AP Human Geography Chapter 13 Test

costs of motor vehicles

-the motor vehicle is an important user of land in the city. an average city allocates 1/4 of its land to roads and parking lots. valuable land in central city is devoted to parking cars and trucks, although expensive underground and multistory parking can reduce the amount of ground-level space needed -the average American wastes 18 gallons of gas and loses 42 hours per year sitting in traffic. in the U.S., the total cost of congestion is valued at $160 billion per year. most people overlook these costs because they place higher value of the privacy and flexibility of schedule offered by car

the city offered better services, such as water supply, sewage disposal, trash pickup, paved streets, public transportation, and police and fire protection

In the past, why did peripheral areas desire annexation?

fewer people living in the center city, less difference in density within urban areas

In what two ways has the density gradient changed in recent years?

congestion charges, tolls, permits, bans

What are four ways demand for congested roads is being reduced?

advertising, banking, finance, journalism, law

What are some business services found in the CBD?

retailers with high thresholds (department stores), retailers with high ranges (jewelry stores), retailers serving CBD workers (office supplies, computers, clothing, or shoe repair, rapid photocopying, dry cleaning, etc.)

What are some consumer services found in the CBD?

city hall, courts, county and state agencies, libraries, sports facilities, convention centers

What are some public services found in the CBD?

locally elected officials, ability to raise taxes, responsibility for providing essential services

What are the three basic characteristics of a city?

by paying 90% of cost of limited-access, high-speed interstate highways, and by keeping the price of fuel lower than that of Europe's

What are two ways in which the U.S. Government has encouraged the use of motor vehicles by its citizens?

the supply of land for construction of new housing is more severely restricted in European urban areas than in the U.S. officials try to limit sprawl by designating areas of mandatory open space

What has prevented the peripheries of European cities from looking like Swiss cheese?

the promise of larger homes with private yards and modern schools in the suburbs

What is a pull factor pulling people away from residential housing in the CBD?

high rents that business and retail services were willing to pay and by the dirt, crime, congestion, and poverty that they experienced downtown

What is a push factor pushing people away from residential housing in the CBD?

being turned into commercial and recreational areas, as today's large oceangoing vessels are unable to maneuver in the tight, shallow waters of the old CBD harbors. consequently, port activities have moved to more modern facilities downstream, leading to a transformation from the old manufacturing districts to new apartments, offices, shops, parks, and museums

What is happening to the old manufacturing districts in American CBDs?

a majority of residents in the affected area vote in favor of the annexation

What is required before an area can be annexed by a city?

the city plus the surrounding areas affected by that city; the MSA

What is the functional area of a city?

Washington D.C.

What is the only major U.S. city without skyscrapers?

sharp decrease in the use of the three fossil fuels, increase in the use of renewable energy, use of carbon capture and storage (CCS), which involves capturing waste CO2, transporting it to a storage site, and depositing it where it will not enter the atmosphere, normally underground

What three key strategies does the UN put forth to reduce pollution and fossil fuel dependency?

the number of nonwhites in the census tract, the median income of all families in the census tract, the percentage of adults who finished high school in the census tract

What three types of data are reported by the U.S. Census Bureau regarding the population of each census tract?

where different types of people live in a city and that people tend to reside in certain locations, depending on their particular personal characteristics

What two things can we deduce by combining all three models rather than considering them independently?

the government, 30% of tenant's income

Who builds and maintains Public Housing in the U.S., and what is the rent?

more customers in suburban regions, now mostly located in suburban malls

Why are high threshold and high range shops decreasing in the CBD?

the number of downtown office workers has increased and thus the downtown offices require more services, especially for downtown employees who shop during the lunch hour

Why are shops serving CBD workers increasing?

multiple nuclei model (C.D. Harris, E.L. Ullman) example city: Philadelphia

a city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve, including ports, universities, airports, etc. some activities are attracted to certain nodes, whereas others try to avoid them. the nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway are called edge cities 1- CBD 2- wholesale & manufacturing 3- low-class residential 4- middle-class residential 5- upper-class residential 6- heavy manufacturing 7- outlying business district 8- residential suburb 9-industrial suburb

alternative vehicle technology that will impact our cities in the future: full electric

a full electric vehicle has no gas engine. when the battery is discharged, the vehicle will not run until the battery is recharged by plugging it into an outlet. motorists can make trips in a local area and recharge the battery at night. out-of-town trips are difficult because recharging opportunities are scarce

underclass

a group in society prevented from participating in the material benefits of a more developed society because of a variety of social and economic hardships

zoning ordinance

a law that limits the permitted uses of land and maximum density of development in a community.

redlining

a process by which banks draw lines on a map and refuse to lend money to purchase or improve property within the boundaries.

filtering

a process of change in the use of a house, from single-family owner occupancy to rented apartments and ultimately to abandonment

informal settlement

a residential area where housing has been built on land to which the occupants have no legal claim or has not been built to the city's standards for legal buildings

suburb

a residential or commercial area situated within an urban area but outside the central city

concentric zone model (E.W. Burgess) example city: Chicago

according to Burgess, a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings. the precise size and width of the rings vary from one city to another, but the same basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order: 1- CBD 2- zone of transition 3- zone of independent workers' homes 4- zone of better residences 5- commuter's zone

sector model (Homer Hoyt) example city: Buffalo

according to Hoyt, a city develops in a series of sectors. certain areas of the city are more attractive for various activities, originally because of an environmental factor or even by mere chance. as cities grow, activities expand outwards in sectors. once a district with high-income housing is established, the most expensive new housing is built on the outer edge of the district, far from center; the best housing is found in a corridor extending from downtown to outer edge of city 1- CBD 2- transportation & industry 3- low-class residential 4- middle-class residential 5- upper-class residential

city

an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated (defined as its own power) into an independent, self-governing unit known as a municipality

density gradient

basically says as you move further away from the center city, the number of houses per land unit decreases

benefits of motor vehicles

benefits of motor vehicles -motorists can live wherever they wish and travel whenever they wish; they are not constrained by the timetable or public transport service. a motor vehicle offers comfortable seats, choice of music, and isolation from unpleasant people on a bus or subway -motorists perceive that the cost of using vehicles is less than the cost of using public transport; each times public transport is used a fare must be paid, and that fare is higher than the cost of fuel, at least in the U,sS. also, most of the costs associated with motor vehicles, insurance and license, are paid annually, regardless of the amount of driving done

according to the peripheral model created by Chauncey Harris, the elements of an urban area

central city, suburban residential area, shopping mall, industrial district, office park, service center, airport complex, combined employment and shopping center

how recent public housing projects are different

cities are renovating old houses specifically for lower-income families through public housing or other programs. by renting renovated homes, a city helps to disperse low-income families throughout the city instead of concentrating them in large inner-city public housing projects. however, some public housing projects were located in neighborhoods that are now gentrifying, so the new housing that is replacing the demolished high rises may be too expensive for the former public housing residents

urban area

consists of a central city and its surrounding built-up suburbs

four characteristics of a typical CBD

contains a large percentage of the public, business, and consumer services, it is the easiest part of the city to reach from the rest of the region and is the focal point of the region's transportation network, and is one of the oldest districts in a city, usually at or near the original site of settlement

sustainable development

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

alternative vehicle technology that will impact our cities in the future: diesel

diesel engines burn fuel more efficiently, with greater compression, and at a higher temperature than conventional gas engines. most new vehicles in Europe are diesel-powered, where they are valued for zippy acceleration on crowded roads, as well as for high fuel efficiency. however, they have been found to generate high levels of nitrogen oxides

the rapid transit story in the U.S.

entirely new subway systems were opened between 1972 and 1993 in six U.S. cities: Atlanta, Baltimore, L.A., Miami, San Francisco, and Washington. cities with century-old systems such as Boston and Chicago have attracted new passengers through construction of new lines and modernization of existing ones. the federal government has permitted Boston, New York, and other cities to use funds originally allocated for interstate highways to modernize rapid transit service instead

alternative vehicle technology that will impact our cities in the future: ethanol

ethanol fuel is made by distilling crops such as sugarcane, corn, and soybeans. sugarcanes is distilled for fuel in Brazil, where most vehicles run on ethanol. in the U.S., corn has been the principal crop for ethanol, but this has proved controversial because the amount of fossil fuels needed to grow and distill the corn is comparable to - and possibly greater than - the amount saved in vehicle fuels. furthermore. growing corn for ethanol diverts corn from the food chain, thereby allegedly causing higher food prices in the U.S. and globally. more promising is ethanol distilled from cellulosic biomass, such as trees, grasses, and algae

suburbanization of consumer services

expanded in suburbs as most of their customers are now there. suburban retailing is concentrated in shopping malls of varying sizes. larger malls contain department stores and specialty shops once located only in the CBD. suburban residents no longer wish to make the long journey to shop in the CBD; the low density of residential construction discourages people from walking to stores, and restrictive zoning practices often exclude shops from residential areas

the three groups attracted to gentrified areas and why

higher-income residents, single people, and couples without children are attracted to gentrified areas because the houses may be larger and more substantially constructed yet less expensive than houses in the suburbs, houses may possess attractive architectural details, such as ornate fireplaces, cornices, high ceilings, and wood trim, for people who downtown, inner-city living eliminates the strain of commuting on crowded freeways or public transport, and the neighborhoods are near theaters, bars, restaurants, stadiums, and other cultural and recreational facilities

two ways suburban areas are segregated

housing in a given community is usually built for people of a single social class, with others excluded by virtue of the cost, size or location of the housing, and residents being separated from commercial and manufacturing activities that are continued to compact, distinct areas

alternative vehicle technology that will impact our cities in the future: hydrogen fuel cell

hydrogen forced through a PEM (polymer electrolyte membrane or proton exchange membrane) can be combined with oxygen from the air to produce an electric charge. the electricity can then be used to power an electric motor. fuel cells are now widely used in small vehicles such as forklifts

alternative vehicle technology that will impact our cities in the future: plug-in hybrid

in a plug-in hybrid, the battery supplies the power at all speeds and can be recharged in two ways: while the car is moving, the battery can be recharged by a gas engine or, when the car is parked, it can be recharged by plugging into an electrical outlet. the principal limitation of a full electric vehicle has been the short range of the battery before it needs recharging

how public transit in the U.S. compares to public transit in other countries

in other countries, public transport is of more importance and is much more extensive and connected than it is in the U.S. in hundreds of cities around the world, extensive networks of bus, tram, and subway lines have been maintained, and funds for new construction have been provided in recent years, while the U.S. is caught in a vicious circle because fares do not cover operating costs, as patronage declines and expenses rise, the fares are increased, which drives away passengers and leads to service reduction and still higher fares

urban cluster

in the US, an urban area with between 2,500 and 50,000 inhabitants

urbanized area

in the United States, an urban area with at least 50,000 inhabitants.

metropolitan statistical area (MSA)

includes an urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000, the county within which the city is located, and adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central city's county

typical conditions in informal settlements

informal settlements have few services because neither the city nor the residents can afford them. thus, homes are often primitive shelters made with scavenged cardboard, wood boxes, sackcloth, and crushed beverage cans. latrines may be designated by the settlement's leaders, and water is carried from a central well or dispensed from a truck. electrical service may be stolen by running a wire from the nearest power line. in the absence of bus service or available private cars, a resident may have to walk two hours to reach a place of employment

concentric zone model in developing regions, specifically in Sub-Saharan Africa (Harm deBlij) example city: Nairobi, Kenya

inner rings house higher-income people. inner rings have the most attractive residential areas becausectse they are near business and consumer services, and offer such vital public services as water, electricity, paved roads, and garbage pickup. as cities grow, rings are constantly being added on the periphery to accommodate immigrants from rural areas attracted by job opportunity. much of the housing in the outer rings is in informal settlements

social challenge faced by underclass: crime

inner-city neighborhoods have a relatively high share of a metropolitan area's serious crimes, such as murder. a relatively high percentage of victims, as well as those arrested for murder, in cities are minorities. violence may erupt when two gangs fight over the boundaries between their drug distribution areas

social challenge faced by underclass: inadequate services

inner-city neighborhoods lack adequate police and fire protection, shops, hospitals, clinics, and other health-care facilities. food deserts are especially common in low-income inner-city areas

social challenge faced by underclass: inadequate job skills

inner-city residents are increasingly unable to compete for jobs; they lack technical skills needed for most jobs as fewer than half complete high school. in the past, people with limited education could become factory workers or filing clerks, but today these jobs require skills in computing and handling electronics

smart growth

legislation and regulations to limit suburban sprawl and preserve farmland

social challenge faced by underclass: municipal finances

low-income residents in inner-city neighborhoods require public services, but they can pay very little of the taxes to support the services. central cities face a growing gap between the cost of needed services in inner-city neighborhoods and the availability of funds to pay for them

three ways a European CBD differs from a North American CBD

more people live in the CBD in Europe, more people in Europe's CBDs in part because they are attracted to the concentration of consumer services like cultural activities and animated nightlife, most prominent structures in Europe's CBDs are often (semi) public services, situated on the most important public squares, like churches or formal royal palaces

suburbanization of business services and factories

offices that don't require face-to-face contact are increasingly moving to suburbs, where rents are lower than in the CBD. factories and warehouses also increasingly locate in suburbs for more space, cheaper land, and better truck access. suburban locations have also posed hardships from some employees, especially lower-status workers, such as secretaries and custodians; these employees may live in neighborhoods that aren't convenient to where they work

alternative vehicle technology that will impact our cities in the future: hybrid

sales of hybrids increased rapidly during the first decade of the 21st century, led by Toyota's success with the Prius. a gasoline engine powers the vehicle at higher speeds, and at low speeds, when the gas engine is at its least efficient, an electric motor takes over. energy that would otherwise be waster in coasting and braking is also captured as electricity and stored until needed

social challenge faced by underclass: homelessness

several million people are homeless in the U.S. most of these people are homeless because they cannot afford housing and have no regular income. affordable housing is increasingly difficult to find in cities. homelessness may have been sparked by family problems or job loss

the reason gentrification has been criticized

since renovating an old inner-city home is often more expensive than buying a new one in the suburbs, cities encourage the process by providing low-cost loans and tax breaks. public expenditures for renovation have been criticized as subsidies for the middle class at the expense of people with lower incomes, who are sometimes forced to move out of the gentrified neighborhoods because the rents in the area suddenly become too high for them

multiple nuclei model in developing regions, specifically in South-East Asia (T.G. McGee) example city: Jakarta, Indonesia

superimposes on concentric zones several nodes of informal settlements and what McGee called "alien" zones, where foreigners, mostly Chinese, live and work. McGee found Southeast Asian countries typically don't have a strong CBD instead, the various functions of the CBD are spread to different nodes. evidence of this can be shown by a complex mix of ethnic groups. during the apartheid era, South Africa was a great example of this as each race was segregated into different areas

sprawl

the development of suburbs at relatively low density and at locations that are not contiguous to the existing built-up area

reasons why high-rise public housing is unsatisfactory

the elevators were frequently broken, juveniles terrorized other people in the hallways, and drug use and crime rates were high. some observers claimed that the high-rise buildings were responsible for the problem because too many low-income families were concentrated into a high density environment (racist?)

rush hour

the four consecutive 15-minute periods in the morning and evening with the heaviest volumes of traffic, accounts for as much as 40% of all trips made into or out of the CBD

edge cities

the nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway. these cities originated as suburban residences for people who worked in the central city, and then shopping malls were built to be near the residents

gentrification

the process of converting an urban neighborhood from a predominantly low-income renter-occupied area to a predominantly middle-class owner-occupied area

annexation

the process of legally adding land area to a city

social area analysis

the study of where people of varying living standards, ethnic background, and lifestyle live within an urban area. this helps to create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live, depending on their particular personal characteristics

the trolley story in the U.S.

the trolley - now known as fixed light-rail transit - was once relegated exclusively to tourist attractions in New Orleans and San Francisco but is now making a comeback in North America. since 1975, 21 new light-rail systems have been opened in the U.S. Dallas and L.A., long dependent entirely on motor vehicles, now have the two largest U.S. systems (over 100 km each) after opening in 1990

social challenge faced by underclass: drugs

trapped in a homeless environment, some inner-city residents turn to drugs. although drugs are a problem in suburbs too, rates of use have increased most rapidly in inner cities. some drug users obtain money through criminal activties

social challenge faced by underclass: culture of poverty

unwed mothers give birth to 2/3 of babies in the U.S. in inner-city neighborhoods, and 80% of children in the inner city live with only one parent. due to inadequate childcare services, single mothers may be forced to choose between working to generate income and staying at home to take care of the children

census tracts

urban areas in the U.S. that each contain approximately 5,000 residents and correspond, where possible, to neighborhood boundaries

sector model in developing regions, specifically in Latin America (Ernest Griffin, Larry Ford) example city: São Paulo, Brazil

wealthy people push out from the center in a well-defined elite residential sector. this elite sector form on either side of a narrow spine containing office, shops and amenities attractive to the wealthy. wealthy are also attracted to the center because water and electricity services are more readily available and reliable than elsewhere