Ap Psyche Chapter 6

10. How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

*Continuous reinforcement occurs when a desired response is reinforced every single time. Learning occurs rapidly with continuous reinforcement, but extinction also occurs rapidly when the reinforcement ends. ---- put money in a drink machine and get a Partial (intermittent) reinforcement occurs when a desired response is only reinforced part of the time. Learning occurs more slowly, but has a greater resistance to extinction. Ex- Slot machines or if you occasionally give into a child's tantrums to keep the peace, they will learn that it works some of the time. *Fixed-ration schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses. Ex- you eat at a restaurant and they stamp a frequent patron card. After you eat there 10 times, you get a free dessert. *Variable ratio schedules give reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses. Ex- slot machines, hunting/fishing *Fixed interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed period of time. Ex. checking the main more frequently when it is closer the time you are expecting a delivery of Checking to see if cookies are finished as it gets closer to the time they should be ready. *Variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Ex. Finally hearing the tone that you have received a text message rewards your behavior of checking over and over again. Variable interval schedules produce slow, but steady responding (because you have no idea when the wait will be over)

9. What are the basic types of reinforces?

A reinforce (in operant conditioning) is any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. Reinforces can be positive: *Money, candy (tangible items) *Love, attention, praise (or even negative attention for an attention starved individual) *Activities (trip to a park) ~ A negative reinforce strengthen behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, like a shock. Negative reinforces are not punishment, they are stimuli that when removed after a response, strengthen the response Negative reinforcers could be: *Taking Advil to stop a headache *Hitting the snooze bar to stop the alarm clock from ringing *Taking drugs to stop withdrawal symptoms Sometimes stimuli can be positive and negative at the same time. A student that fooled off an failed a test that subsequently studies and aces the next test. ~Primary reinforcers are unlearned, innate reinforcing stimuli that satisfy a biological need (eating to curb hunger) ~Conditioned reinforcers (secondary reinforcers) are stimuli that gain their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers. Ex. Rats in Skinner boxes know that a red light means food, and will work to turn on a light to receive food. The light is the conditioned reinforce associated with food. A research team in Britain tested the theory that money is a conditioned reinforcer for food. They proposed that if people are hungry (for food), they would become money-hungry. The experiment proved that people were less likely to share money with people in a room with hunger-arousing smells and people that were food deprived were less likely to give money. ~Immediate reinforcers offer immediate payback. Skinner learned that rats respond to immediate reinforces (humans do aw well). ~Delay reinforces require the ability to be able to delay gratification. Rats are not so good at learning by delayed reinforcers (unlike humans). Ex. Humans and vacations

4. In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

Acquisition is the initial stage, when an individual links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. Higher-order conditioning occurs when a conditioned stimulus (from one conditioned experience) is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker_ conditioned stimulus. Ex. A dog learns that red light predicts the bell and begins responding to the light. Extinction is the diminishing of a conditioned response. It occurs when an unconditioned stimulus doesn't follow a conditioned stimulus. Ex. The tone/bell no longer follows the food. Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a period of an extinguished conditioned response. Generalization is the tendency (once a response has been conditioned) for similar stimuli (to be conditioned) stimuli to cause a similar response. Ex. The dog salivates at the ringing of a bell, a tone, or a doorbell. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. Ex. Approaching a guard dog elicits fear, but approaching a guide dog does not.

3. How does a neutral stimulus become a conditioned stimulus?

An unconditioned stimulus (US) is a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally, automatically) triggers a response. Ex. Dog sees food An unconditional response (UR) is a response that occurs naturally to an unconditioned stimulus. Ex. Dog drools when he sees food A conditioned stimulus occurs when an originally irrelevant stimulus (that after association with an unconditioned stimulus) comes to trigger a conditioned response. Ex. The bell/tine presented when the dog is given food A conditioned response is the learned response to a previously (now conditioned) stimulus Ex. Bell/tone now makes dog drool

5. Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect classical conditioning?

Animals are able to learn the predictability of an event. If a rat hears a tone and is then shocked the rat will show fear at hearing the tone. If a flash of a light follows the shock, the rat will show no reaction to the light. The light follows the shock and therefore adds no new information for the rat. The rat learns expectancy. If a dog is placed in a restraint and shocked (with no way to avoid the shocks), it will learn a sense of helplessness. If the dog is then placed in a situation when it can jump to escape the shock, it will still cower as if it is helpless. This is called learned helplessness (people suffer from it as well). By contrast, a dog that is given the ability to escape the first shock learns to escape the shocks in a new situation (it learned personal control). These two examples show why classical conditioning experiments that ignore cognition are not as successful. Biologically animals are predisposed to learn behaviors that will aid in their survival. Animals (and humans) often develop aversions to foods that have caused nausea and vomiting. John Garcia wanted to prove that not all associations can be learned equally well. He exposed the rats to particular tastes, sights, or sounds (CS) and then gave them drugs/ radiation (US) that lead to nausea and vomiting. The rats developed an aversion to taste, but not to sights or sounds. Reproduction is another area where learning is important to survival. Researchers exposed male Japanese quail with a red light before presenting them with a suitable mate. The Japanese quail were conditioned to get excited when they saw a red light. Humans also make an association with the color red and a woman's sexuality (increased blood flow, blushing, sexual excitement).

Do cognitive processes and biological constraints affect operant conditioning?

B.F. Skinner underestimates how cognitive and biological constraints affected conditioning. Research had shown cognitive mapping, latent learning, and insight play a role in learning. *Cognitive mapping occurs when an organism is able to create a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. Ex- rats that have been allowed to run a maze without a food reward will often run the maze faster when given food reward then rats that have been given the food reward all along. The rats running the maze with no food reward are like people sightseeing in a new town. *Latent learning occurs but isn't apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate to. Ex- the rats from the examples able. children demonstrating behaviors they have witnessed, at a later time when it is necessary. Learning is not just associating a response with a consequence, cognition is also involved. *Intrinsic motivation occurs when an individual had a desire to perform a behavior effectively just for its own sake. Rewards can undermines intrinsic motivation; if you have to be rewarded for doing something it must not be worth doing it on its own. Ex. giving money for grades. Does it work in the long run? *Extrinsic motivation is a wanting to perform a behavior because you will receive a reward or not be punished. *Biologically speaking, training that tries to override an organism's biological tendencies will most over not last (even with rewards/punishments) because the organism will revert back to their natural tendencies.

2. What is classical conditioning, and how did Pavlov's work influence behaviorism?

Classical conditioning occurs when an organism learns to link two or more stimuli and become able to anticipate events. Ivan Pavlov (noble Prize winning Russian Doctor) is famous for his work on classical conditioning with dogs, foods, and bells. Pavlov laid the groundwork for many psychologists to come (like John Watson) and was instrumental in the study of behaviorism.

1. What are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. *We learn by association because our brains connect events that happen in sequence. If someone jumps out and scares you in a dark room, through association you may become afraid of the dark. *Habituation is a form of learning by association. Habituation occurs when an organism has a decrease in response to a stimulus when they are repeatedly *Conditioning is a form learning through association. There are two types of conditioning; classical condition and operant conditioning.

What is observational learning, and how is it enabled by mirror neurons?

Observational learning occurs by observing (watching) others. It is also known as social learning. We learn many behaviors by observing others and then modeling their behaviors. Modeling is just observing and mimicking he observed behavior. Albert Bandura is known as the pioneering researcher in observational learning. He did an experiment with an inflate Bobo doll (clown punching bag doll). He placed a child in a room (working on a drawing) with an adult (playing with Tinker toys). The adult then gets up and punches, kicks, and throws the doll for 10 minutes as the child watched. The researcher then takes the child into another room with lots of great toys and leaves. The researcher returns and tells the child the great toys are being saved for another child, and returns the child to the room with Bobo the clown. The children then model the behavior of the adult towards the Bobo doll. Mirror neurons are located in the frontal lobe of the brain and fire when performing particular actions or observing someone performing those actions. The mirror neuron system in the brain (discovered using PET scans) allows for empathy and imitation. Mirror neurons were discovered by researchers working with monkeys. The monkeys had electrodes implanted near their frontal lobes and the researchers noticed that whenever the monkey brought a peanut to their mouths or watched anyone else eating the electrodes would fire. These researchers stumbled upon mirror neurons. We have learned that our brains allow us to learn by imitation (monkey see, monkey do) and the mirror neurons play a role. Our ability to feel empathy with others (smile, frown, happy, sad) also relies on mirror neurons. If you see someone smile at you, do you smile or frown in response.

8. What is operant conditioning, and how does it differ from classical conditioning?

Operant conditioning is a type of learning where a behavior is strengthened if it is followed by an enforcer (reward) or diminished if followed by a punisher. Classical condition occurs when an individual forms associations between stimuli. It also involves respondent behavior (behaviors that are automatic responses to a stimuli.) Operant conditioning occurs when individuals associate their actions with the consequences (enforcers or punishers). B.F Skinner was a famous psychologist known for creating the operant chamber, or better known as the Skinner box. Skinner used his box to study behavior and expand on Edward Thorndlike's law of effect (rewarded behavior generally reoccurs). Skinner learned to shape (an operant conditioning procedure where reinforces guide behavior toward the desired behavior) animal's behaviors using his Skinner box (box that has a bar/key to release food/water for a desired behavior or a shock). He was able to reinforce uncommon behaviors in pigeons like walking in a figure 8, playing Ping-Pong, or keeping a missile on course by pecking a screen with its beak. Skinner conditioned animals to recognize discriminative stimulus (stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to relate stimuli not associated with reinforcement). Ex. Conditioning a pigeon to peck after seeing a human face but not other images.

6. Why is Pavlov's work important?

Pavlov taught us not only that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning that applies to all species, but that psychological phenomena can be studied objectively. Later it was discovered that congnition and biological predisposition do place some limits on conditioning.

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Prosocial modeling is repeating the positive, constructive, helpful behavior to which one it exposed. Antisocial modeling is repeating the negative behaviors to which one is exposed. Ex. Violence on TV, abuse in the some, sex on TV If a role model's (parent, teacher, coach, etc.) behavior doesn't match their words. (act not as i do, but as i say) a child very well may imitate the negative behavior observed.

. How does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment is any event that decreases the behavior that follows it. Reinforcement increase the chance of a behavior and punishment decreases the chance of a behavior. Swift and consistent punishment can quickly curb unwanted behaviors, and punishments can be undesirable consequences (sparking) or taking away something desirable (no video games) What are four drawback of physically punishing children? *punished behavior suppressed, but not forgotten. Ex. you have a "potty mouth". Your parent spanks you, and they don't hear you using "potty mouth" again. You parents think the punishment worked. *Punishment teaches discrimination. Ex- did the spanking keep you from using "potty mouth" or are you just using "potty mouth" at school and not at home. *Punishment can teach fear. Ex. children learn to associate dear not just with the undesirable behavior, but also with the person delivering the punishment. *Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems. Ex- aggressive criminal and abusive parents often come from abusive families. -Remember that punishment TELLS you what not to do, reinforcement SHOWS you what to do.

7. What have been some applications of classical conditioning?

The body's immune system may learn to respond to a taste that accompanies the administering of a drug, where the taste by itself can elicit an immune response. Drug addicts are told to stay away from people or situations that they associate with getting high. Being in those situations can trigger a relapse. John B. Watson and the "Little Albert" experiment