to establish domestic tranquility, then *Richard III and Henry VII*, would proceed him and work to restore royal prestige. *Henry VII* soon secured the international recognition of the Tudor dynasty through the marriage of his eldest son , *Arthur to Catherine of Aragon*.

The Austro-Hungarian *pg 770-771*

After 1848, this empire was where Hungary was kept under Marshal law until 1866 when the *Austro-Prussian War* breaks out & Austria is weakened, Hungary makes a comeback, so the ruler, *Francis Joseph* divides the empire into Austria-Hungary, meaning that Austria and Hungary are separate but still under Joseph's rule. Minorities start to form (especially in Hungary) & different groups begin to feel under attack.

Premarital Sex and Marriage *pg 732*

After 1850, there is a growing respect for the working class. More socialization in neighborhoods leads to more marriage (more about love) while in the middle class marriage was still seen as a financial transaction. The man would be rich & marry a young girl (has to be a virgin that was constantly chaperoned). The working class is seen as a healthier environment.

The Scramble of Africa After 1880 *P 795-799*

After 1880, everyone wanted Africa, this results in a race for colonies (two places in Europe that are independent, Ethiopia & Liberia), there was also *a discovery of gold,* in areas like *Cecil Rhodes* people want to build a railroad to Cairo but the Germans get in their way, Britain occupies Egypt at this time while *Henry M. Stanley* in Belgium established trading stations & signs "treaties" w/ Africans & planted Leopold's flag. Soon there is the *Berlin Conference* where *Otto Von Bismarck* arranged an international conference in Africa, the principal being that European claims to African territory had to resst on "effective occupation* in order to be recognized by other state resulting in Europeans to push relentlessly into interior regions from all sides (no single European power would be able to claim an entire continent). This resulted in battles such as the *Battle of Omdurman* where the British were moving up the Nile River and Muslim tribesmen armed w/ spears charged at Europeans only to be shot down by machine guns. At another battle, *Fashoda*, France tried to fight the British only to lose due to the Dreyfus affair & Britain gains Sudan.

Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre *pg 434*

After King Henry II of France dies, his sons take over, but there was a problem. Their mother, Catherine de Medici, tries to overpower them. Charles and Henry III, (Catherine's sons) wants a good relationship with the French Calvinists (Huguenots), so he decided that he wanted his sister to get married to one of the leading Huguenots, Henry of Navarre. Now, his mother is mad (because she is catholic), so during their wedding, Catherine teams up with another Henry of Guise and they have a bunch of assassins, and that night, many people were killed (but all three Henry's survive).

Back to the French Debt *pg 625-627*

After Louis makes his first mistake he makes many more. Changes the way people are selected into estates (before districts chose), he adds more districts & focus the chosen to go to a meeting & get chosen from that meeting. Another being that representatives when representatives are called they all have to bring their own *Cahiers* (notebook) of petitions created by each group. (Louis is not prepared to deal w/ each group as he only wants money making people feel lied to). When they come to meet, Louis is highly respectful to 1st & 2nd estate but barely recognized the 3rd estate. 3rd estate demands recognition, others join in and create *The National Assembly* in June of 1789. They want to go to the meeting court but they are locked out so they meet at a *tennis court & create The Oath of the Tennis Court* (won't disband until listened to). Louis can't decide what to do so he calls a speech while gathering troops to dissolve the assembly. Louis also gets rid of his prime minister. During this time there is also extreme crop failure leading to *bread riots* where people see the troops coming for the National Assembly & think they are coming for them, they freak out and *decide to storm Bastille for weapons.*

Philip II of Spain

After Mary is killed, the Pope asks Philip to fight Elizabeth, because Philip was originally married to Mary. He sends out a fleet of ships to England where he runs into difficulties, first, English ships were bigger and faster than Spanish, second his food spoiled quickly, Third, the seas were so rough that many ships went down. Only 65 ships return to Spain. After this, Spain declines and England is extremely successful.

Prussia & the German Empire *pg 712-713*

After hearing of French Rebellion, the Prussians rebel. Being ruled by *Fredrick William IV,* this ruler has to face rioters but doesn't want to kill his subjects so he caves in and creates a constitution (liberal) but the people want more. In Germany in Frankfurt, people from all German states go to Frankfurt to draw up a constitution but an issue appears. In the areas *Schleswig & Halstein* ruled by the *King of Denmark* want these places to be part of Denmark. The people hate this idea & it becomes a crisis & want Fredrick William IV's army but he refuses as he sees this as meaningless, so the people create a constitution and offer it and Fredrick refuses again. There is a fight in *Olmütz* where Prussians back down to Austrians and things go back to normal.

The Austrian Empire in 1848 *pg 709-712*

After hearing of the uprising in France, *Austria* begins to rebel (liberalism, nationalism, etc.). In Vienna, emperor *Ferdinand I* gives up the throne. The *Hungarians* rise up & declare independence, other areas, such as Italy, follow. The Habsburg empire is falling apart. *Duchess Sophia* forces *Ferdinand I* to abdicate the throne & puts her son, *Francis Joseph* in power. By the end of 1848 the only ones declaring independence were the *Hungarians* led by *Kossuth* before the *Russians* offer to help & put down the rebellions.

Going Back to Nobles and Peasants

After peasants move to cities and populations are going back to normal, the nobles begin to try and take advantage of the peasants and take their things after death, etc. Peasants start to like Lutheranism because it doesn't say that lords could do these things. Luther supports the peasants at first but then switches to the nobles when the peasants begin to rebel and start a war because the nobles had the power to stand up to the church (catholic) known as the *Peasants Rebellions* and (pg 414) spiritually you are free but materially you aren't free. Meaning the servants have religious freedom but on Earth you have a duty to listen to your lord. You can ask for better conditions but no violence. (eventually the peasants get better conditions when the nobles win this war and loose workers, so they have to offer better conditions to avoid this happening again).

Great Britain & Ireland *pg 769-770*

After the *Great Famine,* the Irish begin demanding reforms such as the *Home Rule* which would allow Irish men to handle their own affairs even if they lived in Britain. When *Gladstone* comes to power he establishes an *Anglican Church* meaning lands would be sold off to support education. But land is still an issue, people would rent out land, and get debt they couldn't pay back & were kicked out. Unfair Landlords were ostracized to try and block them from the community (doesn't work). Irish people try to fight for Home Rule which isn't liked until liberals briefly take control, but then there is a battle over the parliament act. Irish people like this, the Home Rule is passed, but in 1912 it is vetoed twice before WWI begins & the Irish don't get Home Rule, leading to the *Easter Rebellion* & the Irish win (except in Northern Ireland).

The Revolution in 1830 in France *pg 705-707*

After the defeat of Napoleon, *Louis XVIII* takes over & created the *Constitutional Charter* (Meaning o sit in legislature there is a property requirement, only 100,000 people can vote). When Louis XVIII dies n 1824, his younger brother, *Charles X* takes over & wants to become popular through war. He decides to fight the *Muslims in Algeria* & wins initially, but he then decides he wants to change constitutions and is met w/ resistance. Barricades go up in 1830 & Charles' army will not cooperate so he flees & his cousin, *Louis Philipe* takes over & expands the vote a tiny amount (170,000 out of 3 million). Revolutions do not only take place in France but in areas such as Belgium (rise up, rebel against Dutch, win, offer crown to one of Louis Philipe sons , gets rejected & gives it to a German prince instead). There is also revolution in *Poland* (rise up against the Russians & fail).

The Aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars *pg 686-687*

After the war ends, the four most powerful states that won are *Russia, Prussia, Austria & Great Britain* who meet at *The Congress of Vienna.* The four representatives are *Metternich from Austria, Castlereigh from Britain, Talleyrand from France, Alexander I from Russia, & Hardenberg from Prussia.* They have two goals; *create a stable Europe while also getting the most for your country.* The principal of legitimacy is used when choosing a relative from a ruler. There is also the *Balance of Power* meaning they didn't want one country to be so powerful that they could challenge the others. They do not weaken France to avoid revolution, so they make the nations around France stronger. Britain is only interested in strategic land. *Austria* gives up territory in *Belgium & Southern Germany* but also gain *Venetia & Lombardy in Northern Italy & Polish possessions & New lands East* . *Russia* gets *Finland, etc. but ALSO wants Polish areas but Prussia wants Saxony & says they will accept Russia's gains if they get all of Saxony. Russia and Prussia almost break out into war until Napoleon breaks out of Elba so Prussia accepts only PART of Saxony.* The four major powers then decide to create the *Quadruple Alliance* to look for problems in peace & stomp them out.

Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis

After years of war, France and Spain finally come to an agreement, and Spain wins. But during the next 100 years, they fight again. Since France is so poor from losing to Spain, they become kind of corrupt, which makes many people mad so they turn to Calvinism. Good thing Calvin was French, so he wrote all his documents in french, so it was easily accessible

The Five Year Plans *pg 892-893*

Agriculturally wise, this first plan was a disaster, Stalin says to have huge farms where peasants don't own their own land, many peasants rebel against this and Stalin calls hem *Kulaks* (people who hate Stalin). The Kulaks destroy the farms and Stalin responds by sending in troops, killing around 10 million Kulaks. The *C.O.A.* works terribly even when people don't destroy the farms. In 1938, Stalin in desperation allows families to have their own farm land if they give crops to the economy (Doesn't really work, damage has already been done). On the industrial side, this is a success, Stalin says to produce machinery, steel, but *not* consumer goods. People are expected to go through a lot of sacrifice w/ the promise of a better life down the road, conditions were terrible but were not considered hopeless.

The 1820's in Russia

Alexander I is the tsar in Russia, he is alive during Napoleon where he turns against him & soon becomes *conservative,* he soon backs out of politics and lets his advisor take over. Alexander I dies and leaves his two sons, *Constantine & Nicolas.* Nicolas becomes tsar but people want Constantine as tsar, leading to a march against Nicolas that results in the marchers being killed by the army, this rebellion is known as the *Decembrist Rebellion.* One famous writer, *Dostdevsky* was part of a group of liberals whom talked about liberalism, they are soon ratted out & sentenced to death but the tsar steps in & they are sent to Siberian camps instead.

Women Social Hierarchies *pg 394-397*

Among the elites women were seen as adjuncts to the families where they were used to bring two different families together. There are exceptions (queens, etc.) but the big idea is that women were inferior to men because of the *original sin* (Eve ate the apple) which is why the woman's role should be marriage so that they could be watched over & taken care of. Mostly these ideas come from men themselves, women did not usually write. Emergence of wealthy states mean rulers can now establish bureaucracy, raise taxes, establish control over church, etc.

The "Great Reforms" of Russia *pg 760-761*

Alexander II wants to modernize and deal with issues. One big issue being *Serfdom* (not effective workers) so he frees the serfs but forces them to pay for their land. Many serfs would want to leave to the cities but this was an issue as the land was given to the community, not the individual in what is known as the *mir* (wants them to work together) so people aren't able to move to the cities or else they would give up their land. Another issue is that the bureaucracy has become to large so a gov. based on the *Zemstvo* (3 class system based on towns, nobles & peasant villages, etc.) limiting the powers of the bureaucracy to local issues. Alexander II also fixes the legal system (equality under the law), education system (many schools are built) and censorship is relaxed. The biggest reforms come from economics, Alexander II pushes industrialization, builds railroads (really helps grain trade), but also creates terrorism (anarchism) that leads to the assassination of Alexander II, the anarchists want a nationalist gov. Alexander III soon takes over as tsar and sees that practicing reform leads to death but keeps modernization, his most important minister, *Sergei Witte* believed in industrialization greatly & Russia's economy grows quickly. Witte also puts up high tariffs to protect Russian industry.

Affects of the English Gain from the Peace of Utrecht

Amongst many other things, England also gets one ship a year from Spain from which they use to smuggle goods out of Spain and into England. Spain is enrages when they find his out and tries to cut off the snuggling w/ their own ships, this is not very successful, when they do actually capture ships, they burn the ship and punish the crew severely. This makes England furious and tensions soon rise. A meeting is soon called where in *Captain Jenkins* comes in and throws his ear that was cut off as a punishment from Spain to the floor, this causes parliament to become enraged and they declare war on Spain known as the *War of Jenkins Ear*. After this it is soon followed by the *War of the Austrian Succession* that creates tensions that soon lead into the *Seven Years War* that ends w/ the *Treaty of Paris.*

Rococo Style

An 18th century artistic movement affecting many aspects of the arts; originated in Paris, characterized by lightness, elegance, and an exuberant use of curving, natural forms of ornamentation, made first for the salons, aristocratic society.

Christian Humanism *pg 384-385*

An effort to integrate classic traditions with Christian religion. One person being *Thomas Moore*, a 16th century English man whom served & was later executed by *Henry the 8th*. Moore writes *"Utopia"* (meaning "nowhere") where Moore sketches out his ideas for an ideal society (socialist), order & reason would be obtained, they would then force you to accept their beliefs. The integration of religious values w/ classical values occurs. There was also *Erasmus* a man whom had a great knowledge over many languages, and wrote, *" The Education of a Christian Prince"*, again mixing religions and Christian ideas. He also writes the, *" Praise of Folly"* that tries to understand protestants and other religions. He points out Catholic Corruption like Luther but doesn't break off from the church, he also translates *The New Greek Testament* as there were mistakes & he fixed them. He also says that people should study the bible & classics which he calls the *"Philosophy of Christ"*.

Patronage and Power *pg 387- 389*

Art is supported by Neoplatonism so art is based on classics, bible, idealized figures of what humanity should be like. The patronage comes in different ways, There is *Civic humanism* where the city itself spends money to create art to glorify the city. Artists are highly respected & well compensated. Renaissance art is more idealistic, real, includes human anatomy, tremendous amounts of religious symbols and money is put towards this.

Empire in India *pg 804-805*

As England is expanding, they wind up in India & take over, meeting resistance w/ the *Great Rebellion* (Great Mutiny), there were conflicts between Indian & English culture. English put an end to many traditions and the English want to change the caste system, a lot of this change is okay but the English are insensitive, such as when soldiers refused to follow orders when they believed they were against their religion & those soldiers were severely punished resulting in the *Great Rebellion* that is soon put down & the English take over their government. (develop railroads and school systems but at the same time creating high levels of racism), soon the *Indian National Congress* is established where they too make demands.

Child Rearing *pg 738-741*

As child death rates begin to decline, parents make more emotional connections to their kids. *Breast feeding* becomes more common rather than wet nursing. People like Droz argues that the father should be more in the child's life. Swaddling also goes out of practice and the idea of people being *teenagers* becomes more accepted, (mostly in the middle class rather than the working class). Middle class families also see the mother being closest to the child while the father is almost completely not in the life.

The Mood of 1914 *Pg 818-819*

As nationalism now combines w/ militarism, countries are now willing to push in international affairs. Everywhere there are generals who only see the military as being the answer to conflict, we also start seeing citizen armies (train & prepare soldiers for war), military service creates more nationalism. People in 191 see war as being glorious & wouldn't take long (mostly young people) & would unite the country. War begins in the Balkans as previous tensions come to a boiling point w/ the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne.

The Great European Witch Hunt *pg 435-437*

As the law changed so that people could anonymously accuse people of being witches, death and accusal rates skyrocketed. Women were already viewed as inferior at the time (original sin, branching religions believe this too). Mostly women who were divorced or alone were accused, very discriminatory. Last witch was killed in the 1700's.

Growing Political Tensions *pg 830*

As the war goes on, the people want peace but the gov. refuses, leading to propaganda to create excitement for war. By 1916, countries begin to strain from war, in Germany *Karl Liebknecht,* a socialist leader, goes against war & is thrown in jail. In France, a dictatorship is established under *Georges Clemenceau,* soon a new general is appointed in France, a mutiny is called under *Henri-Philippe Pétain* in 1917, the Italians collapse, British & French troops come to hold the line, for central powers, it is worse, the union of the Austrian empire is falling apart. Millions are dying but rations continue to lower, causing strikes. But then Russia collapses in the *Russian Revolution* (in 1914 the Russians enter the war but enthusiasm quickly dies, leaders are terrible, soldiers aren't equipped, the duma tries to fix things but Russia ever mobilizes quick enough due to the tsar, Nicolas II).

The Provisional Gov. *pg 833-835*

As things fall apart, unplanned uprisings occur, the *February Revolution* (leads to Nicolas II's abdication), as war continues a provisional gov. is created but not at a good time as it creates even more confusion, the new *Liberal Leaders* of Russia refused to leave the war & in May of 1917, *Alexander Kerensky* (socialist), becomes prime minister. *The issues are whether to leave the war or not, if the peasants should own land, whether people living in Russia want nationality & rights.* Kerensky responds by saying to stay in the war & says he will deal w/ the other issues later, as this happens a different gov. emerges, the *soviets*, they have meetings that would go to make laws that usually went against the Duma, the most important soviet being the *Petrograd Soviet* that created the *Army Order Nail* that stripped away the authority of officers & put the power in the hands of elected committees of common soldiers (basically destroys the army), creating terrible conflict & Russia plunges into anarchy until *Vladimir Illicit Lenin* steps in.

Asian Migrations *pg 791-794*

Asians usually came for slave labor, would build railroads then leave (creates resentment). Australia & Americans would pass laws against Asians, predominantly w/ Chinese, Koreans, etc. Soon they created *Great White Walls*, discriminatory laws designed to keep Asians from settling permanently.

Enlightenment Out of the Wars *(Catherine the Great of Russia)*

At 15, she marries *Peter III* (Maria Theresa's nephew), distant relative so she didn't know Russian (taught herself later), became pregnant and claimed Peter was the father, supposed enlightenment ruler, best known for the horse, didn't really support education, offered religious toleration to an extent (not Jewish), weakens the church (only for power & land), talks about freeing serfs but when there is a serf uprising led by *Pugachev* (biggest uprising in Russia), the serfs lose and afterwards serfdom is not only made worse but also the nobles are given *greater privileges.* Creates a big representative meeting to redo laws but change never occurs, but she was favored because she could speak the language and was a patron of the arts (makes St. Petersburg beautiful, supports the making of the encyclopedia), ensures safety of philosophs, military wise, Catherine was extremely aggressive and wins many victories.

Trade & Empire in Asia & Pacific *pg 578-580*

At first, Europeans have control over Asian trade (lots of spices, goods, etc.) until countries such as the *Dutch* come and try to take over. Portuguese trade starts to wither as a result, but does not die. Gradually the *British* take control and start to take *Australia* that doesn't start until the travels of *James Cook.* The British need a place to put prisoners so they set up a colony in Australia (1790) in *Botany Bay*, there more land begins to be colonized.

Great Britain in the 18th Century *pg 702-703*

At first, the king ran w/ the elites who felt a responsibility to the kingdom, things change during the early 19th century right after the Napoleonic Wars. During the wars, grain importation was banned & grain prices lower but then Napoleon falls & the parliament passes the *Corn Laws* that prohibit the importation of grain unless it rises to a certain point (rarely happens), this really hurts the businesses & merchants as they now have to pay their workers more. The legislatures also only have interest in the wealthy dominators of parliament. These laws result in mass meetings & protests. In the 1820s, parliament passes the *Catholic Emancipation* (protestants that aren't Anglican can sit at parliament). During this gov. is split, so two heads are picked, *The Duke of Wellington & Peel* (tories & whigs). In the end, *The Reform act of 1832* is passed which gives the middle class the right to vote if they own property. Working people are left out of this, this leads ton the *Charters Movement* & the *People's Charter,* at the same time the business class form the *Anti-Corn Law League,* however many workers didn't join this group in fear of what their employers would think. What does end the Corn Laws is the *Great Potato Famine* in *Ireland.*

American Revolution Background

At the end of the Seven Years War, Canada's taken by the British (French are kicked out). The colonies feel safe, now British are being highly taxes & the bulk of these taxes fall upon wealthy land owners (they feel as though because they're rich they need to pay, responsibility). Land owners say the Americans should pay taxes as a result from the Seven Years War. (Americans gain a lot of wealth from the colonies as land is cheap, etc.), the British created the stamp tax (*very small tax*) directly, the Americans freak out & become outraged, British are furious but don't back down & start taxing trade. Americans don't want this, so British banks don't as they don't want another war. Soon the British tea party occurs.

Energy *pg 659-661*

Before the 18th century, humans as well as animals were the main source of energy, until the introduction of steam engines. At first these engines are extremely inefficient (you had a piston that you moved up and down through a heating & cooling system). Then in the 1760s James Watt adds the condenser (keeps water under heat the entire time & uses a valve that allows the release & take away of steam to go quicker). Watt decides to invest in this but will need workers, materials, parts, capital, etc. causing Watt to partner w/ Boulton. The power of the steam engine helps greatly in cheaper transportation. Manchester became one of Britain's largest cities because of this, holding entrepreneurs such as Josiah Wedgewood who created cheap pottery & sold it at expensive prices.

Spanish Conquest

Before, Spanish control only resided in the Caribbean & Cuba, but w/ rumors of gold & silver, many young sons w/ lost opportunity go search for that wealth. Some are able to organize small armies. *Balboa* was the first conquistador (founded the pacific ocean), the first successful conquistador was *Hernando Cortez* however, taking an army of 600 men w/ him (horses and canons too) while Aztecs only had wood & stone & their population was already low from disease. At first, the aztecs believe the men are from a prophecy of fare skinned Gods & treats them well & invite them to *Tenochtitlán* (capital) the Spanish go & demand riches, soon the Aztecs loose faith in the Spanish being Gods, the Spanish retaliate by holding their emperor hostage & demanding more gold & silver, fighting begins w/ the Spaniards having heavy losses, Cortez escapes,soon the Aztecs would be defeated w/ most of their towns demolished.

Philosophies

Begin to write books due to enlightenment influence, *NOT philosophers*, difference is that these people really try to *spread information*.

Renaissance Italy *pg 374-377*

Begins around the 14th century, the "rebirth" of *Greco Roman* ideas. Italy becomes rich from trade particularly from the east (growth in manufacturing as well). Banks also emerge through this success. (who soon become bust as they give loans to French & English monarchs whom don't pay back). Don't need to know battles of trade before 1450. Many city states become dominant in Italy (Florence, Milan, Venice, Naples, Rome)

Impact of the Protestant Reformation on the Scientific Revolution *pg 521-522*

Begins because of the Protestant Reformation, for Protestants, you go to the authority & the authority is scripture and scripture is fact. What happens is w/ the beginning of the Scientific Revolution, it starts out okay in the *Catholic World* but it is immediately opposed by the Protestants who say that scripture denies science. In the long run, however, science flourished more in the Protestant world as when the Catholics go against science they have great power to stifle it out, Protestants, however, are more separated, so if one church like science while another does not, the others can't really stomp out the church, people are questioning what they know.

Calvinism *pg 425-427*

Believed that they were the *Elect*, or the small amount of people who were good and would go to heaven. Their responsibility in life was to create God's world on Earth, which caused many Calvinists to spread out across Europe, where some were called Puritans, others were called Huguenots. The founder *John Calvin* wrote *"The Institutes of the Christian Religion"* where he believed in the absolute sovereignty and omnipotence of God and the total weakness of humanity & Predestination, where God decided everyone's future.

Transportation

Better ships are being designed to hold more goods. There were improvements in roads, canals, etc. This is seen a lot in Britain as they can afford it & have water transportation (advantage).

The German Empire *pg 676-678*

Bismarck controls German policy until 1890, and after German unification, Bismarck's new goal is to keep German unification. Bismarck creates a new form of gov. where there is a *Kaiser at the top, a chancellor (Bismarck's position) & the Reichstag, an elected lower house legislature.* Bismarck also continues to side w/ the liberals. Bismarck soon sees the *Catholics* as a major threat as he felt *people would be more loyal to the pope rather than to the gov. Pius IX* is the pope as the time and was against ideas of *nationalism*, he soon passes the *Doctrine of Papal Infallibility in 1870 that the pope can not be wrong when concerning doctrine issues.* Bismarck decides to compromise w/ the Catholics by going against the liberals concerning *Laizze Faire* (many Catholics are farmers, and as this causes transportation costs to decline, grain competition goes up) and a Tariff is created agains it. At the same time, Bismarck gains another enemy, *the socialists* which is seen as a danger because it was completely opposed to *nationalism.* Bismarck puts through the Reichstag a series of laws that make socialism practically illegal, but Bismarck also sets up *Socialist Well Fare Systems*(promise that the gov. will give workers everything socialism promises). This sort of works, then William I dies & his grandson, *William II* took over as kaiser & gets rid of Bismarck known at the *dropping of the pilot.*

The Napoleonic Era *pg 644-645*

Bormin Corsica (belonged to Italian state Genua) was a state run by merchants that wanted independence and Genua decides to sell Corsica to France (good for naval base), Napoleon is born here and he goes to military school, graduates & gets into the artillery, he wants to become a captain so he goes back to Corsica before discovering about the French Revolution where he helps drive the British out of areas. Napoleon is now an officer when he also kills many people in the mod in France, calling this the *" Whiff of Grapeshot"* at the same time he marries a prostitute and later is called to Italy where he is fighting the Austrian Habsburgs that lose. He then goes back to France & is continuously against the gov. He asks for another command to go to Egypt (takes scientists in order to discover Egyptology & the Rosetta stone) then another general, *Nelson* sinks Napoleon's fleet & he abandons his soldiers covering up his failure by blaming the gov. Calls legislature & demands rule, he succeeds & takes over. There is then a period of peace. The *Old Regime* (before Napoleon was emperor) was challenged by *The Party of Discontent* who win. This party then breaks into two parts; *The Moderates & The Radicals*, the Radicals destroy the Moderates and break into two parties, *The Mountain & The Girondists* the Mountain destroys the Girondists.

War *pg 646-649*

British destroy French & Spanish. Napoleon tries to go for Russia & Austria, defeats Austria, but in 1805 Russia & Austria combine forces & crushes then at *Auserlitz.* Napoleon goes to Poland, Russia retreats until river or Tilsit where peace is found. Napoleon tries to take out British w/ *continental System* doesn't work & creates *Luddites* who instead blame machines. Smuggling occurs in places like Spain after goods are kept from British. Napoleon kicks the Spanish king off the crown & replaces him w/ *Joseph* that causes rebellion so Napoleon uses *Guerilla Warfare.* Napoleon soon has war w/ Russia.

Napoleon's Expansion in Europe *pg 644-645*

By 1802 there was a period of peace before 1805 when war starts again. Napoleon faces areas such as Austria, Great Britain, etc. Can't make it past British navy. Comes up w/ a plan to evade chase while Spain creates Barges & Napoleon's navy would get in, plan works until Nelson refuses to give up chase.

Industry & Population

By the end of the 19th century, England dominated trade, although in 1851, *Prince Albert* who was married to *Queen Victoria* decides to celebrate this domination & creates *The Crystal Palace* to honor the world's achievements (most are in Britain, encourages workers to be proud of industrialization).

The "Hinge of Fate" *pg 916-918*

By this time it looks like the axis powers are gaining a loss of control, the issue being on how to get the allied powers to work together, this happens, they agree to put most of their efforts on Germany rather than Japan. There are three key battles in 1942 that turns things around; *1. The Battle of El Alamein, the British army stops the Germans at the Suez canal, at the same time, the U.S. is attacking Germany into other areas and the Germans retreat. 2. Following this the U.S. & British move to Sicily & force Italian "surrender," meanwhile Soviet Union bounces back & the BATTLE OF STALINGRAD ensues, where Germans go to Ukraine and end up getting Stalingrad & occupy the city, the Russians then counter and the German army gets surrounded & in January 1943, they surrender. The Soviets begin the offensive & Germans begin retreating, the discussion of a second front comes from France in the summer of 1944, D-DAY, attack on the beaches of Normandy.* The British and U.S. also come & break through to Germany. What occurs at the end of 1944, is Hitler desperately tries to turn the war around by pushing through and trying to get to *Antwerp* & they are stopped. By this time the Russians had pulled into Poland & take Berlin. Hitler commits suicide in his bunker & the war in Europe is over. The war in the pacific lasts longer. The U.S. have been island hopping & meet in the Philippines, Japanese don't give up so the U.S. develops the atomic bomb & drops it on *Hiroshima & Nagasaki* and the war is over in the pacific.

Battle of the White Mountain

Catholics win this battle, meaning that the Habsburgs will need taxes to create an army, nobles agree but demand control over serfs.

Cavour & Garibaldi *pg 752-753*

Cavour is chosen to be prime minister in Italy and *Realpolitik* begins to be seen (ignoring morals and emotions to reach your goal) in Cavour and his goal to unite Italy. The Austrians are the issue as Sardinia doesn't have the army to battle them. Sardinia becomes a constitutional state (civil freedoms emphasized, railroads built, etc.). Cavour now needs allies in France and Britain so he joins them in war. Napoleon III decides to help as he sees opportunity to become the most influential country in Italy, Cavour offers *Savoi* in Sardinia. Napoleon III agrees to fight w/ Austria only if they attack first, they do but the carnage is terrible and Napoleon III meets w/ Austria secretly at *Villa Franca,* Sardinia only gains Lombardy. Cavour resigns but takes his job back when people freak out and *Garibaldi* arrives in Italy saying there are more Italians to be brought into the state and (w/ Cavour's support) creates an army called the red shirts (they are pitied) and march up to the papal states, Cavour doesn't want to anger Napoleon III so they stop.

The Restoration of the English Monarchy *pg 510-511*

Charles II takes power back but doesn't have enough money, but the Netherlands bought them in allies so Charles II can now push for Catholicism in England. Wigs and Tories.

Peace of Augsburg

Charles V allows the people who rule over territories (princes and nobles) to choose their land to be Protestant or Catholic, so the lands are still divided.

The opening of China *pg 784-786*

China has been self sufficient and the richest country in the world. When merchants from Europe want business, China allows it, but watches them very carefully. Trade soon opens more and merchants begin trading *Opium* (an addictive drug) China is furious w/ this and tries to block this trade but fails (more illegal= more value and more of a reason to trade it), the gov. tries to kick out merchants but the British gov. supports these merchants & the *Opium War* & the British easily win. Peace is made w/ the *Treaty of Non-King* where the Chinese had to give up *Hong-Kong,* pay *$100 mil* & open up *four large cities* to unlimited foreign trade. More treaties occur and it looks as if China might be divided up (this doesn't happen).

Towards Revolution in China *pg 807-811*

China looks like it is about to collapse, but the *Quing Dynasty* is left in power for convenience (other countries don't know how to deal w/ China), the empress *Tzu Hsi* is corrupted, then the Japanese attack in 1894, & take Taiwan. China survives & the Europeans still don't know what to do w/ it, soon the new emperor launches the *Hundred Days Reform* that amounts to nothing, Then *Sun Yatsen* comes and says that they should get rid of these people through their own traditions. One group *Boxers* led the *Boxer Rebellion* that has many weird beliefs but was soon put down in 1912, anarchy is soon created w/ a rebellion led by Yatsen. This anarchy would continue as WWI began.

Identities and Communities *pg 575-578*

Classes & hierarchy can be based upon many different things. In the 18th century class was based upon race. This varied from place to place (Ex: Spain, highest class-pure European people, middle class- mixed background, lower class- being African American, if you were wealthy, however, you could move up in class). Many places also tried to convert Native Americans & African Americans to Christianity to make them "civilized." Jewish people were not seen as slaves but were still seen as inferior.

Patronage

Financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups and individuals, often to produce specific works or works in specific styles.

Theories for why the black death disappears

Climate change, pushing out of black rats (bigger carrier of the flea) with brown rats (smaller carrier of the flea).

Getting Enlightenment Ideas Across *pg 532-535*

Comedy was used a lot, *satire*. One such writer of satire was *Montesquieu* who wrote *" The Persian Letters"* (about two Persian travelers exchanging letters, contains satire against many beliefs & practices, points out the irrational). Another book being, *"Candid"* by *Volver* ( a man is invited then kicked out of a castle, goes on adventures w/ fellow nobles, religious people are depicted as hypocrites). Another book was *"Historical & Critical Dictionary"*. ( propaganda is created through bias definitions). One other was the *Encyclapedia* ( contains a lot of info gathered by enlightenment thinkers, *Diderot & Alembert*). Book clubs & libraries are being created to further spread ideas & education. Different vocab. creates a sort of divide between people.

18th Century Colonial Trade *pg 571-573*

Comes at very fortuitous time for the British (only traded wool mostly at first), wool trade was declining at the time as there were more countries trading wool. However, the colonies slave trade through the diversification of products needed. The colonies needed many things such as tools, raw materials to build homes and luxury goods for the wealthy, etc. (many other countries soon follow in this diversification). Debt-peonage is also created at this time.

Edward VI *Pg 425*

Comes to power at age 10, successor to Henry VIII. He is too young to rule, (Henry had created a committee that would govern together for Edward). The regency ends up having more Protestant men than Catholic, (Henry trusted Protestants more). Edward, however, dies at age 16 and never rules by himself.

The Doctrines of the Three nomes

Constantinople doesn't fall as it is considered pure (Rome falls because their emperor wants to be Pope). Byzantine is scared and is attacked by the Turks, Byzantine asks the west for help (delegation order is created). Pope only promises to help if the Byzantine will recognize it as a power. The Byzantines then fall but Russia is still considered pure.

Darwin & Natural Selection *pg 742-743*

Darwin is a daydreamer sent to a medical university but he drops out as he is too squeamish around blood, he is then sent to Cambridge to become part of the clergy, he is about to become part of it when he agrees to go on a trip w/ the British Navy on the ship Beagle as someone was needed to dine w/ the captain, Darwin is gone for 7 years (this is where he goes to the Galapagos). Darwin then marries one of his cousins and becomes a scientist. He comes up w/ a theory of evolution based on *Natural Selection* that states the animals most fitted to their surroundings will survive. *Sexual Selection* branches off this idea and states that mutated animals will mate to create better animals and the other animals w/out this mutation will die out. He keeps his ideas secret until 1858 a man named Wallace comes up w/ the same idea, Darwin finds out and the two publish a book together, *" On the Origin of Species By the Means of Natural Selection"* (Darwin gets the credit).

Mary Queen of Scots

Daughter of *King James V of Scotland*, was married to a prince, he dies, she goes back to Scotland. Wants to be queen, so she plans to kill her half-sister, Queen Elizabeth. After she plots against Elizabeth, fails (later gets in trouble for an affair and murder of her husband), she flees the country, is put under house arrest and eventually Elizabeth has Mary beheaded.

Midwives *pg 611-613*

Delivered babies, under attack at some point by physicians who try to say they are better as they use forceps (more scientific), but this was dealt w/ the teachings of *Madam du Coudray's* *"Manual on the Act of Childbirth."*

An Emerging Consumer Society *pg 866-869*

Develops w/ mass production (Henry Ford) & advertising. W/ electricity grids people now have more access to things like telephones & fridges, there are also better roads, movies really take off & become more powerful& we get the first movie stars, department stores come into their own, people are more democratic as more materials become available. Social status based on material ownership grows. Women's work changes and women become more independent (people against this say this loosens morals). We also get *the radio* from *Mareoni* and it becomes very popular by the 1920's.

Republican France *pg 768-769*

Disaster comes under the rule of Napoleon III & ends in the *Franco-Russian War* where they are starved into submission and a republic is declared, conservatives are voted in, upsetting Prussians, so Paris tries to sussed from France. The President of France, *Adolphe Thiers*refuses to let them do this & sends in the army. Paris declares themselves as the *Paris Commune* & are taken down viciously. Many people now don't want France even as a republic, but the republic manages to survive until WWI, most people want a monarchy but they can't chose a monarch. The republic begins to get stronger as people begin to get used to it. A compromise is soon offered on who should be the monarch, the *Count of Bourbon* whom has no children but the *Orlean family* did, so the Count would be candidate and then chose a Orlean child to take power. But when the Count says he will fly the Borbone flag instead of France's, people are outraged (still pretty nationalistic ideas, French public education really pushes these ideas). However, corruption soon spreads w/ the *Dreyfus Affair* (plans of defense against Germany are found in the trash & *Alfred Dreyfus is convicted & sent to Devil's Island, Kernal Picquart becomes head of intelligence & believes Esterhazy* was the real culprit, he tells *Zola* whom writes the pamphlet, *J'Accuse* & Esterhazy flees & commits suicide while Dreyfus finally is freed. This results in cutting of Catholic funding & Zionism as Dreyfus was Jewish).

Popolo

Disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power.

The Renaissance Art *pg 389- 393*

Doing it for the glory of themselves rather than the glory of God. The first artist to sign their painting is *Gitto* in the Renaissance, goes past ideas that these people were only craftsmen, there were no famous women painters or sculptures as it was considered that the woman's place was in the home, marrying & uniting families.

The Ottoman Empire *pg 764-765*

During the 19th century, the Ottomans face decline as it has shut itself off from the west as they believe they are superior resulting in them falling behind rapidly. However, their empire doesn't fall because the major powers can't decide how to divide up the empire. In the 1850's the Ottomans attempt to open up to the west. They try to use the *Tanzimat* (offers religious freedom, modernization of the military and equality before law) as a way to make themselves more western, w/ the Tanzimat comes the emergence of the western elites but the Ottomans are still in decline. *The Young Turks* want revolution but it is WWI that causes the Ottoman Empire to disappear.

Social Hierarchies *pg 393-394*

During the Renaissance there were African slaves brought in as they were seen as exotic and people where curious about them (really begins w/ sugar plantations). In Italy the wealthy business people become the new elites (Social status based upon money) while old stayed in the countryside. This type of thing results in kings becoming kings not from birth.

The Peace Settlement in the Middle East *pg 843-846*

During the war, the British encourages Arabs to rebel against the Turks, promising them to have their own nations, British keep this promise by signing the *Sykes-Picot Treaty* where territory would be divided between the British & French, the British also promise Jews land through the *Balfour Declaration* to encourage them to rebel against the Germans (promise *Palestine*). There aren't any real thought of these people getting independence. *Mustafa Kemal* becomes a big leader in Turkey to westernize it (almost overnight).

The Explosion of the European Population *pg 558-559*

During this period there was a huge change due to the *decline of birth rates*, this is causes by the *Agricultural Revolution* (by around 1800 population in England explodes), from greater food surplus comes better nutrition as well as healthier people. Trade and discovery helps w/ the spread of more varieties of food, other factors included *draining of the swamps* bringing down the populations of mosquitoes (cause malaria), wars also become less destructive, better transportation of food, the black death disappears. At the same death rates are going down, *birth rates are going up* (some people wanted to have kids as it would mean the village would have to pay for well fare for them if they were poor, children could take care of you after you were old, and you could make children work, people wanted boy as girls would have to go off to another family after marriage. Birth rates go up as people can now marry earlier (before, people would have to wait until the father died in order to get the income and land needed to survive), this is due to *rural industry*, (rural poverty, labor coasts lowering).

Even More Financial Issues *pg 629*

During this time the estates are still meeting, one says *Feudalism* should be destroyed & taxes should be changes, peasants obligations lowered, noble privileges abolished. The National Assembly soon issues *the declaration of the rights of man & of the citizen* (ignorance causes problems, equality under the law, equality of opportunity). However. there are people who find this meaningless because they want to change but they only care about *bread prices* not getting any better, women decide to march.

The Rise of Serfdom in the East *pg 482*

East was very different from the west due to population density. Making serfdom harder to control due to everything being spread out. Before, there was no serfdom, lords have issues keeping their workers so they create serfdom. Serfs can't run away as there is no place to run to. Not many cities to go to as merchants had been pushed out by lords so they could be closer to trading. In the East there is no class to leverage against (no merchants to give support to the king) so the nobles only agree to taxation and loss of dependency in return for support in maintaining their labor force.

Egypt *pg 787-788*

Egypt was owned by the Ottoman's until the rise of Napoleon, then when Napoleon is defeated, *Muhammad Ali* steps in. He began organizing a western style army, recruiting people from Egyptian peasantry, he also wants to make an economy based on expansion. Farmers became tenants of land lords (expected to use western agriculture). Results in Europe seeing opportunity. Muhammad Ali soon dies & his son takes over, then his grandson, *Ismail* takes over, who was also a westernizer, he soon finds himself in debt & almost declares bankruptcy when Britain and France step in and make sure the banks were paid. Egyptian Nationality is also spreading & an *Egyptian Nationalist Party* is formed by *Arabi* who is later forced to abdicated (causes riots). Then the *British temporarily take over* until 1946. They do make some good reforms but also treat Egyptians as if they were inferior.

Marginal Beliefs & Practices *pg 608-609*

Elites are more in tune w/ the enlightenment & scientific ideas while the masses look for more different, emotional ones.

Edict of Nantes *pg 434*

Ends the War of the three Henry's, signed in 1598, by King Henry IV (Henry of Navarre) of France, granted the Calvinists of France (huguenots) substantial rights in the nation, which was still considered essentially Catholic at the time.

The Civil Constitution of Clergy (1790)

Established by the National Assembly forcing all clergy men to swear an oath of loyalty to the new gov. Pope condemns this by saying any clergy man to take this oat would get *excommunicated*, resulting in the clergy splitting half & half. This hurts sincere Catholic people as they don't know which side to choose. If you choose to marry someone who takes the oath the Pope would say you'll burn in hell. But if you don't take the oath you don't get marriage documents and won't be legally married. The first clergy and to swear and oath to the state was a bishop named *Talleyrand* (rich family, really smart, avoids bad times).

Imperialism in Asia *pg 799*

Europeans expanded their political control in Asia: Russians conquered more Muslim areas, Dutch ruled island of Java & United States gets the Philippines.

Metternich *pg 689-691*

First Metternich wanted to keep being part of the aristocracy. It is class that maintains tradition. The multinational empires create stability.

Galileo *pg 525*

First modern scientist, develops more than others, *the scientific method*, counts (drops this counts how long it takes for them to reach the ground), demonstrates speed is not constant, figures out how speeds would change, gets a telescope to look at the moon, finds "Mountains and Valleys", finds Jupiter, creates *" The dialogue on the two chief systems of the world"* (1632), Catholic Church is enraged, Galileo is called to the Papal inquisition, forced to recant and is put under house arrest, but w/ printing press ideas have already spread.

Work Away from Home *pg 587-588*

Even though children were used as an asset they would soon leave the home to become independent. Some men got jobs as apprentices, many could not afford this so they would have to take up odd jobs. Girls, however, would work as mades or cooks where they had little to no protection or rights (were at the mercy of the employer). This causes many novelists to react & write about this. One author, *Daniel Defoe* the first novelist wrote, *"Moll Flanders"* (about a young women forced to work as a maid, gets pregnant, becomes a prostitute and eventually the head of a gang, is sentenced w/death but transferred as she was pregnant, finds soul mate on transfer, finds God and lives happily ever after). Many critics, however, believe the first novel written was *"Pamela: Virtue Rewarded"* by *Richardson* (also wrote the longest novel ever written, the book tells of Pamela who works for a recently widowed lord who wants her, story is about the chase, she eventually accepts his advances when she says she'll marry him). Another writer, *Henry Fielding* reads this, is horrified that Pamela would marry the lord and responds by writing *"Shamela"* ((talks about Pamela's brother, Joseph Andrews, who is always trying to fend off women and eventually marries a girl named Fanny, Pamela doesn't want him too.), he also wrote *"Tom Jones"*.

Aristotle *pg 520*

Examined and wrote about many things (poetry, politics, philosophy, etc.) everything he did was tightly reasoned, everything he says has specific reasons. Aristotle's thinking was saved by the Arabs and brought back the middle ages. First, there is a lot of resentment, until it is woven together into Catholicism and then becomes very important. Aristotle made a view of what the universe looked like.

Kinship Ties *pg 733*

Families would basically share dinners, clothes, money, etc. with each other. These ties were very strong.

William Shakespeare *pg 473-475*

Famous playwright, probably had a few plays relating to the topic of race.

Spain *pg 400-403*

Ferdinand and Isabella are in power, the War in the Reconquista soon provides stability, standing army, etc. 1469 is when Ferdinand and Isabella marry, they are able to exert control over nobles more affectively. Pope *Alexander VII* allows the right to appoint bishops in Spain & Hispanic territories, *Conquest of Granada in 1492* where Ferdinand and Isabella viciously entered marked the end of the reconquista. There are many conversions and leavings of Jews, Muslims, etc. as Ferdinand and Isabella basically said to either convert to Christianity or leave Spain.

Young Turks

Fervent Patriots who started seizing power in the revolution of 1908 in the Ottoman Empire, forcing the conservative sultan to implement reforms (helped prepare the way for modern Turkey).

The & Occupations of the Middle Class *pg 725*

First there is the *Upper Middle Class*-successful business people that are not aristocratic but still try to blend w/ these people & marry to gain the title. (extremely wealthy, did not pay income taxes made money through baking, railroads, etc.). Then there was the *Middle Middle Class* whom were not as rich as the upper middle class but were still well off. Then there was the *Lower Middle Class* that was made up of people who are no longer considered to be "craftsmen" as their work (wood workers, watchmakers) was being taken by factories, they were also made up of factory owners and construction bosses.

Jewish Emancipation & Modern Nationalism *pg 771-773*

For Jews in the 19th century, they see more toleration and gaining of more rights. However, Anti-semitism is also greatly rising (Jews are considered separate by race now), particularly in Vienna and is linked to a growing sense of nationality & greatness. One person, *Lueger* leads to *Theodore Herzl & Adolf Hitler. *Luegar wins votes through anti semitic ideas. It was *Herzl,* however, that founded *Zionism,* which stated that Jews had their own homeland & they should return to it. Persecution of Jews is really seen in Russia before WWI leading to many Jews fleeing to the U.S. & Palestine.

Life and Culture in Soviet Society *Pg 896-897*

For the normal person this isn't a great life, real wages are lowered mostly, only raised slightly at one point. People wore rages, there was a constant shortage of everything (except vodka), housing was terrible (one family in one room), people still thought conditions would get better. Workers still got free daycare, education and healthcare. Everybody worked. Women were given more rights (divorce, abortion), after Stalin comes to power he inserts more traditional ideas. Women were expected to work both outside the home as well as keep a clean house. In the arts, *modernism* is done away with, the movement is *Socialist Realism* (depicts happy workers, happy soviet union), if you went against this you could be killed.

The Copernican Hypothesis *pg 522*

Found by a man named *Copernicus*, not a scientific person but rather a medieval guy who challenged Ptolemy's views of the heavens, his argument is that God would not create a mess of the universe, says *the center of the universe is the sun, w/ the other planets revolving around it (heliocentric-sun is the center of the universe, Ptolemy is geocentric-earth is the center of the universe)*, he knows this challenging is dangerous, so he doesn't report his findings until right before his death by publishing *"The Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres" (1543), Copernicus is wrong (don't write this on the AP exam) in the sense that scientifically he made a guess*. The planets do not revolve around the sun in circles, however he is extremely important as he encourages others to challenge more, during this time people find a bright new star that disappears within two years, this means that the universe is not eternal & can change.

Stables Government

France has the advantage as they are more stable at the time while Britain has had *two revolutions in 1700.* (however the results being that England would rule in partnership w/ the elites giving off the impression that England is stable). France later becomes unstable & in 1789 industrialization stops in that area.

Enlightenment Out of the Wars *(Frederick II)*

Frederick- Out of this success for Prussia, they have an enlightenment movement, Frederick II wants education, so he makes schools for the *Junkers*, does not educate peasants (knows rebellion could come from too much education), there was also religious toleration to a point as Frederick II *hated Jewish people* and prosecuted them severely, he also lessened torture, *got rid of serfdom*, and *supports the arts*, would send pensions to artists.

Hugenots *pg 433*

French Calvinists

Salons & New Ideas *pg 535-537*

French parties where women would host and invite people to spread scientific ideas. (rich & funny people only). There were also *coffee houses* to spread ideas, one person to go to one of theses places was *John Jock Rousseau.*

French Colonies *pg 463*

French start colonizing around the time the English do. Large fur trade. Fur trappers marry into native tribes. The French also gain islands in the Caribbean (sugar islands) that become very rich from sugar.

Louis XIV's Wars *pg 492*

From France we get the formation of the modern army. Louis appointed *Francois Le Tellier* to help him in war. Soldiers are given uniforms, train soldiers, unify them, come up w/ weapons etc. Wars for Louis center around areas of great decline, (spain) when Charles II takes over, people have a sence of urgency on who will get the land, King of Austria, but if it could be passed through a woman it would be Louis XIV's wife, others want this land too, Louis gets lawyers to prove that he is right and goes to get the land, wars begin. (round 1) Louis marches into the Spanish Netherlands, Spaniards, Austrians, and Dutch oppose him, the Netherlands wish to help. Netherlands are beating the English but create peace by giving them land, Louis hates the Netherlands, so he forms alliances w/ England & other princes. Netherland starts loosing at first until they appoint *William of Orange* to help them, opens *dikes* for them and floods out their enemies. Gets England on the Dutch side w/ a marriage between *William of Orange* & *Mary (Charle's niece)*. In the 1680's after peace is made, Louis XIV is still aggressive and pushes into more territories, pushes too far, war breaks out again, both sides are exhausted, Charles II dies and leaves a will leaving all land to *Philip of Anjou* (Philip V of Spain) Louis XIV's grandson, but countries should be separate. Austria hates this. The Grand Alliance turns against Louis XIV after he takes too much power and the *War of the Spanish Succession* begins.

Getting Rid of the Fallow *pg 555*

Getting rid of the fallow was a problem because people were still using the open field system, meaning if a decision was to be made, *all of the people would have to agree to it.* Many people refused (believed what was good before would be good now). So a system of land-holding must be created in order for each individual person to choose what they want to do with their piece of land. The *enclosure system* is created where *each peasant would get their own fenced off piece of land.* This system causes peasants to be affected differently depending on their country. England is affected in both a bad and goos way as peasants oppose the idea so the parliament, controlled by nobles at the time, makes it for their own interests, peasants weren't able to work the land, they are forced to sell their land and try to work for the land-lord, there ends up being too many workers, causing others to have to try to find work in the cities, creating the working class, and cheap labor that leads to the first industrial revolution (England becomes the first industrial country), nobles are able to introduce new agriculture systems. This system works out well in France, however.

Signori

Government by one-man rule in Italian cities such as Milan.

Ptolemy *520-521*

Great geographer & astronomy, creates a different model of the universe through observation and prediction and wants it to work mathematically (creates the *equant model* that makes the universe look like a jumbled mess).

Galen

Greek anatomist whose theories formed the basis of European medicine until the Renaissance (circa 130-200)

Janeism

Group formed together by Huguenots and others that is soon destroyed by Louis XIV.

Johannes Kepler *pg 522-525*

Has a big break through with the *three laws of planetary motion*, 1. the way the planets revolve around the sun are elliptical rather than circular. 2. Each planet moves around the sun at different paces, the sun being towards the side not the middle. 3. The time it takes for each planet to orbit around the sun depends on it's distance from the sun. Relating to *Ockham's Razor (suppose there exist two explanations for an occurrence. In this case, the simpler one is usually better. Another way of saying it is that the more assumptions you have to make, the more unlikely an explanation is).* Kepler also does many other things, calculus, etc.

Hungary

Has a monarchy under *King Louis II*. Many Hungarian students study in Polish universities and come back w/ Lutheran ideas. Ends up w/ a battle, *Mohics*. Many nobles and King Louis II along w/ many other soldiers are killed. The Ottoman Empire takes over, Hungary is once again Catholic.

Rule of Louis XVI

He is 20 when he comes into power, but has fatal weakness, he wants to be *loved by people & nobles*, results in aristocracy manipulating & taking advantage of him, taxes are reduced, Maupeou is dismissed, parliament is returned. He is seen as a great king but many problems arise due to the bringing back of these things. So Louis XVI hires *Turgot* to help. Turgot (becomes controller general) says that they manage if they can cut down on expenses so *no extra advantages* Louis XVI says okay. Turgot ends up being fired to keep Marie happy, Louis XVI then gets dragged into the *American Revolution.*

John Jock Rousseau

He was not from a rich family, his father was a clock maker. Makes his name clear through an *essay contest* where he says the enlightenment has made us worse people, the only pure people being *"savages"* (Ex; people raised by wolves). Says children should be able to freely grow & be educated at their own pace. Also wrote*" the Social Contract"* that says that what makes power justifiable is not strength unless couples w/ obedience, you are both free and not free. Government protects the people while at the same time, enforces the law.

Cromwell and Puritanical Absolutism in England * pg 508-510*

He wasn't poor nor rich, goes into the army and ends up being the architect for the "new model army." Parliament wins the war and Charles I is captured Parliament rules now.

Sieyés *pg 625-627*

He wrote, *"What is the Third Estate?"* which says that the 3rd estate was everything & the 1st & 2nd were lower than nothing. Accuses them of being like a tumor as the 3rd estate was doing everything (farming, working, etc.) meaning if they removed 1st & 2nd estates privileges they would be stronger. Equal opportunity should be implemented.

Agression & Appeasement

Hitler began to build up the German army. Russians returned w/ German tech after they had secret missions in the country. Takes Germany out of the League of Nations. Hitler starts a draft and creates a huge army. France, Italy, and Great Britain protested this. *Appeasement*, the British policy towards Germany before WWII, granted Hitler to do whatever he felt needed to avoid war. Because they did not want another world war. The English sign a naval agreement w/ Germany hat says that the German navy would then stay much smaller than the British. This is good for the Germans as w/ the *Treaty of Versailles* they were not allowed to have a navy at all. Nobody stops Germany because everyone believed that they could stop the expansion of communism. Germany then decides to take over Austria, they take *Anschluss* and territories in other areas. The new issue for Hitler is now Poland. Most of Poland is German & Hitler says they need to take Poland, he tries to meet w/ Stalin, send a diplomat & the *Non Aggression Pact* is made, that says they will divide up Europe between them (Hitler had no intention of keeping this promise), works as both group weren't that different. He also takes German prisoners, dresses them in Polish uniforms and shoots them down to say Poland has declared war. He sends his army over that goes through Poland very quickly because of *Blitzkrieg* (lightning war) that has troops advancing while planes bomb from above, causing confusion that the troops are then able to break through.

The Roots of National Socialism *pg 900-902*

Hitler grows up in Austria, gains nationalistic ideas, helps form the *German Workers Party,* there is also the Putsch that allowed Hitler to gain fame after being put in jail.

Popular Support for National Socialism *pg 904-909*

Hitler promises to bring Germany out of the depression, he follows through, his popularity skyrockets. Unemployment drops to 2%, Nazi holidays are established, cheaper cars like the Volkswagen were made so more people could afford cars, a lot of propaganda so the gov. seems on the peoples side, etc.

State and Society in Nazi Germany *pg 903-904*

Hitler quickly calls an election, the Reichstag is lit on fire, Hitler is able to outlaw the communist party, making the Nazi party the majority. Hitler creates the *Enabling Act* which allowed him to be dictator for four years. Hitler crushes all other parties & establishes complete control (union police), and also wants his people ready for war. His *Brown Shirts* (S.A.) begin to beat people up in the streets. Soon the S.A. grows to 3 million, Hitler wants cooperation and decides to get rid of the S.A., he uses his S.S. under *Himmler* and destroys the S.A., many members then join the military. Literature by Jewish people is banned, modern art is made illegal, later the Holocaust occurs as Hitler believed the Soviet Union was run by Jews. In 1938, there was the *Kristallnacht* (night of broken glass) where Synagogues were lit on fire, jewish people were violently attacked, etc.

Hitler's Road to Power *pg 902-903*

Hitler writes *Mein Kampf* in jail, he says he wants to invade Slavic areas, work the slavs to death then take over, the Jewish people fit into ideas of purification as Hitler believed the Jews were racially pure (Jewish married other Jewish people) and therefore were a threat to the "pure German race." He also believed that the Germans would need a leader to personify the German people, him. After getting out of jail he begins to quickly raise his party when the Great Depression hits in 1929. People are desperate for solutions, in the 1930s the Germans get 6.7 million votes, in 1932 they get 14.2 million votes, but *Hindenburg* is still elected as president. Chancellor *Brüning* tries and fails to fix issues and finally Hindenburg approves Hitler to be Chancellor.

Frederick the Great of Prussia (Frederick II) *pg 543-544*

Immediately uses his father's army (disappointment to father, Frederick William I) & attacks the Austrian Habsburgs, they attack *Silesia*, if Frederick II takes Silesia, then Prussia would double in size. Although Russia was large, it was not very centralized. Austria knows this. Charles IV of Austria needed someone to succeed him. Frederick II had signed the *"Pragmatic Sanction" which let Maria Theresa (Charles' daughter) of Austria to rule.* Meanwhile, France's enemy is England, *Kaunitz (Austrian monarch who got Empress Elizabeth of Russia to help fight)* decides that England was little help to Austria so he wants to turn France into Austria's ally, promising that if they were to work together they would be able to take over Prussia. The ruler of Russia at this time was the *Empress Elizabeth* (After her comes *Peter III who takes Russia out of the war*). All of these countries attack Prussia, except for England who is Prussia's sole ally. This war is called *The Seven Years War.* Right when it seems like Frederick II is going to lose, Maria Theresa dies and is succeeded by her nephew, *Peter III*, who is also killed because he enrages people. Austria drops out of the war and Prussia survives.

The Catholic Reformation in Eastern Europe *pg 427-428*

In 1500 most of Europe is Catholic, by 1560's, however, Catholicism had spread. Catholic church recovers w/ change that begins w/ *Pope Paul III* (corrupt), who comes under influence of reformers that want Catholicism as the only religion. By meeting w/ protestants at the *Council of Trent* to work out differences. Protestants don't show up as they want the meeting to be based on scripture but the Catholics want it based on traditions. Catholics go and decide Protestants are all wrong. They also make other changes, *ban indulgences, bishops stay in their own dioceses, etc.* Bishops are given greater authority. They establish a seminary where religious people could get their degrees (mostly poor people), public marriage.

Political Situation Before Revolution *pg 621-623*

In 1714, *Louis XIV* dies & his great grandson proceeds him, this is because Louis XIV had outlived *Philip V* (grandson) & the *Duke of Orleáns* (son) & is descended from eldest son. Louis XV takes over when he is 5, (unlikely for kids to survive), if he died then Philip V would take over, this is an issue as there was a promise that *Spain & France* would not mix. Another issue being whether or not Philip V could change jobs or not, this would be decided by *leading nobles* (if Philip couldn't the duke could). During this time a *regent* is needed so the duke rules & gives back power to nobles, parliament who want to veto the king, Duke agrees as they want to stay on the good side of the nobles. (aristocracy wants more influence in government). French monarchy has an issue, finances as they are in great debt even though they are rich and powerful, money couldn't be greatly expanded, couldn't borrow continuously. Duke had a gambling buddy named *John Law* who promised to take over national debt in an exchange for a *monopoly in Mississippi, later known as the Mississippi Bubble*, this plan failed as the trade would not generate enough wealth, so a phony image is created, encouraging more people to invest & money comes in, if people stop giving money or start taking stocks then the scheme would collapse ( pyramid scheme), undermines monarchy, money situation only gets worse. Then there is the *The War of the Austrian Succession*, where spending goes up tremendously & theres not enough income because many higher classes aren't paying taxes. This causes Louis XV to want to make a new edict where they have to pay, nobles reject this & *the Parliament of Paris rejects the edict* (philosophy comes out this time, Montesque) people rally, Louis XV backs down. *The Seven Years War* occurs & leaves France in greater debt so Louis XV wants to raise taxes again, he gets a new advisor, *Maupeou* who needs to go against parliament. Puts permanent vacation on members & gets new people in parliament who agree, taxes are established, resulting in many attacks on the kings & * desacralization* (loss of godly aura in kings), in 1774, Louis XIV takes over he is seen as sweet.

Dimitri

Took over next, refuses to pay taxes, battles start, Kuklikovo and Russians win. Afterwards, the Mongols start attacking again.

Spanish Silver & Economic Affects *pg 468-470*

In Europe in the 16th century, there was inflation due to population increase & the discovery of gold & silver. The silver comes in tremendous amounts & is immediately put towards Spanish Fleets. Money supply increases greatly, meaning it is worth less. People in debt only need to pay half of what they owe. Loaners only half of the money they deserve (nobles). Peasants are affected badly. Terrible for the king as he gets his money from the land he leases, so he is forced to tax the people more. Particularly disastrous in Spain (economic decline).

Recovery & Reform in Britain and France *pg 881-883*

In France they aren't as highly industrialized resulting in the depression coming later but staying longer. The problem is that the 3rd French Republic was weak & built around coalitions, the people look for radical parties. Fascist groups begin to get so strong that left groups form an alliance called the *Popular Front* to try and stop the fascist groups from taking over, led b *Leon Blum* (prime minister) who copies F.D.R. There is also a civil war in Spain right next to France, thus creating more chaos & in June of 1947, Blum is forced to resign & the gov. drifts towards WWII.

The Foundations of Absolutism *pg 486-487*

In France, the war of *The Three Henrys* creates a huge amount of turmoil (not good for the people, etc.) out of the philosophers rise up as a group called the *politiques* that believe to have a good state you need stability and not turmoil and to have this you need a strong central government ruled by one (absolutism). Also, because a lot of the turmoil was religious, they say to have religious toleration. In 1589, *Henry IV* becomes king after war of the three henrys. He wants to fix religious issues, but he is a Huguenot so he converts to Catholicism. Five years after converting, he creates the *Edict of Nantes* that allowed people to worship what they wanted and gets towns to protect them, effectively ending religious wars. Knows prosperity comes from workers (peasants). As most of the economy is based on agriculture. Lowers taxes on peasants to create higher productivity and wealth. With wealth comes infrastructure and prosperity. In 1610 Henry is assassinated by a *Catholic Zealot*. *Louis XIIIL* technically becomes king but he is too young so *Marie de Medici* becomes a regent for him. This makes the monarchy weak and nobles are able to take advantage and create issues. Marie calls a meeting w/ the *Estates General* (like parliament, leaders who meet represent groups like nobles and business people are called during emergency), creating greater turmoil.

Revolution in Austria *pg 840-841*

In Germany, a popular uprising is soon put down (important), people say radical marxists aren't winning firstly because Germany wasn't radical & the army was still intact & could put down revolution. The *Weimar Republic* is soon established & another uprising occurs called the *Separatists Uprising* that is soon put down by soldiers & a short military take over called the *Kupp* that is also put down.

Repressing the Revolutionary Spirit *pg 687-689*

In Italy there is a secret organization called the *Carbonari,* the quadruple alliance decides to go against them using Austria in what is known as the *Dual Revolution.* After another revolution in Spain Britain wants the alliance to leave Spain alone and ends up dropping out. The French instead offer their army & put down & put down revolution in Spain. Britain meanwhile, is able to intervene in Latin America w/ their dominating army & the United States, the British consult w/ *John Quincy Adams* (who is later sent to prison) whom states all countries should keep away from each other in what is known as the *Monroe Doctrine* the British enforce this. There is also trouble in Germany from *liberalism & nationalism* causing Metternich to fear these ideas & send an Austrian spy that was soon murdered, this is used to ask the *German Confederation* to pass the *Carlsbad Decrees* that required German states to root out subversive ideas & squash out anyone w/ liberal ideas or organizations take people jobs.

The Iron Industry

In the 1700s this industry was in crisis as it became more & more difficult to produce iron as it became more expensive as the wood used to melt the ore declined. This was until the discovery made by *Abraham Derby* whom found you could use coal by putting the coal through high temperatures & creating *coke* which when used on the ore made stronger & cheaper iron. This method was initially kept a secret until discovered & spread out, initially created companies such as *Wilkinson.*

Childcare and Nursing *pg 591-595*

In the 18th century people did not have emotional connections w/ their children as it was very common for children to die at a young age. Examples of this would be when women would send their babies away to be nursed by a woman for a few years w/out seeing them (baby would most likely die on journey or during), there was no real view of there being an adolescent stage in a person's life, children were seen as little adults. (*Michelle De Montaigne* was a strong believer of this). For some people who couldn't handle children, they usually turned to infanticide where they would "accidentally" smother their children. So many children were left on the door steps of churches that *foundling homes* were established, there was lots of death there too as conditions were poor and there was not enough help. W/ the ideas of *John-Jacques Rousseau* (hypocrite who abandoned all his children) that children needed to be treated w/ more care & freedom, change began to occur.

The Revival of Christianity *pg 856-857*

In the 19th century, Christian theologians were trying to prove that Christianity went w/ science, one man, *Schweitzer,* wrote *"A Search for the Historical Jesus"* to try to make Christianity compatible w/ science. Another person, *Kierkegaard* was a Danish theologian (Hunchback) that was bothered w/ the Lutheran church, (go through routines that don't have meaning), he wrote, *"The Sickness Unto Death"* that writes, in order to be Christian you must take a leap of faith that changes yourself & gives your life meaning, but we can never know God. At the end of WWI people begin t ask how could there even really be a God after what happened & people like T.S. Elliot, C.S. Louis, etc. loose faith.

The Rise of Global Inequality *782-783*

In the Western World, developed countries like England take off, while those who don't stay low, they are considered to be third world countries. (average wealth and well being stagnates in third world countries).

The Triumph of Science in Industry *pg 741-742*

In the late 19th century, science is going to replace God in finding the answers to problems. The reason for this shift is that science begins producing wealth & other things, also creates power. One of these things are *medicine* that help destroy diseases. There is also *Chemistry & Organic Chemistry* that result in new dyes, stronger alloys, photography, & it is very closely related to the discovery of *electricity.* There are also *thermodynamics* that lead to better engines & companies leaving more money aside for scientific research. This all results in the *Second Industrial Revolution* that is based around electricity. 1. science becomes more important in the popular mind. 2. ideas of enlightenment spread to the popular mind, science, reason, logic, universe governed by natural laws, progress. 3. Science establishes tremendous prestige(funding, etc.). Science begins to be produced in many ways like in the *Theory of Evolution* ( had been around for a while but rejected by religion). One geologist, *Charles Lyell* had a theory of change called *Uniformitarianism* which states that the Earth was the way it was from a catastrophic event. This is both right & wrong. One biologist, *Lamarick* also believed in change, but in intervals, (giraffes got their long necks by stretching & then the next generation would have longer necks) this is wrong.

British Tea Party *pg 622-623*

Indian tea company's in trouble, this is terrible as the company helps supply, money, etc. So the British say that India can sell their tea to specific people only. Americans retaliate by throwing tea shipments & throwing them into the harbor. So the British close off the *Boston Harbor* & take control of *Massachusetts.* This worries other colonies and causes many meetings, some want compromise but many do not and fighting soon breaks out. (guns stolen, shooting begins). *The Declaration of Independence* is signed in 1776, meaning this was now a full fledged revolution. The French see opportunity, by 1777 many French nobles come to offer the Americans assistance (humiliated by the British & want revenge). Louis XIV is reluctant to join until the Americans win a big battle, creating an alliance w/ France. The war ends w/ *The Battle of Yorktown* in Virginia, where the British General is captured & expecting rescue but French & Americans block out the British navy & win. The British quickly ally w/ the Americans & get a lot of land while the French get more debt.

Taming the City *pg 718-719*

Initially industrial cities are a hell hole, cities were never a great place to live but w/ the rise of the industrial rev. they get worse (walking cities, disease, high death rates, factories cause more and more people to come, extremely cramped). There are also no facilities for collecting waste but people do not know what an impact this has until *Chadwick* comes.

The Seizure of Power in Italy *pg 898-899*

Italy fought in WWI on Britain & France's side, they are promised big territories, the Italians don't get to collect land because there weren't Italians n most of the land (Woodrow Wilson's 14 point plan). The gov. is also paralyzed, soon *Benito Mussolini* steps up (becomes nationalistic after WWI) creating the *Fascist Party* (made up of people who were upset about not getting the land) and competes w/ the socialist party. He also creates the *Black Shirts* who fight socialist thugs. The gov. looses while these two groups win as the gov. can't keep law and order. In 1922 Mussolini says the fascists will march into Rome to make sure he gets a spot in the gov., the king of Rome supports him and in April 1924, the leader of the Socialist Party was killed.

Ivan IV " The Terrible" *pg 498-499*

Ivan's mother rules as regent until he is 8, when she is killed (believed she was killed by the Boyars). Boyars take over and treat him terribly until he takes over. Kills Boyars and takes over as Tsar. During the "good years" he is married to Anastasia from the Romanov family until her untimely death that results in Ivan beginning to act insane, waging wars on Boyars, everything is unstable. After his death, rumors spread that he hadn't really died and "fake rulers" started to speak up and "claim" their royalty.

The War of the Spanish Succession

John Churchill is given the title of General in England for Ann's army, very successful. Many battles like the *Battle of Blenheim* (English vs French). Louis XIV offers an agreement w/ *Peace of Utrecht* in 1713, Philip would continue ruling in Spanish America, France and Spain will never be combined, Austria is given a large portion of the Spanish Netherlands & other little places. The Dutch do not gain much, England gets very strategic places like *Gibraltar*, take mediterranean (shipping wise), they also secure a succession w/ Spain by trading w/ them (smuggling).

Methodists

John Wesley organized a Holy Club for similarly minded students who were known as "methodists." He was inspired by the Pietism revival in Germany. The converts formed Methodist cells and eventually resulted in a new denomination.

Louis XIV's Rule *pg 487-488*

Knew his geography & history but not math. Never a meeting w/ the Estates General during his rule. No minister after Mazarini. People could only have the same religion (French Catholics), revokes the Edict of Nantes in 1685. Huguenots leave the country. People do not trust louis XIV. *Janeism begins to form.*

The Growth of the Ottoman Empire *pg 503-506*

Large empire, grew at fall of Constantinople, taxes on Christians, sultans can have four wives and many concubines, but sons or daughters from concubines don't count as royalty (this system is soon broken).

Latitudinarian

Led by people such as *Jonathan Swift*, a clergy man who was all about rationalizing religion, taking away the aspect that religion was supposed to be unexplainable.

Lenin & the Bolshevik Revolution *pg 835-837*

Lenin was a middle class person whom became a "Marxist" (doesn't really believe in these ideas) and says that a Marxist revolution could work in a non-industrialized country. He also argues that revolution would require leadership by people that understood the direction of history. Thus becoming the *communists,* the marxists would soon split on ideas on how revolution would happen. Meetings are called in England, (Lenin sends wrong dates to opponents) and Lenin wins, he labels his followers *Bolsheviks* meaning "majority & labels his opponents *Mensheviks* meaning "minority." Once Nicolas II abdicates, Lenin finds opportunity to get back to Russia in the confusion in Germany, he creates policies stating things like, all land to peasants, end the war now, etc. to gain a lot of support, he tries and fails to overthrow the gov., but then the general of Russia makes an attempt to overthrow Alexander. Lenin tries again. w/ the help of *Trotsky*, Lenin establishes a militia & Alexander flees to the U.S.

Liberalism & the Middle Class *pg 691-692*

Liberalism is a major ideology that really emerges from the French Revolution, they believe in equality (equality of opportunity), liberty (freedoms of choice, etc.) & they wanted a representative gov.. They *do not believe in democracy* (don't want lower classes getting the vote). They also wanted an economy run by *Laissez Faire* meaning the gov. would not interfere. The middle class like these ideas (money & land earn rights), the aristocracy hates this as they believe you must be born into these rights.

Revolutions of 1848 *pg 707-709*

Liberals in Paris push for reform & try to hold a banquet, the gov. rejects this & try and fail to prevent it. This leads to the barricades being put up, fighting soon breaks out & the National Guard is soon called but they refuse to attack, Louis Philipe can't bring himself to attack so he abdicates his throne & a republic is set up (he wants his grandson on the throne but it doesn't happen). Led by *ten executives* until a constitution could be made, reforms were also made & this is okay. One executive, a socialist named *Louis Blanc* pushed for the gov. to create gov. workshops, this is reluctantly passed as people are desperate for work. Soon in April, a new legislature is voted in (500 moderate republicans, 300 monarchists, 100 radicals). The peasants want to keep their land & are satisfied and decide to be conservative, explaining the vote. One author, *Alexis De Tocqueville* wrote *"Democracy in America"* that argues socialism is either really loved or really hated. Meanwhile workshops continue to fill until June when they are dissolved & an uprising occurs called the *"June Days"* as people are very desperate, thousands die. Soon a new constitution is created & *Louis Napoleon* is elected president.

Spread of Elementary Schools *pg 595*

Literary rates begin to rise during the 18th century as more schools are being built (religion plays a role in this), there were not enough built for the masses, but enough to increase the rates of literacy among people.

Napoleon III in France *750-751*

Louis Napoleon Bonaparte wins the presidential election of France in 1848, Napoleon III stands for things other than that of what liberals believe in, also he, politically, is a nobody. However, he wins the election because; *1. He is related to Napoleon Bonaparte (After publishing his memoirs Napoleon Bonaparte is seen as a hero), 2. He had a positive anti-liberal program for France, wanting a representative gov., he becomes a model for conservative unrepresentative gov. like in Germany.* (notion of Nationalism). Louis Napoleon is elected & doesn't do much initially, wants a National Assembly to pay off debts so he can run again & decides to be emperor w/ the support of the people (sovereignty still in people). He tries to serve people w/ things like the rebuilding of Paris, helping the economy through things like railroads (engines, iron industry), France thrives in the 1850s as well as many other countries. Unemployment goes down, also gives workers rights to labor unions. He believed his greatest power as w/ public opinion. He makes efforts to have the National Assembly in favor of him (patronage, wants people who like him in power).

Economics in France and Management Under Colbert *pg 489-492*

Louis XIV has many extravagances, so he appoints a controller general, *Jean-Baptise Colbert* (subscribed to economic ideology called *mercantilism*, a nations power is based off of wealth, specifically gold and silver). Favorable balance of trade, sell more than you buy, helped old businesses as well as created new ones and raised tariffs ( taxes on foreign businesses that want to trade w/ their own territories only). Creates colonies, more roads and canals, standards are up for quality not quantity (becomes issue in industrial revolution). Parts of France struggled while others prospered. Food production lowers while commerce gets better. Taxes on peasants raise causing agriculture to lower, gets attendonts to take the taxes up, they take more in order to get a portion for themselves.

Life at Versailles *pg 488-489*

Louis builds a palace as Versailles to escape the crowds and mobs. Symmetric, uses this as a power move to demoralize nobles. Nobles want funding from Louis and try to get on his good side, (place at the table).

Prussia in the Seventeenth Century *pg 495-497*

Made up of scattered lands ruled by *Hohenzollerns*. During the 30 years war, Brandenburg, Prussia was destroyed. In 1640, a new elector, *Frederick William* "The Great Elector", Junkers (nobility of Prussia) are forced to agree to taxation. Cunnings burg resists but then agrees finally. He also creates a large army (30,000). His son, *Frederick I* is elected as the *first king* in 1701. He then leaves his throne to *Frederick William I*, "the soldiers king" had a very well trained army, always at war, Prussia basically becomes a barracks state, bureaucracy.

Courts

Magnificent households and palaces where signori and other rulers lived, conducted business, and supported the arts.

Beginning of the Scientific Revolution *pg 520-521*

Many other things are going on during this time, mathematical thought is brought back, the printing press is invented, *age of exploration*.

Alexis

Many uprisings during this time, that he is suspected to be a part of rebellions, he says he is not, is believed at first then soon tortured to death.

Maria Theresa (Austrian Habsburgs) *pg 546-547*

Maria Theresa (1740-1780, denounces the enlightenment and calls it evil, but in reality she actually fits in the enlightenment ideals for a rule better than others (she had many kids), fought wars, expanded, mercantilist, also brought *legal reform*, religiously tolerant, limits power of aristocracy, also wanted to reduce obligations of peasantry, specifically on the serfs, builds schools.

Joseph II *pg 546-547*

Maria Theresa is his mother, after she dies he is able to stop co-ruling and takes over. Mercantilist, creates schools, and an entire school system in *Vienna*, he tries to abolish serfdom, ends up that serfs can still technically be freed i they could get the money needed to pay nobles for living on their land. Very religiously tolerant (even accepts Jewish people), tries to use schools & language to bind his empire. However, soon people begin to rebel.

Henry VIII *pg 425*

Married to Catherine of Aragon, she is only able to produce a daughter, Mary, so Henry (last queen of England was a terrible queen) says God was not happy w/ their marriage and asks *Pope Clement VII* who can not do anything as he is under rule of *Henry V*. At one point his advisor Wolsey is blamed and killed. Henry VIII tried to convert into becoming a nun, she refuses, Henry VIII continues to stall anyway they can. Wolsey dies before he can be executed and *Thomas Cromwell* steps up as advisor. Tells Henry to create his own laws to make divorce legal in order for Henry VIII to marry *Anne Bolyen* . Parliament passes a series of laws including the *"Act of Supermacy"* which lets him divorce. He marries Anne who has a baby girl, Henry is furious, Anne becomes pregnant once more but has a stillborn child. Anne is executed and Henry has three more wives after this. Thomas Cromwell is also executed as he is blamed for Henry's divorce w/ his fourth wife.

The Regime in Action *Pg 899-900*

Matteoti (leader of Socialist Party) is killed, people want Mussolini out of power, he hesitates, then continues on, doing things to make sure Italy is a one party state, he makes the *Lateran Agreement of 1929* where the Pope would recognize his gov. if Mussolini recognizes the Catholics & diff. religions. There is now emphasis on traditional values, not really totalitarianism (does have some political prisoners). Attack and defeat Ethiopia as revenge on the treaty (WWI).

The Scientific Revolution *pg 520*

Medieval man looked towards authority and scripture for proof of truth. This is going to change dramatically, Aristotle was known in the middle ages as *the* philosopher.

Evangelicals

Members of any denomination distinguished by four main beliefs: the Bible is w/out error, salvation comes only through belief in Jesus Christ, personal conversion is the only path to salvation (the "born again" experience), and others must also be converted. (want to abolish slavery in order to save the slave owners who would become corrupted from owning slaves).

Gender Roles & Early Feminism *pg 733-735*

Men & women's work are becoming more separated. If only a woman could work in the family this would be terrible as women were paid much less than men as the man was expected to gain money for the family while the wife stayed at home. The property would also belong to the husband. This lead to a *feminist movement* resulting in women gaining some property rights and opportunity for work. The first woman doctor comes out of this period (Franziska Tiburtis). In the family of the *Pankhursts, Emily Pankhurst,* a middle class woman, protested aggressively w/ other women. In one of these protests, women ran out into a track where a horse race was being held to demand the right to vote.

Marriages and Nuclear Families *pg 586-587*

Men had to wait until marriage after their father died so they could inherent the land. This resulted in lower birth rates, this was good in the sense that there were less people taking resources (meaning if there was a famine it wouldn't hit as hard). However, w/ the *Cottage Industry* birth rates rise. There were also many efforts from the *elites to prevent marriages in the lower class* as if the peasants were poor the elites would be forced to help care for the children (the whole community would have to pitch in), elites would go so far as to force peasants to move away if they wanted to marry. However, there were more *nuclear families*, meaning more independence and mature people which led to more innovation, which is why the west dominated more than the other countries w/ extended families.

Middle Class Culture and Values *pg 725-730*

Middle class life consisted of many dinner parties w/ servants (only upper middle class could really afford servants). The upper middle class also resided in mansions, the middle class had country homes & the lower middle class had small homes. *A woman's clothing* also had a reflection on her values (work clothes vs upper class clothes). One person, *Samuel Smiles* wrote a book emphasizing how sex & drinking would ruin your life. These ideas were greatly spread, but not followed in the Upper Middle Class. In the Lower Middle Class, however, and Upper Working Class these rules were highly followed in hopes of rising up in class.

Peasants and Food Riots *pg 480-481*

Most of the population consisted of peasants of different classes. Independent land owners (rent out their land), small land owners, tenant farmers. Most peasants were at the bottom tier. Their diet consisted mostly of bread (good bread, had germ & grain) and different vegetables, not much meat. Food becomes scarce due to climate change & crops fail multiple times and causes famine. The people are enraged and want someone to blame. 17th century people saw economies morally. Believes God has set a "just price" on goods. (some take food and leave the "just price").

Poland *pg 427-428*

Mostly Catholic until the rise of Lutheranism. Most nobles reject Lutheran ideas and accept Calvinism (in Poland the king had virtually no power as the nobles elected the king and can deny anything he says.). By the 17th century there is great change w/ Catholic revival, helped by the Jesuits & Hosius. Poland winds up Catholic.

War on Russia

Napoleon creates a plan to lay low in winter & attack Moscow in spring, the *Battle of Borondino* ends w/ a tie and Russians retreat. Napoleon tries to go further but can't & decides to go back the way he came, he is then attacked by the pillaged villagers, everyone declares war on France, Napoleon fails abdicates from the throne, *Louis XVIII* takes over (constitutional charter).

Napoleon's Domestic Policies *pg 644-645*

Napoleon established the *Bank of France* (economic stability) restores Catholic church, bureaucracy, nobility. Create a school system, public work projects. Everyone loves Napoleon until he returns to war. And he makes himself emperor (first consol- first consol for life- emperor).

Louis XVIII & Napoleon's return

Napoleon is sent to exile in *Elba*, he escapes. Louis XVIII sends an army led by *Marshal Nays* who turns on *Louis XVIII* & joins Napoleon, Louis XVIII flees. Enemies of France meet w/ Napoleon at *waterloo* & are defeated. Napoleon is sent to the rocky island of *St. Helena* & lives out the rest of his life in exile.

James I

Nicknamed, "the Wisest Fool", came into power after Queen Elizabeth I, unhygienic, establishes Jamestown, agrees to many of the outrages demands from parliament at first but soon gives up.

The Dutch in the 17th Century *pg 511-512*

No one expects their rise, fishing leads to ship building which leads to trade which then leads to manufacturing, banking, etc.

Napoleons III's Second Empire *pg 751-752*

Napoleon's foreign policy works fine until a war happens, which is brought on by the *Ottoman Empire* which is weak. Russia wants to take adv. of this weakness but England doesn't want this. In the 1850's Russia begins to make demands and Britain declares war, causing Napoleon III and the Kingdom of Sardina & Turkey to join them (Napoleon III joins to try & get more power). These three powers attack & immediately retreat. The British still continue to try and fight in Crimea causing the *Crimean War* to break out. (Both the British and Russians ask for help from the Austrians and they refuse). This war is soon ended by the *Treaty of Paris in 1856* (Russia is the loser). France's foreign policy declines as three things happen; *1. The unification of Italy (near the French border), 2. The emperor of Mexico is forced out 3. The French oppose German unification but lose.* Napoleon III is soon overthrown and a republic is declared.

The Growing of Austro-Prussian Rivalry *pg 755*

Nationalist ideas have already been spreading in Germany, but in 1848, one state is trying to impose the Germans by force. Economically Prussia has advantages but Italians unifications inspire the Germans. The story of German unification centers around *Otto Von Bismarck*

German Victories in Europe *pg 909-910*

Nazis go into Norwegian territory, lock in Sweden, take their iron, one man in Poland *Quisling* openly surrenders (is labelled a traitor). Germans run over Netherlands and Belgium, avoiding the Maginot line, in the Arginat woods where the line is stopped, the forest is so thick but the Germans build roads and secretly advance, invade France & French troops soon surrender, French are sent to Dunkirk. You then get the *Miracle of Dunkirk* where the British are able to smuggle the soldiers out. At the end of the French campaign, the Italians declare war, invade Southern France, lose but still get land as they are on the winning side. W/ air power, ships are vulnerable leading to the *Battle of Britain* in 1940, the German air force appeared to be dominant, but the British had developed *radar* and bomb Berlin, get away w/ it. Hitler is furious & makes one of his gravest mistakes and says to take down the Soviet Union as he believed it was run by Jews. Catching Stalin by surprise, the Soviets seem very weak, causing the *Battle of Barbarossa* (red beard), winter comes early and the Germans are caught near Moscow. Allowing the Soviets to regroup.

The Netherlands

New agricultural ideas being here, due to the growth of trade, economy, etc. Meaning higher demand for food causing them to improve farmland, dykes, engineering, etc. A lot of food is now being produced. One such engineer, *Vermuyden* was hired in England to drain swamps, meaning there is also opportunity in England (ideas spread).

French Debt & Financial Crisis *pg 624-625*

No one knows how bad the debt is, until *Calonne* calculates how much spending is. 50% goes to dealing w/ debt, 25% towards military, 6% absorbed by king, less than 20% towards national budget. People want a solution, some want to cut spending while others want to raise taxes. Taxes are raised on the *elites*, a meeting of the aristocracy, called to try to get them to agree (400,000 nobles, only super wealthy come) called the *Assembly of Nobles*, the ones who come will speak for the aristocracy as a whole (would affect poor ones the most, 5% tax across board, represent all 3 estates), they say paying taxes will be in the interest of nobles as it would create better protection for them in case of extreme economic downfall, the nobles say they will only agree to this if they call the *Estates General* as they want a system where the king would have to go through many parts of gov. (constitutional monarchy), the last time the estates general was called was in *1614* before *1789* (nobles wanted a *legislature* to be developed so they could control 2/3 estates, high clergy as dominant group, money issue as leverage). The 3rd estate says that they will agree on calling the estates general but they want two things *1. To have 600 reps instead of 300. 2. They all want to vote together,* meaning the 3rd estate (peasants) would be dominant, creates a crisis meaning Louis XIV will have to fix it, he makes the wrong choice, he does double #'s of the 3rd estate but forces them to vote separately, meaning twice as many upset people. Causes *Sieyés* to write a pamphlet.

James II *pg 510-511*

No one wants him as king, he appeals to the pope to find him a wife, the pope does, and he marries *Mary of Modena*, has a child, a rumor then starts that the child isn't really hers (nicknamed the "Warming Pan Baby"), a violation to Mary's rights, Wigs and Tories call Orange to defend Mary, he does, James II runs away before battle. Mary wants to rule with her husband, wigs say yes, tories say no. Then Anne comes to power after they both die, make tories the leading party, leaving no children behind. The crown is then offered to a German Prince, *George I and George II* who both want to stay in Hanover, get advisors and develop the first prime minister.

Dutch Colonies *pg 463*

North American colonies (later taken by the English), West Indies, in what is now *Surinam*. Very active in trade.

Industrious Revolution *pg 566*

Not to be confused w/ the industrial revolution, this was a big shift when people make the conscious decision to work longer and for more hours in order to make more money (breaks allowed but in rural industry you need to get a certain amount of work finished, more work done=more money, this was by choice). Before this time most women and children would stay home, but when this occurs they decide they want to maintain a better way of life to get more (also around this time stimulants such coffee and tea were invented), moving towards leaving the work place of the home/farm.

Agents of Industrialization *Pg 670*

One important family was the *Cockerill family,* beginning w/ *William Cockerill, a carpenter whom began constructing spinning equipment in French-occupied Belgium in 1799.* There is also his son, *John Cockerill whom buys an old palace & uses it to create his own technology, resulting in many people learning his techniques and creating their own factories*. For others like *Fritz Harkort* things did not work out very well, he sees the English technology & wants to help the Germans catch up but he runs into many issues (transportation, materials, workers, etc.) Fritz was eventually pushed out of his own company but he did pave the way for advancements in German technology.

Social Science *743-745*

One person studying social science is *Karl Marx* who creates a theory of society evolving. Another person being *August Comte* who wrote the *"System of Positive Philosophy"* that argued the history of the world is a history that only progresses through *understanding.* There are three stages of history *1. The Theological stage that explains things by saying God made it this way. 2. The Metaphysical Stage w/ the creation of philosophy, explaining things through reason, not God. 3. The Scientific stage where we explain things through science.* W/ this notion of science comes *Social Darwinism* who's key figure was *Herbert Spencer* creating the term "Survivor of the fittest" that says getting rid of the weak is good.

Critics of Imperialism *pg 802-803*

One person, *J.A. Hobson* wrote, *"Imperialism"* arguing that the rush for colonies came from economics, the worker being exploited to the point where they can't go any further so capitalists look for new places to invest (this is wrong). There is also an argument of *Social Justice* resulting in crisis & poems written satirically such as *"Brown Man's Burden"*, there was also *Joseph Conrad* who wrote *"Heart of Darkness,"* a depressing novel that argues that civil principals aren't being used for colonized people.

Isaac Newton *pg 525-526*

Only educated as someone had established a school before his birth, went to Cambridge right when plague hit and had to go on vacation where he discovers the laws of the universe, *Comes back and demonstrates things like how white light was not the absence of color but rather the basis of all color,* submits his findings to Royal Society, is rejected for not following scientific method, put calculations away until in 1664 when people want people to publish it, Edmund Haley does this and convinces him to by telling him that *Robert Hook (rival)* was almost at a breakthrough w/ the same calculations, Newton immediately goes out and publishes a book called the, *"Principia"* (big achievement, made the concept of gravity, reason why we shoot things into space & track them).

Roman Inquisition

Only really affective in Italy. People such as Galileo were hauled in and convicted for hericy. This was an effort to push back on heretic ideas. They also had a list of books that were made forbidden.

Losers in The Thirty Years War

Ordinary people lost a lot in areas such as Germany where it is one of the worst places. This is because their lands were being ransacked by mercenaries. The pillaging is very bad here w/ mercenaries & the small armies but the gov. has no money to feed them so they must live off the land, when mercenaries destroy farms people starve to death. Way more ordinary people die from famine rather than from soldiers.

The Guild Systems *pg 566-567*

Organizations concerned w/ the organization of *the production of a certain good* (hierarchy, NOT union) in order to get into a guild you must train as an apprentice (only for richer people) to become a "master", (must train 5-7 years, only considered a mater once you have made a "masterpiece"), guilds had control of many businesses. Flourished in cities. However, there is also a negative reaction against guilds, as many people who had skills were blocked from entering guilds. In some areas guilds are completely wiped out. In areas such as England, some guilds would get in the way of progress as they maintained control of things such as fur trade. There was discrimination in guilds (no women, etc).

Fragonard (Rococo Style)

Painted *"The Swing"* where the man looked up a woman's dress while she was swinging.

Establishing Government *pg 510*

Parliament can't figure out how to create a working government, so they accuse Charles I of treason due to mistrust and is killed. Cromwell takes over, he soon dies and his son fails at trying to take power. Charles II finally comes back as the people now wanted civilian government.

Bohemia *pg 427-428*

Part of the H.R.E. w/ developments of Lutheranism, Lutheran ideas come into Bohemia & other parts of Europe. Lutheran ideas are German, so some like them but many hate them as they are German ideas. They like Calvinism, by the end of the 16th century, there are churches around from all of these religions. Soon nobles and kings are at each others throats. Ends w/ Bohemia being *Catholic*.

Within the Early Factories *pg 675-678*

People are very reluctant to work in factories at first, (first children are sent then there are laws made against it), families would usually go work together as an entire unit & make substantial level income. Although, conditions tend to improve with the input of two major groups. One group being the *Evangelicals* who build churches for the cities and no one goes. They believe no one is going because they are too busy working long hours, so they use their input in parliament to improve conditions. Then there is *Robert Owen* who believes workers should be treated better & improves conditions. This also results in *The Factory Act of 1833* which limited the ages that children could work at. As a result of this act, *inspectors* are created in order to inspect the factories, the people who take these jobs are part of the second group, followers of *Bentham* who believes the goal in society is that happiness should increase at the greatest levels. This results in better conditions for workers.

Stalemate & Slaughter on the Western Front *pg 821-823*

People are constantly slaughtered (trench war causes most of the deaths). Soon there is a standoff, both sides believe they can tip the scales w/ an ally. The Turks come in and battle as they hate the Russians, in 1915 the Italians go on the other side & the standoff continues as does the death, the Turkish also practice genocide on the Armenians who were taught to be on the Russian side. (a lot of new weapons and different types of warfare emerge during this period, poison gas, fighter planes, tanks, etc.). The U.S. soon enter the war, creating a decisive turning point.

Beginning Chapter 17

Pg 520-552

New Physics *pg 857-859*

People believe there are natural laws & if we can understand them then everything will be great, this falls apart through quantum physics and relativity. In the 19th century the model of the electron was emerging through people like *Marie Curie* (through radiation). However w/ this energy being emitted people understood through spurts of energy Max Planck called *Quanta. Heisenberg* studies this & creates the *"Uncertainty Principal"* that states that these jumps of energy are so fast that they are beyond explanation. (*Albert Einstein* refused to accept this and spend his life trying to explain this but fails.) Heisenberg states that there is a limit to what science can tell us (Big blow to the enlightenment), at the same time, *Gödel,* a mathematician, proved that you could not build a mathematical system that isn't logically flawed (must have contradictions). *Albert Einstein* also creates his *Laws of Relativity during this time that states everything we try to understand must be understood from a specific time and place in space.* There is also the idea of *Relativism* and Einstein argues there will always be things or people that are deemed morally wrong.

Education

People need to have a certain level of skill in order to work. Literacy is needed. England has the advantage due to the *Scotland Enlightenment* where literate people from Scotland come over to take over management as many of the English weren't qualified.

Transportation *pg 663-664*

People of course wanted to utilize the steam engine for transportation, such as in boats and then in automobiles. The risk for automobiles was that many roads weren't paved so there was a chance of explosion, railroads were created to reduce friction. This inspired *George Stevenson* to create *the Rocket* (went 16mph) that went through *liverpool & Manchester.* by the end of the century trains go about 50mph.

The Great Depression *pg 874-881*

People were putting 8Stock on Margin* (take out loans for stock) and people had no expectancy for the stock market to go down. As people begin to need to pay fees, they quickly take out stock causing others to do the same and the stock market crashes. Unemployment rises dramatically. A lot of issues leading to the depression come from the gov. *In the U.S. a year before the crash, the gov. creates the highest tariff in history in order to try and protect jobs (this never works), this backfires, employment rises and the gov. responds by raising tariffs even more.* We also see governments responding incorrectly by *cutting budgets* (relating to Keynes budget that argues the gov. can control economic cycles). Germany & the U.S. are hit the worst by the depression, when F.D.R. takes over in the U.S. he basically copies Hoover and creates many jobs through things like road construction, this kinda works.

Puritans

People who did not believe in church hierarchies.

The Thermidorian Reaction *pg 643-644*

People who fear being killed from corruption turn up against Robespierre and try to kill him. One try is when they storm Robespierre's home & he tries to kill himself, misses, his jaw is fixed & he is sent to be executed. The Reign of Terror collapses (not planned but okay), people want to go back to the old system & decide that they want a constitutional government, there is a legislature elected by the elites, directory.

Government Support & Corporate Banking *pg 670-673*

People whom want to protect their businesses until they are able to keep up w/ competition used *Tariff Protection* (lays taxes on imported goods, leads to govs. being able to put down railroads). One German journalist, *Friedrich List* was a nationalist that wanted a unified Germany who suggests they should unify economically if they can't do so politically, by using a *Zollverein* ( a free trade zone w/out tariffs within the Germanic states). He also writes *"The National System of Political Economy".* Meanwhile in places such as Britain, *Limited Liability* is created (if a company goes bankrupt the banks can only take things from the company itself, not private property).

Leisure and Recreation *pg 597-598*

People would have interacted w/ each other as a major form of recreation, women would get together to do chores together & would sometimes bring suitors to judge for their daughters. People also enjoyed drinking (beer at first, then hard liquor soon as it becomes cheaper), in towns & cities there were *pleasure gardens* which were outlet malls w/ music & stands. There were also theaters (certain plays reserved for elites), lending libraries, spectator sports (horse riding, bull fighting, etc.), blood sports were also a part of this (also included chicken fighting & bull baiting). Another celebration was *carnival* (rules were lessened, roles were switched, etc.)

The Early Labor Movement *pg 680-681*

Political action is taken where workers demand a voice in gov. They demand *Universal Manhood Suffrage.* The first group that begins to rebel was the *London Corresponding Society,* there are affects to destroy this movement & society collapses. After the Napoleonic wars they begin meeting again but are soon subdued by the military in what is known as the *Waterloo Massacre.* Later, many people create *The People's Charter* that consists of 6 demands. The movement starts out peaceful until the 1840's when it is rejected & riots break out & it falls apart. Workers also try to achieve their goals is through unions (many people would gather and save money in case one person got hurt, etc.). *The Combination Acts* are soon created that are against both the *Unions & Strikers.* Unions, "disappear" but don't die out. Everything is calm in the 1820s before the Combination acts are repealed. *Robert Owen* hears of this and establishes a union called the *GNCTU* which works great until employers become suspicious of it and people soon drop out. Soon,* "New Model Unions"* are developed made up of *skilled workers* that needed public support to join.

New Foods & Appetites *pg 598-601*

Poor people would eat a lot of bread, drank w/ beer & wine, lots of vegetables (cabbage, peas, beans, carrots, soup), believed milk was bad for you, barely ate cheese or butter (sold it), ate little to no meat, (laws prevented them from hunting game). Middle class was much like the poorer class but they got more variety in food, got fruits & vitamin C (introduction of the potato is good, introduction to sugar is all bad, introduction to caffeine is good and bad). Wealthy classes only ate meat, such as fish, w/ fancy sauces.

The Russian Revolution of 1905 *Pg 761-764*

Pressure causes growth in socialist parties, when Nicolas II comes to power and creates a railroad project. Russia also wants to try to project power in Korea & China causing Russia to also come into conflict w/ Japan. Japan attacks the Russian pacific fleet in 1904, resulting in war, *"The Russo-Japanese War"* thats consequences are that the Japanese win, as the Russian gov. was unprepared for war (Roosevelt ends the war w/ a treaty). People in Russia also demanding rights at this time and things explode in January 1905 w/ the *Bloody Sunday* when people are in a fuel shortage & the people march to the winter palace inn St. Petersburg & are killed, leading to many uprisings & mutinies. So the tsar responds by passing the *October Manifesto* which said it would give full civil rights & promise a popularly elected *Duma* (parliament) that surprises everyone. Soon a new constitution is passed called the *"Fundamental Laws"* which was a constitution that was very disappointing to the middle class (class requirement to serve lower house & tsar elected upper house & appointed ministers & could veto anything). Even the wealthy classes from the duma don't like this but are dismissed by the tsar, the laws are soon rewritten to be very representative of the wealthy. One of Nicolas II's ministers, *Stolypin* who made it so that if people wanted to leave the *mir* they could & the peasants could own their own land. He also wants to put down groups (socialist, etc.) through violence & arrest.

War of the Three Henrys *pg 434*

Proceeds the Bartholomew Day Massacre, because Henry of Guise was so powerful, he gets killed by Henry III, then Guise's men killed henry III, so Henry of Navarre was the last man standing. Henry of Navarre becomes Henry IV and says he has converted to Catholicism to be the king.

Prostitution *pg 732-733*

Prostitution flourishes greatly, in areas such as Paris (155,000 registered prostitutes alone). One book, *"My Secret Life"* was anonymously published by a sex addict who wrote about this mostly unseen part of society. Prostitutes could actually become extremely wealthy.

Sex on the Margins of Society *pg 590-591*

Prostitution was largely based on economic hardships & polarization of wealth. There was also homosexuality during this time, even though it was against the bible, many people of high class could get away w/ it, however, lower classes could be killed for publicly showing homosexuality. In some places, such as Paris, homosexuals had their own style of dress, slang & meeting places. Lots of accounts of homosexuality in royalty.

Protestant Beliefs vs Catholics

Protestants believe if you have faith you can go to heaven. Catholics believe you have to have faith and good works in order to go to heaven. The Catholic church argues with Luther, saying that the bible was open for interpretation and you can't just depend on the bible as people interperate it differently. Luther believes the church is for everyone and so do the Catholics but there is a difference. Such as Catholics believe if a priest dies a bishop will choose the new one, protestants believe that if a priest dies the people will choose a new one.

Rich & Poor & Those In-Between *pg 723-724*

Real wages are rising considerably, but people are still living in poverty while the rich are getting richer as capital is growing faster than income. The richest receive 50%-60% of the money. *Karl Marx's* theory is also becoming more and more non-sensical as things are becoming a lot more complicated.

Church Hierarchy *pg 606*

Religion had begun to lose it's meaning (emotionally). This is mainly because of two major things, *1. The enlightenment was not only denouncing the church, but was also disapproving of it by saying it could not be proven by science 2. was how the church was ruled by state (especially in Lutheranism). The Jesuits especially do not want this and are constantly being driven out.* Protestants face more of a crisis from all of this as they start to have *sermons* (biggest part of the church) that try to be rational for the rulers. While in the Catholic church this is not as big of a deal as sermons were not the most important thing in the church.

Realism in Literature *pg 744-745*

Realists want to portray the world in a scientifically accurate sense. In music people focus less on imagination, etc. Realist painters also try to make their paintings as realistic as possible. One painter, *Courbet* did just this (not super creative). Realism doesn't last long in art with the creation of artistic photography. Realism is very popular in literature, links to science. If the author created an environment & characters everything would have to be inevitable according to science (every day lives, etc.). This is seen in writers like *Zola* who wrote depressing books w/out happy endings, or *Gustave Flaubert* who wrote one novel *Madame Bovary* which also does not have a happy ending (woman marries a pharmacist but has many affairs that end up destroying her). There were also authors such as *George Elliot, Mary Ann Evans & Honoré De Balzac* (Balzac wrote many many books depicting people's greed). There was also *Count Leo Tolstoy* who wrote *"War and Peace" & Theodore Dreisor who wrote "Sister Claire"* about a farm girl becoming a successful prostitute.

The Thirty Years War *pg 482-484* (1618-1648)

Really begins in 1545 w/ the *Peace of Augsburg (victory fir princes, not Habsburg)* there is still a lot of tension, even w/ the "truce" to the point where the Protestants form the *Protestant Union* in 1608, in response Catholics form the *Catholic Lead*. Fighting begins in *Bohemia (H.L.E.)*. In Bohemia kings were chosen, from this came a sense of religious toleration. In 1617, Ferdinand (Habsburg) is chosen to be the next kings, this scares Bohemians & a council is called between the *nobles the Prague* Ferdinand sends two representatives who are thrown out a window, but survive by landing in a pile of waste. The council realizes Ferdinand will be enraged, so they appoint a new king and both get their armies together and the Catholics win. Bohemia becomes part of H.L.E. Nobles in the H.L.E., however are worried, gang up, look for a leader and appoint *Christian IV*, Ferdinand wins in 1629 w/ the *Edict of Restitution* where all Catholic properties since 1522 lost to Protestantism are restored. Only Catholics and Lutherans can practice their religions. *Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden* then rises up and argues w/ Ferdinand and gets his army and empire to support the Protestants and is bankrolled by France (Catholics don't want Ferdinand to be too powerful). *Richelieu* (France) also supported Protestants in the war. Gustavus wis the first battle but dies in the second. Leads to standoff when France sends their army, continues till 1648 w/ *The Peace of Westphalia* that marks the end of the religious wars (major turning point).

The Modernization of Russia & Ottoman Empire *pg 759-761*

Russia at this time has developed differently from Europe as the ruler for the last 30 years has rejected all modern ideas. In the early 1850's Russia faces shock in the *Crimean War* as the Russians couldn't defend their territory. *Nicolas I* dies and in 1855, *Alexander II*takes over, beginning the time of the *"Great Reforms".*

The People and Occupations of the Middle Class *pg 726-730*

Rural & Urban workers are being seen more by mid century. Many now unskilled workers have had their work replaced by factories. 15% of people are now considered skilled workers in what is known as the *Labor Aristocracy* (factory foremen, construction bosses, wood workers, etc.). While jobs are disappearing, many other jobs are being created. (ship builders, engineers, etc.). After the upper working class are semi-skilled workers (long shore men, for example, who worked at the docks unloading ships, wagon drawing teamstars, or domestic servants). There are also *Sweated Industries* that were exactly like cottage industries except the workers are women and they get paid piece by piece, usually this work would be done in the home but sometimes women would go into extremely unsafe factories w/ sewing machines to work.

Boyars

Russian Aristocracy, appointed by Ivan III to hold parts of land.

Science & Society *pg 527-528*

Science & liberal arts should communicate, governments (royal society, etc.). They look at the science & it's relationship w/ gender. Women are *not allowed* into science academies. Women are still very much involved in science but did not get as much education as men. They instead hosted, *salons* where scientific ideas would be shared. The Scientific Revolution, however, doesn't really break out till the second half of the 19th century.

Printed Word *pg 385-387*

Several metal-smiths such as *Gutenberg* recognized that metal stamps used to mark signs on jewelry could be covered in ink and used to mark symbols onto a surface. Ideas are spread rapidly. Printing places were also places together to share ideas, manuscripts, etc. Printing press rapidly spreads ideas but makes it more difficult for authorities to control the decimation of ideas.

New Ideas About Race

Slavery in the 1500s is different. In areas like Athens, people become slaves from debt or from being a war prisoner, not seen as inferior. In the 1500s they are seen as inferior due to their race (slaves were savages that needed to be taught about civilized society and christianity) saying it was "good" that they were slaves in order to be exposed to civilized society.

The Socialist International *pg 773-774*

Socialism becomes extremely popular, many of them were Marxist (help w/ the establishment of the first international of socialists), creating a facade that everyone was working together, socialists also had their own flag, (red flag) and their own day, *May day* where workers would strike (like a festival). Workers are now a lot less radical & the chance for Marxist Revolution is slim.

Union & Revisionism *pg 774-777*

Socialists now are beginning to realize that Marx was wrong as there will be no revolution as workers are now getting what they want & want to revise his ideas, they are called revisionists & are part of the revisionism. One being, *Eduard Bernstein* who wrote *"Evolutionary Socialism"* that states that Marx was wrong, there was no revolution & we must now go through evolution to get the things Marx wanted. The Marxists divide & decide they want Marxist ideas w/ revolution but still act like revisionists. *Jean Jaurés* says he hates revisionism but he himself acted like one. However, revisionism has no effect on areas like *Russia & Austria* ( in Russia the gov. allows less rights for workers, leads to violent Marxism).

The Building of the Global Economy *pg 569-571*

Some areas such as Great Britain had started to pursue mercantilist policies, etc. What happens is that when Britain is in in the 17th century, they build a system based on a series of laws called the *Navigation Acts* (acts basically say that any goods imported by England must be brought by English ships and any goods brought into England must be either English ships or ships from the good's origin, this is an attack on the Dutch as they produce ships, which later causes war to break out & the English win) establish by *Oliver Cromwell* who later dies. *Charles II* takes over, restored monarchy while also saying the acts do not matter at first but he later restored them. With the acts being restored, war breaks out once again between the Dutch and England. England wins once again, showing their power (alliance made later so England can expand), all ships must now dip their sails to England as a sign of respect (Dutch fight against this one too). By the end of the 18th century, many wars break out between England & France, the first being the *War of the Spanish Succession (Louis XIV's last war) that was ended w/ the Peace of Utrecht*

Successors in the Thirty Years War

Some successors in war included France as it stayed one of the greatest powers, Sweden becomes a major Baltic power till the rise of Russia, Germanic princes win as they can now choose their own religions they want for their lands. The *Habsburgs* win & loose; *they fail to unify to HLE but they get Bohemia. The Netherlands also win as they gain recognition* that they are independent.

Regent

Someone (or a group of people) to take the place of the king until they are old enough to rule.

Achievements in State Building *pg 484-485*

Sovereignty (when the national gov. has undisputed power over the army, police, etc. and the justice system that before controlled by nobles, churches. Sovereign state also needs a monopoly over taxes. (Requires a *bureaucracy*). There are two ways of expressing this: 1. *absolutism* where the power is distributed between one small group of people. In a sovereign state you have individual freedom unless you break a law or try to go against the authorities.

The Enlightenment *pg 530-531*

Spreading of scientific ideas. Medical man believes *spirit* makes someone human. Enlightenment believes once you die you are no longer human, bases someone being human on 3 things, *1. ability to reason. 2. Ability to observe accurately through senses 3. Enlightenment says we make choices based on self interest, the choice that makes the most sense is part of natural law.* The Enlightenment believes that if humans lived by natural law, the world would be perfect, the world will get better as people get smarter. The world is not perfect because we do not make the rational choice due to being *tainted religion as religion is all about faith and believing in something that is irrational,* enlightenment says the church w/ biggest issues is the Catholic church, specifically the *Jesuits* (teaching faith). Some people begin to believe in the *Clock Master God* (winded the clock of life, no special relationships w/ God).

Stalinist Terror & the Great Purges *pg 897-898*

Stalin wanted to keep power and saw threats within the military, etc. He used his secret police to kill all these people. In 1932, Stalin's wife berates him & she is "mysteriously" killed. Stalin blames murder on other communists & kills them. Stalin actually has big trials where the people are forced to confess through torture and threatening their families. Stalin can now replace these people w/ people who wouldn't dare go against him, (totalitarianism needs lots of "enemies" surrounding them, and a military).

From Lenin to Stalin *pg 891-892*

Stalin wins the struggle for power against Trotsky in December 1927 & Stalin sends people to kill Trotsky. The biggest question now facing Stalin is what to do w/ the economy (capitalist economy, so Bolsheviks say you need to establish a true communist state so peasants who own land wont be a threat), Stalin creates the *Five Year Plans.*

The Rise of Moscow *pg 497-498*

Takeover Russia and Hungary before being pushed back, Mongols allow Russia to continue ruling with princes but require them to pay fees in return from the princes. *Novgorod* was one city ruled by *Alexander Nevsky*, a great warrior who always payed tribute to the Mongols (Moscow).

The Holocaust *pg 912-913*

Starts off w/ prosecution of German Jews that slowly leads up to the methodical murders. The reality is that Hitler waited until the invasion to avoid attacks from Stalin. Germans would kill people w/ machine guns & make them dig their own graves beforehand. Hitler didn't see this as fast enough so he created *Extermination Camps,* the most famous being *Auchwitz,*the people would be split into two groups, one that went to their immediate death, the second, to "work" where they were put into "showers" that were really gas chambers, they would then take hair and gold teeth.

March of the Fish Wives *pg 630-631*

Starts w/ some angry women living by fish markets go to Versailles & demand change. Spreads to men & women (men wear women's clothing to symbolize home), its about 12 miles to Versailles and the people are furious. They storm the palace & are furious at *Marie Antoinette*, Lafayette & the National Guard to discuss demands. The entire gov. has to go to Paris & the royal family are now prisoners while the gov. continues to try and make a constitution. One woman, *Olympe de Gouges* created *"Declaration of the Rights of Woman"* a parody of the other book. The debt still stands.

Communes

Sworn associates of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that sought political and economic independence from local nobles.

The Growth of the Rural System *pg 561-563*

The *pulling out system* (the merchants would sent out raw materials to people in the country side, there the people would assemble the product and sent it back, textile mills was one of the biggest usages). Birth rates now go up because people can now make money earlier because they did not have to wait for inheritance but instead could get a loom and make money (women sowed, mean weaved, children cleaned cotton), the issue w/ this system was that it wasn't very smooth, guild systems were not put into place, limiting the gain of technology (only advancement was the flying shuttle by *John Kay*, causing shortages in string because weaving is now faster). Relations between employers and workers were not good. Workers accused employers of cheating them out of their money, while employers accused workers of stealing raw materials for themselves and being lazy and rushed w/ their craftsmanship (both allegations were kinda true).

Treaty of Tordesillas

The 1494 agreement, giving Spain everything to the west of the imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic & giving Portugal everything to the east. This avoided the feared conflict between both areas.

African slave-trade *pg 572-575*

The 18th century is a huge time for slavery as there was a huge increase in *plantations.* One of the biggest importers for slavery was Brazil. W/ this increase in trading slaves, people in Africa try to capture other tribes in order to enslave their people, this does not work out very well as traders want guns from them, not huge amounts of slaves. Racism also begins to grow (spread mostly by women at first).

Spreading of Protestant ideas to England * pg 424-425*

The Anglican religion (now known as episcopalian) becomes the state religion in England. Beginning with War of Roses between Lancaster and York that ended with the battle of *Bosworth Field* where Richard III is killed by *Henry Tudor* whom married Richard III's sister and takes the throne. He cuts military spending to gain funds and tried very hard to avoid war. He marries his son, *Arthur*, to *Catherine of Aragon* (Ferdinand and Isabella's child), agrees to ally w/ Spain in order to receive her dowry. When Ferdinand asks Tudor to help Spain in war w/ France. Tudor secures money from parliament, gets more money from Ferdinand, finally takes his army into the battlefield, then gets money from France as a bribe not to attack. Ferdinand can't attack Tudor as he is still at war. Tudor stalls until his death after the death of Arthur. Henry VIII marries Catherine of Aragon. The church remains catholic but Henry receives money from churches and monasteries that he shuts down, causes the *Pilgrimage of Grace* ending w/ a "truce" of all rebels being executed.

The Outbreak of War *pg 819-821*

The Balkans are technically owned by the Ottomans but as the Ottomans decline, Austria & Russia come in and take land. In Serbia, theres a nationalistic movement to put all the south Slavs in the Slavic gov., posing a threat to Austria as many Slavs live there (would lead to Austria's collapse), Bulgaria wants to help Austria from Russians, the opposite happens in Serbia. When the Austrians take over land in the Balkans after war, Russia feels humiliated. In the Balkans people begin rebelling against the Turks (extreme nationalism), by 1912 what occurs is the *First Balkan War* where *Serbia, Bulgaria, & Greece* attack the *Ottoman Empire* (drive most out) & win, leaving the Ottomans a tiny bit of land. Then the Serbs & Greeks for land and win, Serbia gets *Albania* that the Austrians soon force Serbia to give up, causing the Serbs to be furious. Soon an extreme nationalistic group, the *Black Hand* decide to assassinate the *Crown Prince Francis Ferdinand*, The Black hand is successful. This leads to WWI as the Austrians already see the Serbs as a threat and respond as they don't wan their country to dissolve, they take away *Sovereign Rights* w/ support from Germany w/ *The Blank Check,* the Serbs find support from Russia, Austria decides to invade (Russia warns not to).

Dictatorship & Civil War *pg 836-838*

The Bolsheviks are able to maintain power by following through w/ promises that peasants can have land (pretty much already have land), workers can have control over factories (also happened), they also disband Alexander's party. Lenin also ends the war. He has to go through negotiations, the Germans offer a tough deal saying they want *all of Russia's western territories*(Finland, Baltic states, Ukraine), Lenin says they have to accept this in order to preserve Russia & the war ends. Russia now deals w/ internal conflict, Bolshevik army (reds) vs others (whites) & the reds win (Kill royal family), this is because the Bolsheviks control many internal cities while the whites are on the outside trying to break in, also the red armies are more prepared & are disciplined better. The reds will also do anything they need to win, practicing *War Communism* (would take anything or do anything to win the war, even if it wrecks the economy), the reds also use terror ( kill people for little reason, the *cheka* who would shut down any different opinion). By 1920, the white armies are basically defeated & the red armies take over a lot of territories they had surrendered to Germany from the *Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.*

National Variations *pg 665-667* (refer to table 21.1)

The British industrialized after the Napoleonic wars when many others could not, meaning they pushed ahead many other countries such as China & Indian. Many countries wanted to start industrializing but fell far behind as England was already very far ahead.

Protectorate *pg 508*

The English military dictatorship (1653-1658) established by Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I.

Background to Revolution *pg 620-621*

The French Revolution comes from enlightenment ideas, etc. Before, there were three *estates categories* representing France. The first section was the *clergy* (only make up of 100,000 people, owned 10 percent of the land, & only gave a *"Voluntary Gift", a tax every five years*, they were also treated better by the law). There are also many types clergy (rich clergy: bishops, etc. Aristocrats: Hold up bishops, rich, etc. Poor clergy: priests representing people, poor). *The nobility forms the Second Estate*: also get many privileges, get trials from *parliament* (equal peers), make up around 400,000 people, this was because the *inheritance law*, (all sons inherited land unlike in England were only 400 were aristocratic), own 25% of property, paid very little tax (Louis wanted it this way so they couldn't say they had a right to policy making). Had rights to hunt & fish (tremendously resented by commoners). Had certain honors that others didn't (could carry a sword). In the third estate there were the *commoners*; merchants, business men, workers, poverty stricken peasants all grouped together. Some were wealthy while others were poor, thus meaning different interests, the wealth people in this estate were called the *Bourgeoisie* (eventually become extremely resistant against the privileges of aristocracy).

Germany & the Western Powers *pg 871-873*

The French are really trying to gain allies as well as keep the largest army. The French also push for big reparations and succeed, further angering Germany & greatly hurting their economy. Germany is the largest trading power in Britain and now they can't trade causing Britain's economy to drop, *Keynes* writes *"The Economic Consequences for Peace"* that argues that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair & reparations were doing more harm than good, producing sympathy for Germany in Britain & the French become even more fearful. Germany's Weimar gov. is undermined by economic problems and by 1921, the reparations comity decides the reparations will be very high, Germany makes one payment and demands to re-discuss, Britain agrees but the French respond by marching, occupying areas, & take their materials as pay led by *Poincaré* & the Belgium. The German workers go on strikes & the French can't get materials, workers are now unemployed, money becomes basically worthless. The people who have money in the banks & depend on pensions are the ones most hurt by this. It is also bad in France as they go through a high inflation that causes people to begin turning towards communism, anti-semitism, etc. In 1923 the new head of the Weimar gov., *Stresemann* takes over & the French are willing to listen, an effort to compromise is made. The banker, *Charles G. Dawes* is sent by the U.S.

The End of War *pg 840*

The Germans try to have a last ditch effort to attack French, they begin to push the French & British back, they make it to *Marne* thus starting the *Second Battle of the Marne* & the Germans begin retreating (140,000 Americans arrive), return responsibility to civil gov. & order them to make peace. The emperor makes a liberal gov. & mutinies soon ensue, one being in *Jutland* where navy soldiers don't want to fight, William II abdicates to get away from Germans & soon the Germans gain armistice in a railroad car & the war ends, the Germans are beaten, the army is still in France, when Austria Hungary surrenders, it collapses.

Liberalism in Greece *pg 701-702*

The Greece are controlled by the *Ottoman Empire* but the Greeks kept a Greek identity & want to have their own nationality back. They decide to overthrow the *Turks* and succeed. This is because they feel it's *Christians against Muslims* which makes it difficult for the quadruple alliance to find reasons why to go & put down the rebellion & the *Greek Revolution* was embraced by Romantics. Then there is Russia, who want Constantinople & the Greek rebellion would allow them to get it, so they invade the Turks after their refusal to back down (quad. alliance demands they do so). The Turks are defeated at *The Battle of Navarino Bay,* the Greeks win and find a king from Germany to rule them.

Back to the National Assembly

The N.A. want to create a gov. of constitutional monarchy but the issue is they have a king whom wouldn't be able to become a constitutional monarch. Meanwhile the king tries to escape Paris, this plan ultimately fails. Thus leading to the creation of *political clubs* the most important being *Jacobin Clubs* where smart people met to discuss politics. Within these clubs a huge fight breaks out where both groups want to get rid of the king but have two different ways on how to do it. One group the *Girondists* don't want to kill the *Mountain who want the king killed. When Louis returns the Austrians create *the Declaration of Pillnitz* (don't hurt the king or we will hurt you) provoking the Girondists to get the National Assembly to declare war, this goes terribly for France as many nobles are Austrian. The war results in an outcry from the people, blaming the king for the losses and attack them, the royal family flees to the National Assembly whom relieve the king of his duties. In September of 1792 a *massacres occurs* from rumors spreading on nobles somehow being responsible, this plays right into the hands of the Mountain & creates a battle between M. & G. Louis XIV is executed after M. wins.

Dealing With Debt

The National Assembly decided that in order to reduce debt, they would expand money by creating *paper money.* The issue is that money is backed up by coins and France doesn't have this so they create the *assignet* which was backed up by *confiscated church land* (enlightenment people love this) & the currency only keeps value when the gov. owns the church lands. At the moment the assignet works & the debt disappears.

Invading Serbia *pg 819-820*

The Serbs find support from Russia, Austria decides to invade (Russia warns not to) so Russia declares mobilization against Austria & Germany, meanwhile Germany's plans for war aren't working for just mobilization to Austria, Germany assumes war w/ be w/ Russia & France so they create the *Schlieffen Plan* that says not only to go up against France & Russia but they have to take out France first because they can beat France quicker as France is smaller & there's not as much space to retreat (also go through Bulgaria), they put this plan into action as they think Britain will stay out of it (they don't) and the plan fails, because the British get to the Germans quickly, the Russians also go quickly & begin invading Germany, troops from the fight flank (doesn't really matter), Germans don't follow through in Francesco Marne, the German offense is stopped & retreats, the Germans begin to dig trenches from Switz. to Belgium, where WWI is fought.

The Netherlands *pg 434-435*

The Spanish Netherlands consisted of Belgiums Netherlands in the 16th century. Ruled by the habsburgs. Charle's V's son Philip II got the Netherlands but they did not like him as he was Spanish. People start to like Calvinism and now they could try to overthrow him. As calvinism spreads in the 1560's they start to attack people with different beliefs than them. Such as when they go to churches like the church of Notre Dame and start fires, destroying irreplaceable objects. Philip II sends in an army led by The Duke of Alva who made the situation a lot worse. So he sends Parma who tries and gets pretty far into trying to convert and stable each city. Until the northern seven provinces refuse led by William of Orange in what is known as *The Union of Utrecht*, in 1581 they declare independence and fighting continues until 1609 when a truce was signed.

Union of Utrecht *pg 435*

The alliance of seven norther provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain & formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands.

Townshand

The ambassador to the Netherlands, witnessed the agricultural improvements, copies this & his success causes others to wish to copy him as well.

Charles I

The complete opposite of his father, James I, he isn't smart and he marries *Henrietta Maryann of France* (Catholic, people over there are anti-catholic), people loose trust in Charles I, he is forced to sign a *Petition of Right* (similar to the Bill of Rights), doesn't know what to do and asks his advisor, the Earl of Strafford, who warns him what to do and what not to do, advises him to enforce "ship money." The Scots do not like this idea and invade and fail. Charles listens to Parliament and has Strafford killed, eventually Charles I denies parliament and gains support.

Natural Selection

The animals most fitted to their surroundings will survive. (sexual selection branches off of this idea)

Humanism *pg 378-379*

The book, *"Castiglione"* (the courtier) was a hand book telling practical ways of learning things you can create. *Francesco Petrarch*, a poet and scholar, believed that the recovery of classical texts would bring about a golden age of intellectual achievement. The study of Latin classics soon came to be known as *Studia Humanitates or Humanism* , an intellectual idea of how someone achieves the humanity within you. These ideas vary. For the Renaissance it's all about rational thought, liberal arts education, math, poetry, athleticism, etc. During the fifteenth century, Florentine humanists became increasingly interested in Greek philosophy, as well as Roman literature, especially in the ideas of *Plato*. Under the patronage of *Cosimo de Medici*, the scholar *Marsillo Ficino* would eventually become an ordained priest, wherein he began to lecture an informal group later known as the *Platonic Academy*. Plato's ideas mainly focused on spirituality and the eternal, and the ideals that make us "real". Another person, Pico, wrote, *"On the Dignity of Man"* (God on top, then the angels, then man, then animals). Pico argues that man is special because man is not fixed on the chain, you are special by following your humanity. With the Renaissance people go and write their names on their paintings (emphasis on glory).

The Bacterial Revolution *pg 720-721*

The cause of many diseases is found, *the germ. Louis Pasteur* develops *Germ Theory.* Now it is possible connect certain germs to contain diseases. *Robert Koch* then comes to help connect *certain germs to certain diseases (also helps w/ pasteurization, anesthetics, etc.). Then, *Joseph Lister* comes and suggests that *sterilizing instruments would help prevent disease* (although some hospitals refuse at first because they don't want it to seem like the doctors were killing the patients in ways that could be prevented).

Crime and Punishment

The go to solution to crime was to make punishment stricter and harsher, such as in England where punishments usually involved *mutilation, beatings & most commonly, death*. Prisons were not considered punishment at the time. A big public event would be made of the punishments, a source of entertainment for people, this method is ineffective. So *Beccaria* decided to analyze this system and comes up w/ *three laws: 1. They must be CERTAIN, the person has committed the crime (possibly w/ better policing) 2. Crime should be PROPORTIONAL to punishment (people before would not convict others of little crimes, rather they would just give them the death punishment), the jury can now convict people. 3.Punishments should be UNIFORM, meaning if you commit a crime the punishment should be clear so people could now the know the consequences of their actions.* Many crimes now result in *jail time and rehabilitation.* People start to want to go to jail to get an education and meals.

Causes of New Imperialism *pg 799-801*

The idea is if you have more land, you have more resources, there is also a growing sense of national pride & there are high tariffs everywhere so they want more land, there was also investment opportunities. People are also convinced that if you want to be powerful you would need a *powerful navy.* There is also the spreading of *Social Darwinian Ideas* where people want to demonstrate that they are *superior*, say the strongest tend to be the best. The industrial world has affects on this through the creation of the rapid fire *Maxim Machine Gun* & the *Quinine* that was effective in controlling Malaria, allowing new Europeans to live in the interiors. Political leaders would also manipulate colonial issues in order to divert attention from class struggles at home creating a false sense of national unity.

Germ Theory *pg 721*

The idea that disease was caused by the spread of living organisms that could be controlled.

Nationalism *pg 692*

The idea that people had their own unity based on their nationality. What makes nationality is very debated. It can be based off of language, which may not work as people speaking the same language can identify as a different nationality. Common history could be used, but still people identify differently. Mostly, *people form nationality by thinking of themselves as being that nationality.

A "Civilizing Mission" *pg 801-802*

The idea that people needed to "civilize" those from the colonies, one writer, *Rudyard Kipling* wrote the poem, *"The White Man's Burden"* that made it seem as though the white man were burdened to "help" these people. Christianity would usually be introduced to these areas, the whole idea is the west is superior.

Spain & France *pg 757-758*

The issue here is whether a distant relative of Prussia's William I might become king of Spain, France is angered and William calls off the plan, angering Bismarck. France wants William to promise that no Hohenzollern (family name) would every become king of Spain, William declines this offer. Bismarck, however, also tampered the letters sent that France & William sent to each other to make them seem furious. All of Germany come together and unify against France, just as Bismarck had planned while France, just as Bismarck had planned while France comes together against Germany. The *Franco-Prussian War* occurs and the Prussians win, A German Empire is proclaimed while France is forced to pay 5 billion Francs.

The Search for Peace & Political Stability *Pg 871*

The key for stability is going to be Germany, but getting them to do this was iffy at the start of the *Treaty of Versailles,* but Germany was still potentially the most powerful causing fear to grow, and the French begin to create the *Maginot line* along their boarders w/ Germany (basically a wall).

Architecture & Design *pg 861-863*

The major architectural movement was *Functionalism* that believes that beauty comes from function not ornate (building w/ perfect lines, etc.). W/ skyscrapers also comes the invention of the *elevator. Louis Sullivan* creates the skyscraper, his student being *Wright.* One architect, Gropius established the school, *Bauhaus* (would be later shut down by Hitler) using very straight lines in the furniture designs.

The Columbian Exchange *pg 463-468*

The migration of peoples to the new world lead to exchanges of animals plants & disease. The old world introduced things such as grapes, olives, rice, sugar, bananas, lettuce, wheat, dandelions, horses, cattle, & sheep. While the new introduced pumpkins, tomatoes, new beans, potatoes, tobacco, etc. As there was already slave trade in Africa, there was little raiding from the European side, the most valuable being a breeding woman. Most African slave dealers wanted guns to have power over the slaves.

Political Thought *pg 381-383*

The most famous civic humanist was *Niccoló Machiavelli* whom wrote the book, *"the Prince"* (1513) that tells of how a prince should rule, it is better to be feared rather than loved but not hated when ruling. He dedicates this book to the son of the Pope, Cesare Borgia.

Viceroyalties

The name of the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, & La Plata.

Europe Under Nazi Occupation *pg 910-912*

The new order that Hitler had was basically based on race, Social Darwinism. The *Dutch, Norwegians, Danes, etc. are considered German and are treated better, the French were treated like inferiors but people such as the Jewish, special needs, etc. were either worked to death or killed.* One area in France was led by the *Vichy gov. led by Pétain* that willingly went along w/ Hitler's plans. On the eastern front, German rule was terrible, many places began to resist after hearing the German's plans (murder), when people rebelled, the Germans respond w/ violently killing the people.

New Artistic Movements *pg 863-865*

The next popular movement in art after realism is *impressionism,* who make a study of light, color, the sky, water, nature, etc. (can't be realists w/ the invention of the camera), one of the most well known impressionists being *Monet*. Then comes *Post Impressionism* who want to give these ideas solidity & purpose through dots, thus creating *pointillism,* painters like *Paul Szone* used many rectangles. the other kind of post impressionists are *expressionists* like *Vincent Van Gogh* who created *"Starry Night"* who says impressionism had no feeling. Other artists were *Paul Gaugin, & Gustave Klimt.* In the 20th century comes *Cubism,* associated w/ *Picasso & Brough,* that gives feeling of a sculpture you can look at flow in different angles even on a flat plane. Then comes, *Abstract Expressionism* from *Kandinsky* that had emphasis on feeling and emotion. W/ W.W.I. comes *Dadaism* that wants to destroy the old war view (Mona Lisa w/ a mustache) *"Persistence of Memory"* by Dali is the most well known.

European Migrants *pg 790-791*

The poorest can't leave as they are demoralized & don't have any money. People who leave are young, ready to work, often not married, (many came to make money then go back, seasonal or swallows) family & friendships also played a role as one would go and the rest would follow.

Population *pg 664-665*

The population is growing rapidly, as the amount of what people can consume increases, so does population. Economists who look at this situation are known to practice *Decimal Science*, the father of this was *Thomas Malthus* who wrote, *"Essay on the Principal of Population"*, he explains if the food supply grows a little the population will expand a lot, & death rates are low. Explains it is only rational to have a lot of children only if you believe many of them won't survive & you will need someone to support you. Then there is *David Ricardo* that creates ideas such as *The Iron Law of Wages* that states workers will always get the wage needed only to survive, but if this wage rises above that then people will just have more children and it won't make a difference. (not true) Factory owners use this as an excuse to not raise worker's wages.

Key Points in France *pg 397-399*

The pressure of war leads to the ability to tax. Beginning w/ the *Hundred Years War*,the French monarchy soon revives w/ *Charles VII*, British are expelled from France mostly by 1453. Charles needed taxes in order to chase out the British, they used *Taille* majorly. Using the money, the monarchs are able to build professional armies to stand up to the king ( just in case) & a tax on salt called the *gabelle* . Charle's son, *Louis XI* the "spider king", soon takes over and monarchs can now appoint bishops in France. With the marriage between *Louis XII, (Louis XI's son) and Anne of Brittany* as well as when French King *Francis I and Pope Leo X reached a mutually satisfactory agreement about church and state powers in 1516*

The Pattern of Response *pg 803-804*

The reaction of people's being colonized. There are two types of reactions from people, people try and fail to run out the colonizers then try the *Traditional Approach* where they still keep ideas of being superior to these colonizers or there are the *westernizers* that feel the colonizers are superior and want to duplicate their culture (can lead to the introduction of liberalism or nationalism that can lead to rebellion).

Russia *pg 497-498*

The roos, whom came in contact w/ Byzantines and became commercialized, orthodox Christianity. In the 13th century, Russia is taken over by the mongols.

The Fall of Imperial Russia *pg 833*

The tsar, *Nicolas II* is reluctant to go to war, he doesn't want to give up any power, his wife, *Alexandra* encourages this. In September 1915, the progressive block contained a wide rage of parties that want to rule. Nicolas II adjourned the Duma & travels to the front, choosing the tsarina (his wife) to rule, but Alexandria is constantly worried about their son, Alexis who has hemophilia but then *Rasputin* arrives, (Siberian who starts a cult based around sex & drinking), as the royal family had heard he was a healer (very desperate), Rasputin apparently helps w/ Alex's symptoms & Alexandria appoints him as tsar even though he doesn't know what he's doing & things end up worse. As this happens *a group of aristocrats* want to kill Rasputin & succeed. As Russian soldiers march back to claim land, the gov. falls apart, riots break out in *Petrograd* (formerly St. Petersburg), Nicolas II orders the army to put down the protesters but they refuse, the Duma declares a provisional gov. and at the same time on March 15th, Nicolas II abdicates.

The Reforms of Peter the Great *pg 499-503*

The story is that Alex dies but before, he had married twice; having two kids with wife one and one son with the other. Sophia leads an uprising and Ivan becomes "tsar" (Sophia really becomes tsar), fails at taking back last Mongolian territories in Russia. Another rebellion occurs and Peter's mother wins, Sophia is sent to a nunery. Peter comes to power (wild kid) and is tried to be calmed by a wife, this doesn't work, after his mother's death, he takes back Azar (Sophia failed at this) by building ships in parts and taking them to be finished. Another rebellion forms with Sophia and his wife, they are both sent to nunneries. Wants Sweden next and is underestimated by Charles XIII until the *Peace of Nystad* where Russia gains long term affects. Peter also is one of the firsts to draft people into his army, establishing secular schools as well as sending upper classes and peasants to war, best capabilities, wants to create a *Table of Ranks* (never happens), taxes also fall heavily onto the people, ( Poll tax-based on existence), brings in more industries, people and food. St. Peter's burg.

Rural Industry *pg 560*

The system where it is becoming more common for the manufacturing of goods to be preformed in the country.

Towards a Consumer Society *pg 601-606*

The values of the people begin to lean towards material items and how much of them you have. W/ more wealth comes more variety being produced. More variety i clothing, food, etc. Fashion becomes significant w/ the textile industry & cotton & the creations of "knock off" outfits similar to those of royalty & elites. Housing comes to play w/ the breaking up of rooms which is both good and bad. Bad in the sense that the sense of community is lost in the household.

Portugal *pg 451-453*

The wanting of Europe to spread and take over trade begins w/ Portugal. *Prince Henry the Navigator*, a crusader who was obsessed w/ defeating the infidel by "allying" w/ "prestor John" & getting rich at the same time. The belief was that John lived somewhere in India, Ethiopia, etc. Henry believed he could make contact by sailing around Africa & into the Indian Ocean. Issues are that the waters in Africa were very hot, they didn't know exactly how big Africa was or what it really looked like so people didn't really know how to get around it. Henry had organized a plan, on the shores of Portugal in Sages to set up a "school" where he gathers sailors, ship builders, etc. They begin to send out ships, the crews refused to land as they were scared of the natives, their exploration finally ends near the bottom of Africa (found goods such as slaves for sugar plantations and gold from trade). Henry dies in 1460 & in 1480, *King John* takes over & sends a crew led by *Captain Diaz* whom gets to the bottom of Africa before the crew wants to return. When they return John sends *Vasco de Gamma* on another voyage, they land at the port of Claimant and offers trade with the Indians who were not interested, Gamma then bombards the port and the Indians then agree. John is dead when they return, but Manwell has taken over and wants to prevents others from trading with India. Portuguese takes over trade routes and appoints Albuquerque to control it. Naval places are based in key areas (Calicat, Goa in India, Macao in China, Straight of Malacca, entrance to Persian Gulf, Aiden & Cape Verde).

The Homefront View of War *pg 823*

The war changes everything as the reason for it makes no sense & it destroys the reasonable fabric of the 19th century. It is also the first war to be fought as total war. At the start of WWI people were enthusiastic for a short war w/ an easy victory but end up w/ millions of deaths. The gov. is forced to step up as a major spot of control, (drafting, supplies, etc.), the effect is a longer, more destructive war.

Socialism *pg 693-696*

There are many types of beliefs in Socialism, it's like a state of mind or how we assume human nature is (people by their nature are competitive, similar to capitalism, we are willing to do anything for our own interests). Socialists also assume progress is made through cooperation (socialism has already been around for a while, first w/ the French Utopian Society), there is already a *French Socialism Economy* w/ the reign of terror (wasn't that bad for many people). one socialist *Count Henri de Saint Simon* says the *"parasites"* (aristocrats, lawyers, & church men) should step down and let the *"doers"* (scientists, engineers & industrialists) take over as the country is based on technology & forward thinking. They should then focus on things like public projects & investment banks. *Charles Fourier* was a socialist who wished to create a socialist utopia made up of self-sufficient communities of 1,620 people, where each person would work and receive an equal amount of pay and each job would have equal value. Another socialist was *Louis Blanc* who wrote, *" Organization of Work"*, he wanted workers to have the universal vote & take over the state & use their power in the government to supply work & create workshops. These workshops would be more efficient. There was also *Pierre Joseph Proudhon* who wrote *"Whats Property?"* that says property is theft, property is profit that was stolen from the workers.

Women and Education *pg380-381*

There are some women whom are educated but this is not part of the norm. There are also issues with how women could achieve humanity.

Italy in 1850 *pg 751-752*

There is a movement for unification in Italy & in Germany. In Italy, small states to the south were poor, while states to the north were not, (small states are considered important as nationalists want to create one big country). Before 1848 there were three major ideas on how to unify Italy, *1. One kingdom under the rule of Sardinia 2. Unify under the papacy, the writer, Gioberti, fights for this idea 3. Use ideas from Mazzini for liberalism and universal manhood suffrage, etc.* For Gioberti's plan to work he will need a pope, *Pope Puis IX* agrees to his plan but he is chased out by Mazzini & his followers. In Sardinia, the ruler, *Charles Albert* wanted to defeat the Austrians, the Austrians defeat Sardinia. People begin to denounce progressive ideas, shown in *"Syllabus of Errors"* (hates nationalism, socialism, etc.). This confirms that Gioberti's pursuits were ruined. Mazzini's ideas also won't work as Sardinia has been defeated so terribly that Charles Albert abdicates the throne & *Victor Emmanuel* takes over & appoints *Count Cavour* as his prime minister (Verdi graffiti is seen as a way of secretly supporting Victor).

Twentieth Century Literature *pg 859-861*

There is focus on irrationalism, etc. One movement, *A Stream of Consciousness* is associated w/ *Proust & Joyce* whom explore the human mind. They each wrote many different books (no point, no beginning, middle or end). *William Faulkner* also wrote *The Age of Fury* during this time.

The Importance of Homemaking *pg 735-738*

There is more separation in family roles. While the husband was expected to support the family financially, the wife had many duties she was expected to carry out as well, The woman would control things such as the family budget & the home becomes more glorified. In the 18th century, one writer, *Gustave Droz* wrote *"Mr. Mrs. & Baby"* which talked about ideas on family & relationships. Droz said marriage should be based around love and affection.

Jewish Life *pg 549*

There was a lot of discrimination against Jews (discriminatory laws, etc.) in Europe, but in the 18th century there was something called the *Haskalah* led by *Moses Mandelssohn* who wanted Jewish people to come together to advocate for freedom. However, many people such as *Catherine the Great* who only allowed them in certain places. But in other areas like *France*, restrictions were lowered after the French Revolution.

Total War & Terror *pg 637-638*

There was a turning point battled called the *"Battle of Valmy."* where French win meaning they take offensive against Prussia, Russia, England, etc. During this there is also a civil war (all helping Mountain) Mountain say special measures are needed so they create *The Committee of Public Safety* in 1793 led by *Robespierre* who say they will speak for the *"General Will"*, they say to harness everything the nation shops produce things for war, things produced (food) will be regulated & rationed ("bread of equality"). If these rules are broken you would be executed, they run on *fear.* Peasants are most likely to be executed as they hoard gain. There were also positive efforts to enforce people; huge festivals revolutionized products (calendars, cards, etc.). This ultimately helps a lot in war the enemy is destroyed. *Danton* is an example who spent more time on family rather than revolution & he is executed. There are also movements such as *Dechristianization* to destroy all Christians.

The Habsburg Dynasty

There were emperors of the H.R.E. but in reality they only really controlled Austria, gain territory through marriage. Begins with *Frederick III & Eleonore of Portugal in 1452* as she had a huge dowry. Next was between *Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy* , Max gains Burgundy. The French are furious with this development and take part of Burgundy under the Spider King's rule *(Louis XI)*. Max and Mary have a son, *Philip I of Castile* whom marries *Joanna* from Ferdinand and Isabella's family in Spain. Their son, Charles V inherets all land as Ferdinand and Isabella's sons all die young. Charles becomes extremely powerful and plans to take over the world ( or the rest of Europe, first he needs control of the H.R.E.. He plans to have a single, universal religion to unify multiple areas. Rejects Lutheranism and turns to Catholicism. H.R.E. is angered as they can no longer confiscate church property w/out Lutheranism (Charles does not care as he already has a lot of money). Charles V fails to control H.R.E. leading to battles between him, H.R.E., France and the Ottoman Empire (1540's) until in 1555 he signs the *Peace of Augsburg*. The territories win and stay divided (north=lutheran, south=catholic), Charles abdicates and divides the empire among his sons.

Issues in the Factories

There were issues w/ factory workers, they did not feel pride in their work & there were rarely any breaks so they decided orphan children should go work in factories as a way to contribute back to the state that provided for them (this was terrible).

Medicine in the 18th Century *pg 609-610*

There were many different practitioners. Faith healers, physicians & apothecaries if you felt ill. *Faith healers* would not use any medicines or blood letting, but rather use prayer mostly to heal. *Apothecaries* would use medicines, herbs, etc. but as they did not measure, the concoction could become too strong for one person or too weak for another, etc. They would also give you laxatives to empty out the bad (believed sickness came from bad smells), there were also *physicians* who were the most expensive, there were no painkillers & no cleaning of tools so surgeries were quick, extremely painful & had a high chance for infection.

Similarities and Differences in Colonies *pg 463*

They are all governed like other countries, but the other countries were ruled differently. *Viceroyalties* in Spanish countries are chosen & take orders from the king. In Portugal you also had the most prestigious people (coregadores) who answer to the king. In France they develop *antendonts* who were paid bureaucrats from around the country, other countries reflect off France).

Markets in England *pg 656-657*

They have better access to markets as they have a colonial empire & there is an increasing market for goods as the population in Europe is also expanding, little difference between Britain & France (no real advantage between both).

The Scandinavian Response *pg 881-883*

They respond by taxing the rich to try to distribute the money to the poor, the gov. is run by Prime Minister *Randy Meideshnot* who goes through the traditional ways of governing (works better than in the U.S.). The North continues to suffer.

Jesuits *pg 431*

They were convinced that they had to make an army in service of the pope,and they did not fight physically, but with words (wow deep). The founder, Ignatius Loyola, wrote a book called the Spiritual Exercises, where he explains that they must have intense training so they can go to towns and rile up the people to try to overthrow the godless people.

Protestant Revival *pg 606-608*

This begins w/ the *Pietism Movement* who believe they need to bring back emotions in the church but also to bring the *priesthood of all believers* (meaning there is no hierarchy & everyone runs the church together), the final belief being that salvation was open to everyone and anyone could be saved. This becomes a big thing & is spread around until it reaches *John Wesley*, starts out w/ a religious club but soon feels like this isn't enough, he then meets a priest w/ these ideas and "sees the light." Starts to travel the world in order to spread the "good news" about salvation. Gains a lot of followers while remaining Anglican.* He soon dies and some of his followers break into a group called *methodists* while others, mostly elites, became *evangelicals* as they did not want to be associated w/ lower classes. The Catholic Church remains unchanged for the most part, except for one religious group that arises, *Janeism* (people who want to get rid of the materialist church, original sin).

The Seven Years War for the British

This war does not start out very well for the British, one battle the *Attack on Fort Duquesne* (where three rivers come together to form the Ohio river), British march over to take it, *George Washington* warns them not to but they don't listen and the British are destroyed. British are loosing in India as well. They they decide to hire a new Prime Minister, *Pitt*, whom fires all the old generals and replaces them w/ newer, younger ones, almost immediately things turn around. One battle, *The Battle of Plassey (1757)* where the general, *Clive* wins, defeating an area of Indian manufacturing. After Clive takes over and kicks out the French, English soon gain control of India, gradually. Fort Duquesne is eventually taken and renamed *Pittsburg*. British are also able to take *Quebec* (key fortress for Canada as it seemed impossible to get through), as well as many other lands from North America, thus making the British a colonial empire as a result from the war.

Popular Political Action (food riots) *pg 486*

Through the 17th century, riots are seen as a normal thing as there was no other way for people to get their voice heard. As the states develop better armies. Riots can now be put down more easily and makes it harder for riots.

12 Steps Needed for Industrial Revolution *pg 656*

Transportation & communication, cheap labor, raw materials, political stability, energy, mindset & capital investment. (Britain has the industrial revolution first as they have the agricultural revolution before France).

The Great Fear *pg 628-629*

Violence in the countryside. Peasants are extremely desperate for food & refuse to listen to land lords, fires are set and nobles are killed. Fake rumors are spread that the nobles were creating a mercenary to come, stop and kill them.

The Road to War *pg 816-818*

W/ WWI huge changes occur, first w/ the establishment of a unified Germany came the change of European construct. Bismarck is basically the ruler making policy after 1879, his goal is to keep Germany united, he says only Italy, England, France, Russia & Austria matter if Germany was attacked. France is their enemy as during the *Franco-Prussian War* the French gave up *Alsace Lorraine* (found it sacred. Bismarck plans that they will be able to deal w/ France if France had no allies, so he tries to ally w/ many countries, the issues is w/ *Russia & Austria* as they are enemies in the Balkans, Bismarck tries to build an alliance system to have them get along & ally w/ Germany. There was a *Three Emperor Alliance* that worked for a while, then were was a crisis in the Balkans w/ the *Russo-Turkish War (The Russians don't get what they want so Turkey and Russia break off, problem solved). Then Britain keeps trying to keep/ fix allies. In 1890 there is a "dropping of a pilot" where the new emperor, William II kicks out Bismarck (foreign policy wise he is a disaster), he then refuses to renew the treaty and this is a disaster.* Alexander III's son, *Nicolas* begs William II to renew the treaty, William refuses & in 1892 the *French open up to Russia & they end up becoming allies.*

Relations Between Capital & Labor *pg 672-673*

W/ industrialization comes the creation of a new class, the capitalists, which come from many different things. Most of them come from the working class whom pushed themselves to the top (next generation workers who feel superior to the next generation).

New Patterns of Marriage & Illegitimacy

W/ more people going to work in cities, moving around, etc. It causes social pressures to be weakened, allowing more men to be able to get out of marriage, meaning more illegitimate children.

The Decline of Absolutist Spain in the Seventeenth Century *pg 492-495

W/ the decline of silver in Spain and their continued excessive use of it, coins lose value and Spain goes into debt, the inflation continues and becomes worse, wealth is not being generated, not much religious tolerance, (would have to convert to stay in Spain) cutting off new workers from Spain, also didn't allow information from the outside world, leads to disaster.

Cheap Labor

W/ the population explosion comes more poor & desperate people looking for work. This is especially seen in England for many; *the inclosure movement* (fewer people are allowed to work on farms & are kicked off land & are desperate for work), *immigration* ( mostly from poverty stricken *ireland*.). Although immigration is seen more often in France.

Ireland & the Great Famine *pg 704-705*

W/ the potato, the Irish gov. is greatly helped & the population grows, but in the 1840s when the crop fails due to excessive rain & blight, this is disastrous as opportunities to replant are limited. Crop continues to fail and the British are blames. Peel tries to help (food for relief) but 5 million people die anyway and many flee Ireland. Ireland becomes a pasture country and the population declines. The corn laws are also abolished by the *Ten Hour Act*, they are later brought back, however.

Popular Literature *pg 595-597*

W/ the rise in education also comes the rise in literacy. While elites focussed more on reading material on the *enlightenment and science*. The more common people read books such as the *bible.* People who could not afford a bible would get *chapbooks* (usually very religious, containing a lot of bible stories & being very cheap, made from cheap material). Many fairytales (old folktales), true crime stories (swashbuckling pirates who were usually killed in the end), *Baron Von Munchausen* (story), romance & books of practical knowledge (how to fix, cook things, having riddles & proverbs) were popular amongst the common folk. The common folk did not usually read books about the enlightenment as they were too expensive.

Louis XIII Comes to Power *pg 487*

When he comes to age he appoints *Cardinal Richelieu* as his minister; no family, only goal being to create an absolutist France, bans dueling as the gov. is supposed to be in control, no one takes this seriously at first till the execution of two dueling nobles (shows that nobles not above the law as nobles used to control laws and not listen), Richelieu *divides France into 32 districts and gets intendants from the middle class and pays them to enforce laws.* Works extremely well, Richelieu also gets rid of the *protective towns granted by Edict of Nantes.* No one but the town of *La Rochelle* due to its ports and gets support from England. Complete failure due to the lining of cables on the ports preventing ships from docking. Richelieu also creates the French Academy (coins, "raison d'état"), concerned about French security. In 1642 he dies and names his successor to be *Cardinal Maza Rin* Louis XIII then dies and *Louis XIV* takes control, too young so *Anne of Austria* becomes is regent, this is a chaotic time, nobles try to take control, crops fail, there are food riots, trade issues, the thirty years war, troops come home and pillage and plunder. This creates the *Fronde* (originally known as the street urchin kids whom threw rocks at nobles). *The chaos results in people believing the only type of good government was absolutism*. The people terrify the king when he was young so he from town (causes him to be less connected w/ the people).

Queen Elizabeth *pg 425*

When she becomes queen, there are three issues. *Religion, Money and Parliament*. When Mary was leader many Protestants had left England in favor of Switzerland. People begin to return w/ new ideas that people call *Puritans*. Elizabeth wants a religious system where everyone is happy so she makes herself the, *"Supreme governor of the Church of England"*. There are rules; 1. Clergymen are allowed to marry, 2. You must go to do communion once a year, but it you do not you can pay a fine instead. Elizabeth doesn't really do much to fix the other issues.

Impact of European Settlements on Indigenous Peoples *pg 461*

When the Europeans arrive it is very bad for Native Americans. Many people died from disease, those who survived were enslaved, slavery is technically illegal so the Encomienda System is developed. Natives work for them for paid food and shelter, but natives would not be able to pau causing them to accumulate high debts that would then force them to have to stay and work on the plantations to pay them off. *Bartolomé de las casas* went to *Charles V* whom "abolished" the worst of the conditions (conditions were still terrible). Bartolomé suggests getting slaves from Africa as they were *less likely to run away as they do not know the land and were too far away from their country to return. He also argues they had more immunity towards disease, and they were stronger.

Communism & Facism *pg 888-891*

When the civil war ends in 1921, the Soviet Union was a mess, *Lenin* decides to put the economy back together. They will need incentives, especially from the peasants (peasants & sailors are rebelling). In 1921, *War Communism is replaced by the *New Economic Policy or N.E.P.* that was very successful, gives money to smaller jobs like peasantry jobs where they give the food & receive money from the government. Industrial output is much better as well as agricultural developments but now there is a struggle of power between *Stalin & Trotsky after Lenin's death in 1924.*

Life in the colonies as Women Come In *pg 463*

When women arrive in colonies, they change the nature of the society there, before women arrived, people would marry others from the natives, European women, however, arrive and social boundaries are formed, it becomes way less likely for them to marry natives. In areas such as the Spanish colonies there is a sort of hierarchy where "pureblooded" Spaniards were considered to be the best, half & half were middle class, but both native parents meant you were at the bottom. English colonies believed that one drop of African American blood meant you were inferior.

Growing International Conflict *pg 816-818*

William II says hey can get allied w/ Britain, he fails horribly and Britain dislikes him, now there are German competitors vs British, William II also builds a first class navy & the British see this as a threat (creates a naval race), In South Africa there is a war (British don't care at first), then gold is found creating a gold rush, another war breaks out, the *Boer War* (first place that concentration camps are used), to get rid of Boers, afterwards, the British feel isolated, & in 1902 they ally w/ the Japanese because of their *Naval Fleet.* Soon the *Entente Cordiále is created as British ally w/ France.* William II tries to break this up (Morocco crisis one, causes meeting of 1906, no one stands w/ Germany except Austria as Germany electrifies the issues but Germany has to back down & is given compensation in land), meanwhile, Germany finds itself more isolated and creates *The Triple Alliance as a result between Germany, Austria & Italy.* France now wants to bring Britain & Russia together, Russia by 1907 begins to negotiate more w/ Britain as a result of the *Russo-Japanese War,* they agree to divide Persia, Afghanistan & China, creating *The Triple Entente between France Britain & Russia* in order to specifically go against the Triple Alliance.

Quality of Working Life

Workers were eating much better (partly due to agricultural rev.) as a result of indust. rev. due to better and cheaper transportation. Workers are also working longer hours and are making more money (not doing a whole lot better).

Working Classes Leisure & Religion *pg 730-732*

Working class leisure was mostly made up of *drinking* (social drinking, women included). There were also sports events, music halls & Vaudeville theaters (risque theater). Elites, on the other hand, would see operas and musical theater. Religion was also controversial, a sensus taken showed on 5% of people went to church in England (possibly working class had no time or didn't believe they had their interests at heart or now there are more ways to socialize). Immigrants, however, clung to their religion as a way to cling to their culture.

The Mindset

You need to be willing to invest. There is greater reluctance in Britain rather than in France as a result from the *Mississippi Bubble.*

Protestant Thought *pg 411-413*

Zwingli, also an early reformer, joins together with Luther, they agree on everything except communion. Catholics believe in trans-substantiation, Zwingli believes that communion isn't a big deal and doesn't mean anything while Luther is in-between, saying that the communion things aren't actually from the body of christ the wafers and wine have the presence of christ in them. Each group finds communion equally important and Zwingli and Luther do not join together.

Beginning Chapter 18

pg 552-581

Beginning Chapter 19

pg 586-613

Beginning Chapter 20

pg 618-651*

Beginning Chapter 21

pg 656-681

Beginning Chapter 22

pg 686-713

Beginning Chapter 23

pg 718-745

Beginning Chapter 25

pg 782-811

Beginning Chapter 26

pg 816-849

Beginning Chapter 27

pg 854-883

Beginning Chapter 28

pg 888-919