AP LANG KEY TERMS

Antithesis:

long def: "putting opposites together"; contrast or opposition between the first part and second part of a sentence short def: contrasting opposites in the same sentence example: Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit.

Connotation

long def: The nonliteral, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes. short def: how a word makes you feel, our understanding example: economical vs. cheap, conversationalist vs. chatty

Rhetorical modes

long def: This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes and their purposes are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to re-create, invent, or visually present a person, place, event, or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing. These four writing modes are sometimes referred to as modes of discourse. short def: different kinds/styles of writing example: exposition, argumentation, persuasive, description, narration

Figure of speech

long def: a device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. short def: a phrase or word having different meanings than its literal meanings examples: apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, understatement, pun, etc.

Allusion

long def: a direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious, topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use multiple layers of allusion. short def: using a commonly known word or phrase to describe a person or thing example: You're acting like such a Scrooge! Alluding to Dickens's A Christmas Carol, this line means that the person is being miserly and selfish, just like the character Scrooge from the story.

Personification

long def: a figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader. short def: a form of figurative language in which something that is not human is given human characteristics example: Lightning danced across the sky

Climax (progression/klimax)

long def: a figure of speech in which words, phrases, or clauses are arranged in order of increasing importance, frequently used in persuasion to create false dilemmas and and to focus attention on the positive aspects of the subject at hand. short def: when phrases or words are listen in order of importance example: from the Bible, 1 Corinthians 13:13, "There are three things that will endure: faith, hope, and love. But the greatest of these is love."

Hyperbole

long def: a figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. short def: ironic, exaggerated figure of speech example: I've told you to clean your room a million times! I'm so hungry I could eat a horse

Metaphor

long def: a figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful. short def: comparing unlike things example: The calm lake was a mirror.

Synecdoche

long def: a kind of metonymy when a whole is represented by naming one of its parts, or vice versa. short def: a word or phrase that refers to a part of something is substituted to stand in for the whole, or vice versa. example: "all hands on deck" is a demand for all of the crew to help, yet the word "hands"—just a part of the crew—stands in for the whole crew.

Extended metaphor

long def: a metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work. short def: a metaphor that is extended over multiple lines or throughout the work. example: from Shakespeare's As You Like It, "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players; / They have their exits and their entrances; And one man in his time plays many parts."

Anecdote

long def: a short narrative detailing particulars of an interesting episode or event. The term most frequently refers to an incident in the life of a person. short def: short detailed story of a person/event example: if a group of coworkers are discussing pets, and one coworker tells a story about how her cat comes downstairs at a certain time every night, then that coworker has just shared an anecdote.

Analogy

long def: a similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging. short def: comparing two things to each other example: kitten : cat :: puppy : dog

Paradox

long def: a statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. short def: a statement that may seem contradictory but can be true example: "You can't get a job without experience, and you can't get experience without getting a job."

Metonymy

long def: a term from the Greek meaning "changed label" or "substitute name," metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it. A news release that claims "the White House declared" rather that "the President declared" is using metonymy. The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact. short def: use of a linked term to stand in for an object or concept. example: Hollywood (represents associations with the movie industry) Press (represents associations with news organizations)

Archetype

long def: a typical character, an action or a situation that seems to represent such universal patterns of human nature short def: a character that represents a natural/worldly theme example: The Bully

Caricature

long def: a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics short def: usually exaggerated description of a person for comic effect example: Her ears were smoking, and her hair was on fire.

Transition

long def: a word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. short def: words or phrases that tell readers that a new thought, paragraph, or section is coming example: furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly and on the contrary

Satire

long def: a work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. short def: a technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or a society, by using humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule. example: Most political cartoons are satirical - they use humor, irony, or exaggeration to make a point about politics. For example, one particularly famous cartoon from 2013 shows a homeless man using newspapers as a blanket; the headlines on those papers all say things like "Wall Street Soars" and "Corporate Profits Booming." The ironic juxtaposition in the image calls attention to the gaps between a successful stock market and the lingering poverty and joblessness experienced by many Americans today.

Parallelism

long def: also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm. short def: balancing two or more ideas or arguments that are equally important example: She likes to cook, jog, and read

Deductive reasoning

long def: an argument in which it is thought that the premises provide a guarantee of the truth of the conclusion. In a deductive argument, the premises are intended to provide support for the conclusion that is so strong that, if the premises are true, it would be impossible for the conclusion to be false. short def: way of building an argument from general premises to a conclusion example: All birds have feathers. All robins are birds. Therefore, robins have feathers.

Trope

long def: an artful variation from expected modes of expression of thoughts and ideas., a figure of speech involving a "turn" or change of sense—a use of the word in a sense other than its proper or literal one. short def: any type of figure of speech, theme, image, character, or plot element that is used many times. a figure of speech through which speakers or writers intend to express meanings of words differently than their literal meanings example: metaphor, metonymy, personification, hyperbole, irony, etc.

Interlacement

long def: combines anaphora and epistrophe by repeating words at both the beginning and the ending of sentences short def: repeating the same words in the first and last clause of the sentence example: "Who are they who have often broken treaties? The Carthaginians. Who are they who have waged war with severest cruelty? The Carthaginians. Who are they who have blemished the face of Italy? The Carthaginians. Who are they now who ask for pardon? The Carthaginians. See then how appropriate it is to let their request be granted." —Ad Herrenium

Scheme

long def: figures of speech that deal with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds, rather than the meaning of words. short def: figures of speech that deal with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds instead of the meaning of words example: parallelism, antithesis, climax (progression/klimax), etc.

Euphemism

long def: from the Greek for "good speech," euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. short def: polite, indirect expressions that replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite, or which suggest something unpleasant example: Negative patient outcome instead of died. Ethnic cleansing instead of genocide. Passed away instead of died.

Rhetoric

long def: from the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively. short def: the art of framing an argument so that it can be appreciated by an audience

Symbol/symbolism

long def: generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete—such as an object, action, character, or scene—that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols in three categories: (1) Natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to represent ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) Conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scales of justice for lawyers). (3) Literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are generally recognized. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction. short def: contains several layers of meaning, often concealed at first sight, and is representative of several other aspects, concepts or traits than those that are visible in the literal translation alone. (means something more than its literal meaning) example: dove, the color black, rose

Thesis

long def: in expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proved the thesis. short def: a statement or central idea that a writer puts forward at the beginning of an argument, and will support throughout the following text

Point of view

long def: in literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view and many subdivision within those. (1) the first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a participant (character in a secondary role), or an observer (a character who merely watches the action). (2) the third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: omniscient and limited omniscient. In the "third person omniscient" point of view, the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters. This all-knowing narrator can reveal what each character feels and thinks at any given moment. The "third person limited omniscient" point of view, as its name implies, presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all remaining characters. This definition applies in questions in the multiple-choice section. However on the essay portion of the exam, the "point of view" carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude. short def: angle of considering things, which shows us the opinion or feelings of the individuals involved in a situation example: Hamlet, the protagonist, explains the feeling of melancholy that afflicts him after his father's death: "I have of late, — but wherefore I know not, — lost all my mirth, forgone all custom of exercises; and indeed, it goes so heavily with my disposition that this goodly frame, the earth, seems to me a sterile promontory." The use of first-person point of view gives us a glimpse into the real inner feelings of frustration of the character. The writer has utilized the first-person point of view to expose Hamlet's feelings in a detailed way.

Anaphora

long def: one of the devices of repetition, in which the same expression (word or words) is repeated at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences. "It was the best of times; it was the worst of times." short def: repeating the same word in the first clause of the sentence example: "I'm sick and tired of you letting me down. I'm sick and tired of you making me mad. And I'm sick and tired of you doing such silly things!"

Juxtaposition

long def: placing things side by side for the purposes of comparison. Authors often use juxtaposition of ideas or examples in order to make a point short def: when two things are placed side by side for comparison, often to highlight the contrast between the elements example: A butler spends his days in a beautiful mansion dressed in a tuxedo, but returns home to a closet-sized apartment in a rundown part of town. Such juxtaposition serves to highlight just how different the butler's quality of living is from his employer's.

Rhetorical question

long def: question not asked for information but for effect. short def: may have an obvious answer, but the questioner asks it to lay emphasis to the point. self-evident, and used for style as an impressive persuasive device. used to emphasize a point or draw the audience's attention. example: Are you stupid? Is the Pope Catholic?

Diction

long def: related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style. short def: word choices an author makes to effectively convey an idea example: "Could you be so kind as to pass me the milk?" Vs. "Give me that!"

Tone

long def: similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author's tone. short def: an attitude of a writer toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally conveyed through the choice of words, or the viewpoint of a writer on a particular subject. example: Some words describing tone are playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, and somber.

Theme

long def: the central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly stated, especially in expository or argumentative writing. short def: the central idea, topic, or point of a story, essay, or narrative example: "love," "war," "revenge," "betrayal," "patriotism," "grace," "isolation," "motherhood," "forgiveness," "wartime loss," "treachery," "rich versus poor," "appearance versus reality," and "help from other-worldly powers."

Style

long def: the consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author (or a writer emulating that author's style). Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, or laconic, to name only a few examples. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental or realist movement. short def: the literary element that describes the ways that the author uses words — the author's word choice, sentence structure, figurative language, and sentence arrangement all work together to establish mood, images, and meaning in the text. example: The waves waltz along the seashore, going up and down in a gentle and graceful rhythm, like dancing.(Descriptive)

Irony

long def: the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant. The difference between what appears to be and what actually is true. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language; (1) In verbal irony, the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) true meaning. (2) In situational irony, events turn out the opposite of what was expected. What the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen. (3) In dramatic irony, facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work. Irony is used for many reasons, but frequently, it's used to create poignancy or humor. short def: a situation in which there is a contrast between expectation and reality. words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. example: a character stepping out into a hurricane and saying, "What nice weather we're having!" Situational irony occurs when the actual result of a situation is totally different from what you'd expect the result to be.

Allegory

long def: the device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence. short def: personification of a symbol regarding a character or story in addition to the literal meaning example: surface story might be about two neighbors throwing rocks at each other's homes, but the hidden story would be about war between countries.

Repetition

long def: the duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern. short def: act of repeating or restating something more than once example: Let it snow, let it snow, let it snow. "Oh, woeful, oh woeful, woeful, woeful day!

Atmosphere

long def: the emotional mood created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood. short def: the mood or tone presented by the author established by the setting/surroundings example: "It was a dark and stormy night...." (sets up a dark/scary atmosphere)

Genre

long def: the major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. short def: category of literary composition. literature characterized by a specific form, content, and style. example: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing.

Ambiguity

long def: the multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage. short def: many meanings example: The bark was painful. (Could mean a tree's bark was rough or a dog's bark communicated pain or hurt the listener's ears).

Epistrophe

long def: the opposite of anaphora, repetition at the end of successive clauses short def: repeating the same word in the last clause of the sentence example: When I was a child, I spoke as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a child.

Alliteration

long def: the repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not used frequently in the multiple-choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage. short def: repetition of sounds in a sentence example: A good cook could cook as much cookies as a good cook who could cook cookies.

Anadiplosis

long def: the repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause. short def: repeating the last word of a sentence and using it at the beginning of the next sentence example: "Strength through purity, purity through faith."

Imagery:

long def: the sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses; we refer to visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, or olfactory imagery. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection (It is the highest flower on the Great Chain of Being). An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery. short def: language used by poets, novelists and other writers to create images in the mind of the reader example: Imagery of light and darkness is repeated many times in Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet. Consider an example from Act I, Scene V: "O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright!It seems she hangs upon the cheek of nightLike a rich jewel in an Ethiope's ear ..."

Denotation

long def: the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. short def: exact definition of a word example: blue (sad and color)

Narrative

long def: the telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events. short def: the account of events, experiences, and details. refers to the story-telling process. story example: example: every novel you have ever read in your life

Colloquial/colloquialism

long def: the use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects. short def: slang /conjoined words/informalities in speech example: wanna, gonna, y'all, ain't

Syntax

long def: the way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as the groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects. short def: the arrangement of words to form a sentence example: "The boy ran hurriedly," reads differently than, "Hurriedly, the boy ran." The difference may be slight, but the syntax in each sentence conveys a different meaning and, perhaps, a different mental image.

Generic conventions

long def: this term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an autobiography and political writing. On the AP language exam, try to distinguish the unique features of a writer's work from those dictated by convention. short def: elements which help the reader or viewer to identify the genre and relate to it. features expressed by the texts which allow them to be placed into a particular genre example: setting, theme, characters, iconography

Mood

long def: this term has two distinct technical meanings in English writing. The first meaning is grammatical and deals with verbal units and a speaker's attitude. The indicative mood is used only for factual sentences. For example, "Joe eats too quickly." The subjunctive mood is used to express conditions contrary to fact. For example, "If I were you, I'd get another job." The imperative mood is used for commands. For example, "Shut the door!" The second meaning of mood is literary, meaning the prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. In this usage, mood is similar to tone and atmosphere. short def: the atmosphere of the narrative. evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and descriptions. example: Charles Dickens creates a calm and peaceful mood in his novel Pickwick Papers: "The river, reflecting the clear blue of the sky, glistened and sparkled as it flowed noiselessly on." The depiction of idyllic scenery imparts a serene and non-violent mood to the readers.

Synthesis

long def: to synthesize is to combine two or more elements to form a new whole. In the AP synthesis essay, the "elements" are the findings of the literature you gather and read; the "new whole" is the conclusion you draw from those findings. short def: to combine two or more elements to form a new whole

Figurative language

long def: writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid. short def: any figure of speech which depends on a non-literal meaning of some or all of the words used. example: alliteration, imagery, personification