AP Psych Unit 5 (mod 31-41)

recall

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

hippocampus

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

wernikes area

An area in the Temporal lobe that is crucial to our ability to interpret both written and spoken language.

broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Steroytype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative steroytype

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

general intelligence

according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

short term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Availibility heuristic (media effect)

an estimate of the likelihood of events based on the availability in memory, come to mind readily.

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram - "go car" - using mostly two-word statements

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

belief perserverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

intrinsic motivation

is the quality of being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge than by external pressures

convergent thinking

narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

linguistic determinism

the strong form of Whorf's hypothesis—that language controls the way we think and interpret the world around us

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

mood congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

lingusitic influence

the weaker form of "linguistic relativity"—the idea that language affects thought (thus our thinking and world view is "relative to" our cultural language).

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision (by Terman at Stanford University) of Binet's original intelligence test.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

Heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

Spearman's general intelligence

a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas

flashbulb memory

a clear, sustained memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

down syndrome

a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

cohort

a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as from a given time period

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

reconsolidation

a process in which previously stored memories, when retrieved are potentially altered before being stored again

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

representativeness heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

divergent thinking

expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

Phoeneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

fixation

in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle to problem solving

morpheme

in language, the smallest unit that carries meaning

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

grit

in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

misinformation effect

occurs when misleading information has distorted one's memory of an event

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Gardener's multiple intelligences

our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Crystalized intelligence (gc)

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical

Thurstone's primary mental abilities

our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

imaginative thinking skills

provide the ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections

cross sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time

explicit memory (also called declaritive memory)

retention of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

implicit memory

retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection

ventursome personality

seeks new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risk, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles

creative environment

sparks, supports, and refines creative ideas

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

deja vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligence tests; contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

normal curve

the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

expertise

well-developed knowledge - furnishes the ideas, images, and phrases we use as mental building blocks