AP Psychology Exam Study

dependent vs. independent variable

An independent variable is the variable that is changed or controlled in a scientific experiment to test the effects on the dependent variable. A dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in a scientific experiment.

self-efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.

pancreas

An organs in the abdominal cavity with two roles. The first is an exocrine role: to produce digestive enzymes and bicarbonate, which are delivered to the small intestine via the pancreatic duct. The second is an endocrine role: to secrete insulin and glucagon into the bloodstream to help regulate blood glucose levels.

amnesia (anteriograde & retrograde)

Anteriograde: decreased ability to retain new information. Retrograde: inability to recall events that occurred before the development of the amnesia

conflicts: kinds in decision making

Approach-Approach: deciding between two appealing goals. (Ex. It's time to plan your family vacation for the year. Your kids want Disney, you want the beach. You begin researching the Disney vacation and see all the fun things the whole family can experience. This leads you to set up a schedule for the entire week. By the time you're ready to move on to researching the beach vacation, you've already got your mind set on the Disney vacation. The decision is made.) Approach-Avoidance: occurs when an individual moves closer to a seemingly desirable object, only to have the potentially negative consequences of contacting that object push back against the closing behavior. (Ex. Wanting to eat cake but not to gain the weight) Avoidance-Avoidance: making a decision between two equally undesirable choices. (Ex. Housework or homework)

Baumrind's research on parenting styles & self-esteem

Baumrind's theory is that there is a close relationship between the type of parenting style and children's behavior. Different parenting styles can lead to different child development and child outcomes.

blind study and double blind study

Blind: A study done in such a way that the patients or subjects do not know what treatment they are receiving to ensure that the results are not affected by a placebo effect Double Blind: neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment. This procedure is utilized to prevent bias in research results.

Albert Bandura: major view on learning and Bobo Doll experiment

Bobo doll experiment, groundbreaking study on aggression led by psychologist Albert Bandura that demonstrated that children are able to learn through the observation of adult behaviour. The experiment was executed via a team of researchers who physically and verbally abused an inflatable doll in front of preschool-age children, which led the children to later mimic the behaviour of the adults by attacking the doll in the same fashion.

scaffolding (Lev Vygotsky's concept)

By mentoring children and giving them new words, parents and others can provide a temporary scaffold from which children can step to higher levels of thinking

galvanic skin response (GRS)

Canges in sweat gland activity that are reflective of the intensity of our emotional state, otherwise known as emotional arousal

nervous system: major parts

Central Nervous System (CNS)- brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)- portion of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord. It includes all of the sensory and motor neurons, and subdivisions called the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. *Somatic Nervous System- subdivision of PNS that includes motor nerves that innervate skeletal (voluntary) muscle. *Autonomic Nervous System- subdivision of PNS that includes motor nerves that innervate smooth (involuntary) or heart muscle. Its sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight"; the parasympathetic nervous system causes bodily changes for maintenance or rest. -Sympathetic Nervous System- subdivision of PNS and ANS whose stimulation results in responses that help the body deal with stressful events. -Parasympathetic Nervous System- subdivision of PNS and ANS whose stimulation calms your body following sympathetic stimulation by restoring normal body processes. Spinal Cord- portion of the central nervous system below the medulla oblongata.

central vs. peripheral route to persuasion

Central route to persuasion occurs when a person is persuaded by the content of the message. Peripheral route to persuasion occurs when a person is persuaded by something other than the message's content.

Clever Hans experiment

Clever Hans was an Orlov Trotter horse that was claimed to have been able to perform arithmetic and other intellectual tasks. After a formal investigation in 1907, psychologist Oskar Pfungst demonstrated that the horse was not actually performing these mental tasks, but was watching the reaction of his human observers. Pfungst discovered this artifact in the research methodology, wherein the horse was responding directly to involuntary cues in the body language of the human trainer, who had the faculties to solve each problem. The trainer was entirely unaware that he was providing such cues. In honor of Pfungst's study, the anomalous artifact has since been referred to as the Clever Hans effect and has continued to be important knowledge in the observer-expectancy effect and later studies in animal cognition.

complementary colors

Colors located directly opposite one another on the color wheel

chunking

Combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held in short-term memory.

Robert Sternberg's Triarchic view of intelligence

Componential intelligence- analytical-Abstract thinking & logical reasoning-Verbal & mathematical skills Experiential intelligence (creative intelligence) -Divergent thinking (generating new ideas)-Ability to deal with novel situations Contextual intelligence (practical intelligence) -Ability to apply knowledge to the real world Ability to shape one's environment; choose an environment- street smarts

kinds of validity

Construct validity: Does the test measure the concept that it's intended to measure? Content validity: Is the test fully representative of what it aims to measure? Face validity: Does the content of the test appear to be suitable to its aims?

Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus)

Describes how the ability of the brain to retain information decreases in time.

Carl Rogers: person (client) centered therapy

Developed in the 1940s diverged from the traditional model of the therapist as expert and moved instead toward a nondirective, empathic approach that empowers and motivates the client in the therapeutic process.

absolute threshold vs. difference threshold (jnd)

Difference threshold: the ability to detect differences in stimulation levels Absolute Threshold: the level in some property of a stimulus at which the subject is able to detect the presence of the stimulus

divergent vs. convergent thinking

Divergent: process of thinking that explores multiple possible solutions in order to generate creative ideas. Convergent: process of figuring out a concrete solution to any problem

Francis Galton's research

English scientist (cousin of Charles Darwin) who explored many fields: heredity, meteorology, statistics, psychology, anthropology. differential psychology AKA "London School" of Experimental Psychology; Contributions: behavioral genetics, maintains that personality & ability depend almost entirely on genetic inheritance; compared identical & fraternal twins, hereditary differences in intellectual ability

equity theory of relationships

Equity theory proposes that relationship outcomes, such as satisfaction and continued involvement, are based upon evaluations of how just or fair the distribution of costs and benefits are for each partner (Walster, Walster, and Berscheid 1978). The four main propositions of equity theory indicate that partners judge the distribution of costs and benefits according to socially acceptable rules of fairness. When their calculations indicate they are in an inequitable arrangement, partners will become distressed and try to adjust the costs and benefits of the relationship to make the relationship equitable.

extroversion vs. introversion

Extro: manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behavior Intro: manifested in more reserved and solitary behavior.

blind spot bias

Failing to recognize your own cognitive biases is a bias in itself. People notice cognitive and motivational biases much more in others than in themselves.

feedback-loop mechanism

Feedback loops are biological mechanisms whereby homeostasis is maintained. This occurs when the product or output of an event or reaction changes the organism's response to that reaction. Positive feedback loops, in which a change in a given direction causes additional change in the same direction. For example, an increase in the concentration of a substance causes feedback that produces continued increases in concentration. Negative feedback loops, in which a change in a given direction causes change in the opposite direction. For example, an increase in the concentration of a substance causes feedback that ultimately causes the concentration of the substance to decrease.

schedules of reinforcement

Fixed Ratio (FR) every so many Variable Ratio (VR) after unpredictable number Fixed Interval (FI) every so often Variable Interval (VI) unpredictably often

reality principle (function of ego)

Freudian theory, governing principles of ego takes into account what is practical and acceptable

linkage analysis

Genetic research strategy in which occurrence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological process that is known to be located on a particular chromosome.

Cannon's critique of James-Lange theory

He indicated that some of the problems with the James-Lange theory were: a) People who show different emotions may have the same physiological (visceral) state b) visceral changes are often too difficult to notice by a person having the experience to be used as cues c) visceral changes are often too slow to be a source of emotions, which erupt very quickly. For example, when something bad happens to you, do you always cry before you feel sad? Or can you feel sad before crying? d) Physiological arousal may occur without the experience of an emotion: For example: exercise --> increased heart rate --> no emotional significance

Ebbinhaus' research on memory

Herman Ebbinghaus was the first to experimentally investigate the properties of human memory. Influenced by the British Empiricists, Ebbinghaus assumed that the process of committing something to memory involved the formation of new associations and that these associations would be strengthened through repetition.

high vs. low self-monitors

High self-monitors are motivated and skilled at adapting to the expectations of the situation. Low self-monitors gravitate more toward consistency: They're adept at expressing themselves and transcending the constraints of social norms.

Id, Ego, Superego (Freud)

Id - a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification. Ego - the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. Superego - the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

identification vs. internalization (Freudian terms)

Identification: the process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos (part of Freud's Oedipus complex theory, the child who is attracted to his mother becomes like his father whom he sees as a rival) Internalization: the integration of attitudes, values, standards and the opinions of others into one's own identity or sense of self

Zimbardo's prison experiment

In 1971, psychologist Philip Zimbardo and his colleagues set out to create an experiment that looked at the impact of becoming a prisoner or prison guard. Zimbardo, a former classmate of Stanley Milgram (who is best-known for his famous obedience experiment, was interested in expanding upon Milgram's research. He wanted to further investigate the the impact of situational variables on human behavior. The researchers set up a mock prison in the basement of Standford University's psychology building, and then selected 24 undergraduate students to play the roles of both prisoners and guards. The participants were selected from a larger group of 70 volunteers because they had no criminal background, lacked psychological issues and had no major medical conditions. The volunteers agreed to participate for a one- to two-week period in exchange for $15 a day. According to Zimbardo and his colleagues, the Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrates the powerful role that the situation can play in human behavior. Because the guards were placed in a position of power, they began to behave in ways they would not normally act in their everyday lives or in other situations. The prisoners, placed in a situation where they had no real control, became passive and depressed.

Elizabeth Loftus' research on eyewitness testimony

In Eyewitness Testimony, Elizabeth Loftus makes the psychological case against the eyewitness. Beginning with the basics of eyewitness fallibility, such as poor viewing conditions, brief exposure, and stress, Loftus moves to more subtle factors, such as expectations, biases, and personal stereotypes, all of which can intervene to create erroneous reports. Loftus also shows that eyewitness memory is chronically inaccurate in surprising ways. An ingenious series of experiments reveals that memory can be radically altered by the way an eyewitness is questioned after the fact. New memories can be implanted and old ones unconsciously altered under interrogation.

individualistic vs. collectivistic culture

Individualism- giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications Collectivism- giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

inductive vs. deductive reasoning

Inductive: Developing generalizations from specific observations Deductive: Developing specific predictions from general principles

Babinsky response

Infant reflex (goes away over time): in response to touch on bottom of foot, the infant's toes splay outward, then curled in

Rational Emotive Therapy (RET)

Introduced in the 1950s by Albert Ellis Form of therapy where you identify irrational beliefs and negative thought patterns that may lead to emotional or behavioral issues

Karen Horney's views on development

Karen Horney agreed with Freud that childhood is important. But she believed that childhood is social. Horney said childhood anxiety, caused by the dependent child's sense of helplessness, triggers our desire for love and security. Horney countered Freud's assumptions that women have weak superegos and suffer "penis envy," and she attempted to balance the bias she detected in this masculine view of psychology.

Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's theory

Lawrence Kohlberg conducted many studies on moral reasoning. His research had a distinct male bias as not many of his subjects that he surveyed and interviewed were female. He seems to suggest that males often reason through moral issues at higher levels than females. Gilligan pointed out the male bias in Kohlberg's research and argued that females have different ways of reasoning through moral issues and this does not make them inferior to male reasoning but only points out that the females value different things when trying to reason through moral issues.

Broca's aphasia (expressive aphasia)

Located in left frontal lobe; Damage in this area could lead to an inability to "produce speech."

dream analysis (Freud's two levels)

Manifest dream and latent dream Freud thought there was two parts: the dream itself as it is remembered, and the hidden meaning of the dream. Latent is the "real, hidden dream" Manifest is the dream you remember

hierarchy of needs (Maslow)

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, self actualization needs, self transcendence

Garcia Effect

Named after researcher John Garcia, it is basically food aversion that occurs when people attribute illness to a particular food.

ganglion cells in retina

Neurons that relay information from the retina to the brain via the optic nerve.

hybrid

Offspring of crosses between parents with different traits

imaging techniques: PET, CAT, MRI, FMRI

PET (positron emission tomography)- a visual display of brian activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task. CAT (computerized axial tomography)- combines data from several X-rays to produce a detailed image of structures inside the body. MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)- a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy. fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)- a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive fMRI scans. fMRI scans show brain function.

sexual characteristics (primary vs. secondary)

Primary: body structure that makes sexual reproduction possible; secondary: non-reproductive sexual traits

altruism/prosocial behavior

Prosocial behavior: voluntary, intentional behavior that results in benefits for another person. Altruistic: it is motivated by a genuine desire to benefit another person, without any expectation of benefits to oneself

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)

Purpose: used by health care professionals in the United States and much of the world as the authoritative guide to the diagnosis of mental disorders Limits: Does not define causes or treatments. It contains descriptions, symptoms, and other criteria for diagnosing mental disorders.

paradoxical sleep: why is REM called this?

REM sleep- rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as PARADOXICAL SLEEP, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

measures of variability: range and standard deviation

Range: the difference between the highest and lowest values. Standard deviation: average distance from the mean.

color blindness

Red-green color blindness Blue-Yellow colorblindness Complete colorblindness The most common kinds of color blindness are genetic. You can also get color blindness later in life if you have a disease or injury that affects your eyes or brain.

lithium (as a treatment for bi-polar disorders)

Reduces likelihood of suicide with some effectiveness for bipolar depression

deafness: two kinds - neural and conduction deafness

Sensorineural hearing loss, or SNHL, happens after inner ear damage. Problems with the nerve pathways from your inner ear to your brain can also cause SNHL. Soft sounds may be hard to hear. Even louder sounds may be unclear or may sound muffled. A conductive deafness is a deficit related to an obstructed, or altered, transmission of sound to the tympanic membrane or through the ossicle chain of the middle ear.

brain: what part do we share with animals? How do we differ?

Share: cerebral cortex, a cerebellum, and a brain stem Also, the same kinds of cells make up all brains. they are made of neurons, glial cells, and the cells that make the capillaries that bring blood into the brain. Differ: Brain-to-body weight ratio, Folds in the brain

intelligence tests (Stanford-Binet & Wechsler)

Stanford-Binet: the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligience test. Predicts academic achievement. Wechsler: (Weshcler's Adult Intelligience Scale) the WAIS is the most widely used itelligience test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests

Schachter two factor theory of emotion

Suggests that the emotions we feel depend on our appraisal of both our internal physical state and the external situation in which we find ourselves.

adaptive behavior

The collection of conceptual, social, and practical skills learned by people so they can function in everyday life

Premack principle

The concept, developed by David Premack, that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task

Discrimination

"discrimination" is unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group. "discrimination learning" refers to the formation of associations between different stimuli and corresponding outcomes or behaviors. It enables animals to choose different responses for different stimuli.

endorphins

"morphine within" - natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure.

Erik Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

(1) Trust vs. Mistrust; (2) Autonomy vs. Shame; (3) Initiative vs. Guilt; (4) Industry vs. Inferiority; (5) Identity vs. Confusion; (6) Intimacy vs. Isolation; (7) Generativity vs. Self-absorption; (8) Integrity vs. Despair.

Expectancy Theory

(a.k.a. mental set, perceptual set) proposes that an individual will behave or act in a certain way because they are motivated to select a specific behavior over others due to what they expect the result of that selected behavior will be

newborn baby reflexes

*Rooting- neonate's response of turning his/her head when touched on the cheek and then trying to put the stimulus into his/her mouth. What touches the newborn's cheek is frequently a nipple. *Sucking- automatic response of drawing in anything at the mouth. *Swallowing- a contraction of throat muscles that enables food to pass into the esophagus without the neonate choking. *Grasping- infant closes his/her fingers tightly around an object put in his/her hand. *Moro (or Startle)- a loud noise or sudden drop causes the neonate to automatically arch his/her back, fling his/her limbs out, and quickly retract them.

gustatory sense

- detects only sweet, sour, salty, bitter - technical name for the sense of taste

experiment: be able to design one

-Ask a question or find a research problem to solve. -Determine what you will test to answer this question. -Review current knowledge on the subject. -Design an experiment. -Perform the experiment. -Analyze results using statistical methods. -Draw your conclusion and share the results with the scientific community.

ethics of doing studies with humans

-beneficence (doing good) -non‐maleficence (preventing or mitigating harm) -fidelity and trust within the fiduciary investigator/ participant relationship -personal dignity -autonomy pertaining to both informed, voluntary, competent decision making and the privacy of personal information.

group therapy (advantages of )

-low cost -exposure to other people with similar problems; social interaction with others -social and emotional support from people with similar disorders or problems

interference (proactive vs. retroactive)

-proactive: the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information -retroactive: the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

induced motion

The illusory movement of one object that is caused by the movement of another object that is nearby.

localization of sound (how is it done? Why are two ears needed?)

..., a listener's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected sound or the methods in acoustical engineering to simulate the placement of an auditory cue in a virtual 3D space .

Kubler Ross' stages of dying

1. Denial 2. Anger 3. Bargaining 4. Depression 5. Acceptance

Freud's stage of psychosexual development

1. Oral Stage (birth to 18 mos.) Primary satisfaction from sucking & chewing 2. Anal Stage (18 mos. to 3) Pleasure derived from elimination 3. Phallic Stage (3 to 5 or 6) Pleasure derived from sexual organs Sexual desire for opposite sex parent. Oedipus or Electra complex 4. Latency Period (6 to 12) Id impulses not a factor 5. Genital Stage (adulthood) Heterosexual interests predominate

loss of information from short term memory

The memory stage with a small capacity (7 +- 2 chunks) and brief duration (< 30 seconds) that we are consciously aware of and in which we do our problem solving, reasoning and decision making.

Ainsworth Strange Situation (Paradigm)

The original test of the infant-parent bond the Strange Situation tests how babies or young children respond to the temporary absence of their mothers.

deinstitutionalization

1960s and 1970s governmental policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals

engram

The physical changes in the brain associated with a memory. It is also known as the memory trace.

Benjamin Worf's theory of linguistic relativism (determinism)

The proposal that the particular language one speaks influences the way one thinks about reality He argued that culture and language informed thinking and that multiple logical systems revealed unnecessary narrowness in the core assumptions of Western science.

all-or-nothing law (all-or-none) of neural firing

The size of the action potential is not affected by increases in the intensity of stimulation beyond the threshold level (it either fires or it doesnt, like a gun)

frustration-aggression hypothesis

The theory, proposed in 1939 by John Dollard and colleagues, that (a) frustration always produces an aggressive urge and (b) aggression is always the result of prior frustrations.

Wilder Penfield's research on the brain

To the study of people suffering from epilepsy, Penfield brought the modern techniques of neurosurgery—which allow the surgeon to study the exposed brain of the conscious patient under local anesthesia—while using electrical methods for stimulating and recording from the cortex and from deeper structures. The patient is able to cooperate fully in describing the results of cortical stimulation. By this surgical method it is possible in some patients to localize and remove a brain lesion responsible for epileptic attacks. Penfield used this approach primarily for the treatment of focal epilepsy. His pioneer work yielded impressive results, and his techniques for the surgical treatment of epilepsy became standard procedure in neurosurgery.

cognitive map - as evidence of latent learning

Tolman coined the term cognitive map, which is an internal representation (or image) of external environmental feature or landmark. He thought that individuals acquire large numbers of cues (i.e. signals) from the environment and could use these to build a mental image of an environment (i.e. a cognitive map). By using this internal representation of a physical space they could get to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of environmental features. Short cuts and changeable routes are possible with this model.

drives

Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism (hunger, thirst, fear, the need for sleep)

identical twin research

Using identical twins is helpful to differentiate between a characteristic being due to "nature" or "nurture" because the twins are genetically the same.

mnemonic device

Using unrelated stimuli or words to help you remember information. Encoding strategy

perspectives in psychology (major ones)

7 major views on human nature are: biological; links between biological and psychological processes psychodynamic; studies how how the unconscious influences behavior and uses that info to treat psychological disorders behavioral; studies observable behavior and its explanation by principles of learning humanistic; historically significant perspective, emphasizing the growth potential of healthy people cognitive; study of all the mental activities associated with thinking and communicating evolutionary; studies the evolution of behavior and mind, using principles of natural selection social-cultural; studies how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

Rational Emotive Therapy

A Cognitive Therapy based on Albert Ellis' theory that cognitions control our emotions and behaviors; therefore, changing the way we think about things will affect the way we feel and the way we behave.

Hawthorne Effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Oedipal conflict

A child's sexual interest in his or her opposite-sex parent, typically resolved through identification with the same-sex parent

Down's syndrome

A congenital disorder caused by having an extra Chromosome 21.

L-dopa

A drug for Parkinson's disease that contains the precursors to dopamine so that once it is in the brain, it will be converted to dopamine.

feral children

A feral child is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age, and so has had little or no experience of human care, behavior, or human language.

syllogism

A form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion.

stereotype

A generalized belief about a group of people

method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations.

hypothalamus

A neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

Tourette's syndrome

A neurological disorder beginning in childhood that involves stereotypical, repetitive motor movements (tics). These are often accompanied by multiple vocal outbursts such grunting or inappropriate words such as swearing. It is about three times more prevalent in boys than in girls.

norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

Cooper's research on visual processing (using cats)

A physiological and behavioral study in cats of the effect of early visual experience with contours of a single orientation. Three kittens were reared in visual environments that consisted of stripes at one of three orientations - horizontal, right oblique, or left oblique. Two additional cats were reared as controls. Behavioral testing of the stripe-reared animals demonstrated a deficit in visual acuity for orientations that were not present in the early visual environment. No comparable deficit emerged for either of the control cats.

testable hypothesis

A prediction that has been formulated specifically enough so that it is clear what observations would confirm the prediction and what observations would challenge it.

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information

reflex arc

A relatively direct connection between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron that allows an extremely rapid response to a stimulus, often without conscious brain involvement.

sample

A relatively small proportion of people who are chosen in a survey so as to be representative of the whole.

groupthink

A situation in which group members seek unanimous agreement despite their individual doubts

homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

major neurotransmitters (ACh, GABA, Serotonin, Dopamine, endorphins)

ACh- most common type of neurotransmitter GABA- chief inhibitory neurotransmitter because it blocks certain brain signals and decreases activity in your nervous system. When GABA attaches to a protein in your brain known as a GABA receptor, it produces a calming effect Serotonin- key hormone that stabilizes our mood, feelings of well-being, and happiness Dopamine- Neurotransmitter, nervous system uses it to send messages between nerve cells endorphins- Endorphins are polypeptides made by the pituitary gland and central nervous system. relieve stress and pain

achievement vs. aptitude tests

Achievement: measures what has been acquired; Aptitude: predicts future performance or ability

Stages of Learning

Acquisition- the initial stage where you link a neural stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus Extinction- the diminishing of a conditioned response Spontaneous recovery- the reappeance after a pause, of an extinguished response

action vs. resting potential

Action: nerve impulse activated in a neuron that travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released into the synapse Resting: polarization of cellular fluid within a neuron, which provides the capability to produce an action potential

Thalamus function

All ascending sensations pass through on way to brain except olfactory

agonist vs. antagonist chemicals

An agonist binds to the receptor and produces an effect within the cell. An antagonist may bind to the same receptor, but does not produce a response, instead it blocks that receptor to a natural agonist.

dominant responses (aided by social facilitation)

What you do well, you are likely to do even better in front of an audience, especially a friendly audience; what you normally find difficult may seem all but impossible when you are being watched.

American Psychological Association (APA)

World's largest association of psychologists with around 152,000 members including scientists, educators, clinicians, consultants and students

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple

retinal disparity (a.k.a. binocular disparity)

a binocular cue for perceiving depth: By comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance- the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

dissociative disorders

a class of disorders in which people lose contact with portions of their consciousness or memory, resulting in disruptions in their sense of identity Dissociative amnesia - a disorder that involves an inability to recall important personal information that would not typically be lost with ordinary forgetting. It is usually caused by trauma or stress. Diagnosis is based on history after ruling out other causes of amnesia. Dissociative fugue - a psychological state in which a person loses awareness of their identity or other important autobiographical information and also engages in some form of unexpected travel. Depersonalization disorder - dissociative disorder that consists of persistent or recurrent feelings of being detached (dissociated) from one's body or mental processes, usually with a feeling of being an outside observer of one's life Dissociative identity disorder - dissociative disorder characterized by the maintenance of at least two distinct and relatively enduring personality states. The disorder is accompanied by memory gaps beyond what would be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.

fetal alcohol syndrome: characteristics

a cluster of abnormalities that occur in babies of mothers who drink alcoholic beverages during pregnancy Physical Defects: Distinctive facial features, including small eyes, an exceptionally thin upper lip, a short, upturned nose, and a smooth skin surface between the nose and upper lip, Deformities of joints, limbs and fingers, Slow physical growth before and after birth, Vision difficulties or hearing problems, Small head circumference and brain size, Heart defects and problems with kidneys and bones Brain & CNS problems: Poor coordination or balance Intellectual disability, learning disorders and delayed development, Poor memory, Trouble with attention and with processing information, Difficulty with reasoning and problem-solving, Difficulty identifying consequences of choices, Poor judgment skills, Jitteriness or hyperactivity, Rapidly changing moods Social & behavioral issues: Difficulty in school, Trouble getting along with others, Poor social skills, Trouble adapting to change or switching from one task to another, Problems with behavior and impulse control, Poor concept of time, Problems staying on task, Difficulty planning or working toward a goal

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

sleeper effect

a delayed impact of a message that occurs when an initially discounted message becomes effective, such as we remember the message but forget the reason for discounting it

histogram

a diagram consisting of rectangles whose area is proportional to the frequency of a variable and whose width is equal to the class interval.

phenylketonuria (PKU)

a disorder related to a defective recessive gene on chromosome 12 that prevents metabolism of phenylalanine, causing intellectual disability

Tay-Sachs disease

a disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration prior to death; there is no treatment

myelin sheath: where and purpose?

a fatty (insulating) covering of the axon made by glial cells which speeds up conduction of the action potential.

blood brain barrier

a filtering mechanism of the capillaries that carry blood to the brain and spinal cord tissue, blocking the passage of certain substances.

learning curve

a gradual upward slope representing increased retention of material as the result of learning

scatterplot: most often used to plot correlations

a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlation).

Martin Seligman's "learned helplessness"

a human being or an animal has learned to believe that it is helpless in a particular situation. it has come to believe that it has no control over its situation and whatever it does is futile (Experiment with the dog)

milieu therapy

a humanistic approach to institutional treatment based on the belief that institutions can help patients recover by creating a climate that promotes self-respect, responsible behavior, and meaningful activity

visual cliff

a lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

depression: trycyclic antidepressants are most widely used to treat it

a mental illness characterized by a profound and persistent feeling of sadness or despair and/or a loss of interest in things that were once pleasurable. Disturbance in sleep, appetite, and mental processes are a common accompaniment.

free association

a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

semantic memory

a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world

tragedy of the commons

a parable that illustrates why common resources are used more than is desirable from the standpoint of society as a whole

projective tests: TAT & Rorschach

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics. - Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)- a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes. - Rorschach inkblot test- the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.

incentives

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished, inappropriate emotional expression

vision acuity

a quantitative measure to see an in-focus image at a certain, standarized distance. VA is the most common measurement of visual function that is performed in a clinical setting.

Turner's syndrome (X with missing chromosome)

a rare chromosomal disorder of females (1:2500) characterized by short stature and the lack of sexual development at puberty. Other physical features may include a webbed neck, heart defects, kidney abnormalities, and/or various other malformations. In some cases one X chromosome is missing from the cells (45,X); research studies suggest that approximately 40 percent of these individuals may have some Y chromosomal material in addition to the one X chromosome. In other affected females, both X chromosomes may be present, but one may have genetic defects

catharsis

a release of emotional tension

William James (functionalism)

a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function- how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

vestibular sense

a sensory system located in structures of the inner ear that registers the orientation of the head

heuristics: major types

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms. Representativeness Heuristic- judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information Availability Heuristic- estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; in instances come readily to mind, we presume such events as common

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

hypnosis: major theories of

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggest to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

operationalizing a definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures. (p. 21)

correlation coefficients

a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to 1)

cross sectional studies

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

cross cultural studies

a study in which people of different cultures are compared with one another

longitudinal study

a study that observes the same participants on many occasions over a long period of time

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

Gate Control Theory of Pain

a theory of pain perception based on the idea that signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped, or gated, by interneurons in the spinal cord via feedback from two directions

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

aversive conditioning

a type of counter conditioning that associates an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events (Pavlov)

motion aftereffect

a visual illusion experienced after viewing a moving visual stimulus for a time (milliseconds to minutes) with stationary eyes, and then fixating on a stationary stimulus.

Asch's conformity study (line segments)

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard, compare lines is equal to the standard line. 5 others say the wrong answer and so the student doesn't disagree. Thus, he revealed the degree to which a person's own opinions are influenced by those of groups. Asch found that people were willing to ignore reality and give an incorrect answer in order to conform to the rest of the group.

human factors psychology

an I/O psychology subfield that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

Obsessive Compulsive Disorders (OCD)

an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

long term potentiation

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated perspective that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

prototype

an original model on which later versions are patterned

post traumatic stress disorder

anxiety disorder; aka "shell shock"; four or more weeks of haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or sleep problems after traumatic event; morphine shown to reduce chance of developing PTSD in soldiers

somatosensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations (pain, pressure, weight)

systematic desensitization

associates a pleasant, relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli; commonly used to treat phobias

Harry Harlow's research with surrogate mothers

baby monkeys preferred contact comfort of cloth mothers event though wire mothers could nurse. Emotion needs like touch are more important than physiological needs like food

Thorndike's Law of Effect

behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

electroconvulsive shock therapy

brief electrical shock administered to the brain, usually to reduce depression that does not respond to drug treatments

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

cortexes of the brain : major ones

cerebral cortex- The outer surface of the brain. motor cortex- The region of the cerebral cortex that controls the action of the body's voluntary muscles. auditory cortex- The area of the temporal lobes that receives and processes auditory information. visual cortex- The region of the occipital lobes in which visual information is processed. association cortex- The parts of the cerebral cortex in which many high-level brain processes occur.

John Garcia's ideas on the limits of conditioning

challenged the belief that all associations can be learned equally well 1) even if the rats became sick hours later they avoided that flavor of water 2) developed aversions to tastes, but not to sights or sounds

neurotransmitters: major kinds

chemical messengers released by the terminal buttons of the presynaptic neuron into the synapse. *Acetylcholine (ACh)- causes contraction of skeletal muscles, helps regulate heart muscles, is involved in memory, and also transmits messages between the brain and spinal cord. Lack of ACh is associated with Alzheimer's disease. *Dopamine- stimulates the hypothalamus to synthesize hormones and affects alertness and movement. Lack of dopamine is associated with Parkinson's disease; too much is associated with schizophrenia. *Glutamate- major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in information processing throughout the cortex and especially memory formation in the hippocampus. Both schizophrenia and Alzheimer's may involve glutamate receptors. *Serotonin- associated with sexual activity, concentration and attention, moods, and emotions. Lack of serotonin is associated with depression. *Endorphins- associated with emotions and pain perception. The body releases endorphins in response to fear or trauma. These chemical messengers are similar to opiate drugs such as morphine, but are significantly stronger. Opioid peptide; often considered the brain's own pain killers. *Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)- inhibits firing of neurons. Benzodiazepine (Valium) and anticonvulsant drugs increase GABA activity. Huntington's disease is associated with insufficient GABA-producing neurons in parts of the brain involved in movement coordination. Seizures are associated with malfunctioning GABA systems.

biorythms (circadian, infradian, ultradian)

circadian - natural, internal process that regulates the sleep-wake cycle and repeats roughly every 24 hours infradian - period longer than the period of a circadian rhythm (menstrual, breeding, etc.) ultradian - periods shorter than the period of a circadian rhythm

Wernicke's aphasia

condition resulting from damage to Wernicke's area, causing the affected person to be unable to understand or produce meaningful language

reliability (kinds)

consistency of a measure (test-retest reliability) over time (internal consistency) across items (inter-rater reliability) across different researchers

control group vs experimental group

control group = placebo ; nothing happens to them experiment group = is the one being tested on

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another

nature vs. nurture controversy

deals with the extent to which heredity and the environment each influence behavior it is agreed that both have some influence in development, but some people think it is more one than the other. biologically built vs. environment

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100

Robert Rescorla's findings on conditioning

demonstrated that classical conditioning requires more than merely presenting an unconditioned stimulus and a conditioned stimulus together in time. Research shows that for conditioning to occur, a conditioned stimulus must provide information about the unconditioned stimulus-that is, there must be a CS-US contingency

descriptive vs. inferential statistics

descriptive- merely describes data, lists and summarizes data in an efficient way Inferential- try to infer causation between variables, used to interpret data/draw conclusions

mental age

developed by Binet; equal to one's chronological age times the percentage score on an IQ test

opponent-process theory of emotions

developed by Richard Solomon, who viewed emotions as pairs of opposites (fear-relief, pleasure-pain); when one emotion is experienced, the other is suppressed (if you are scared of dogs, the emotion of fear is expressed and relief is suppressed) and if the fear-causing stimulus continues to be present, after a while the fear decreases and the relief intensifies

social learning theory (Bandura's)

emphasizes the importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

narcissism

excessive self-love and self-absorption

Inferiority Complex (Alfred Adler)

feelings of inferiority develop from childhood experiences of helplessness People with this often measure their value by their usefulness to others

Hans Seyle's General Adaptation Response

general adaption syndrome (GAS)- Selye's three-stage process (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion) that describes our biological reaction to sustained and unrelenting stress.

genotype & phenotype

genotype- the genetic make-up of an individual for a trait. phenotype- the expression of the genes.

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

pineal gland (function and what makes it unique?)

gland in endocrine system which emits melatonin, a hormone related to sleep and the circadian rhythm deals with sleep and awake cycles in between 2 hemispheres

frequency polygon

graph of a frequency distribution that shows the number of instances of obtained scores, usually with the data points connect by straight lines

plasticity

growing new dendrites and terminal ends to form more synapses

Kinds of Sensory Memory

haptic - "touch" memory iconic - memory which stores images for a fraction of a second auditory - "hearing" memory gustatory - "taste" memory olfactory - "smell" memory

one eye problem - what you couldn't do well if you had only one eye

have a tough time with perceiving depth: each separate eye picks up different visual cues and the brain computes it and picks it apart to give you a more complete picture of things like height & distance, if you only had one eye, you'd not be able to get as much information and your visual accuracy - especially in depth- would be lacking

Daniel Goleman's views on emotional intelligence

he believes that we have something called "emotional intelligence," which is the knowledge and ability to manage our emotions, respond appropriately to situations, and the ability to make sound emotional decisions. He argues that this kind of intelligence is more important in life than the traditional math/verbal kind of intelligence that schools seem to glorify to the detriment of developing kids with good emotional skills needed to make sound decisions.

endocrine organs and hormones secreted by them

hypothalamus - corticotrophin-releasing hormone, dopamine, growth hormone-releasing hormone, somatostatin, gonadotrophin-releasing hormone and thyrotrophin-releasing hormone. pituitary - thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormones (LH) thyroid - triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). parathyroids - parathyroid hormone (PTH) which controls the calcium levels in the blood stream. adrenals - epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) pineal body - melatonin the ovaries - oestrogen and progesterone the testes -testosterone

water balance (role of hypothalamus)

hypothalamus is responsible for water regulation, uses hormones to communicate the balance between water intake and water excretion, which keeps the body's water content constant.

Stanley Milgram's experiement with obedience

identified which factors affected obedience (the DV). Obedience was measured by how many participants shocked to the maximum 450 volts

social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

formal operations

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts and can do so without any dependence on concrete manipulation

chaining

in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

defense mechanisms: major ones

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. Common defense mechanisms are: repression, regression, displacement, projection, sublimation, denial, avoidance, reaction-formation, rationalization, withdrawal, identification, intellectualization

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

independent/dependent variables

independent variable- the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied. dependent variable- the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

novelty preference

infants are more likely to pay attention to new objects or people than those they've seen before.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval

ingroup and outgroup bias

ingroup- "us"- people with whom we share a common identity. outgroup- "them"- those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup. ingroup bias- the tendency to favor our own group. outgroup bias- the tendency to have a dislike for other people that are outside of one's own identity group

sleep disorders: major kinds

insomnia- recurring problems in falling or staying asleep. narcolepsy- (narco: "numbness" & lepsy: "seizure")- a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. sleep apnea- (apnea: "with no breath")- a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings. night terrors- a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered. (p. 103) Children are most prone to sleepwalking- another stage 4 sleep disorder- and sleeptalking, conditions that run in families.

locus of control: internal vs. external

internal: you believe your choices and actions influence your outcome external: you believe fate, luck, or other external circumstances influence

intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation

intrinsic motivation- your tendency to work on a task for your own satisfaction, rather than for rewards such as money or praise. Extrinsic motivation- motivated by external factors, to do things for tangible rewards or pressures, rather than for the fun of it.

David McClelland's achievement motivation studies

is all about how needs of an individual change over a period of time with changes in his experience. The theory also explains what effects an individual's need for achievement, power, and affiliation have on their behavior.

apparent motion

is the appearance of real motion from a sequence of still images.

androgyny

is the combination of masculine and feminine characteristics into an ambiguous form. It may be expressed with regard to biological sex, gender identity, or gender expression.

obesity (role of hypothalamus)

lateral hypothalamus- stimulated-get hungry-destroyed-you don't get hungry ventromedial- stimulated-stop eating-destroyed- keep eating and eating

regression (defense mechanism)

leads an individual faced with anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage

stimulus generalization

learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response

instrumental - operant conditioning

learning the relation between one's own behavior and the consequences that result from it

character disorders : major ones

long-standing, deeply ingrained patterns of social behavior that are detrimental to those who display them or to others. Personality disorders constitute a separate diagnostic category (Axis II) in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM). Unlike the major mental disorders (Axis I), which are characterized by periods of illness and remission, personality disorders are generally ongoing. The 10 personality disorders listed in DSM-IV-TR include: * Paranoid personality disorder . The individual affected with this disorder believes in general that people will exploit, harm, or deceive him or her, even if there is no evidence to support this belief. * Schizoid personality disorder . The individual with this disorder seems to lack desire for intimacy or belonging in a social group, and often chooses being alone to being with others. This individual also tends not to show a full range of emotions. * Schizotypal personality disorder . With this disorder, the affected person is uncomfortable with (and may be unable to sustain) close relationships, and also has odd behaviors and thoughts that would typically be viewed by others as eccentric, erratic, and bizarre. * Antisocial personality disorder . Individuals with this disorder have no regard for the rights of others. Other, recent names associated with this personality type are psychopath and sociopath. Unable to base their actions on anything except their own immediate desires, persons with this disorder demonstrate a pattern of impulsive, irresponsible, thoughtless, and sometimes criminal behavior. They are often intelligent, articulate individuals with an ability to charm and manipulate others; at their most dangerous, they can become violent criminals who are particularly dangerous to society because of their ability to gain the trust of others combined with their lack of conscience or remorse. * Borderline personality disorder . People with this disorder are unstable in their relationships, decisions, moods, and self-perceptions. These individuals are often impulsive and insecure. * Histrionic personality disorder . The behavior of individuals of this personality type is characterized by persistent attention-seeking, exaggerated emotional displays (such as tantrums), and overreaction to trivial problems and events. * Narcissistic personality disorder . This disorder consists primarily of an inflated sense of self-importance coupled with a lack of empathy for others. Individuals with this disorder display an exaggerated sense of their own importance and abilities and tend to fantasize about them. Such persons also have a sense of entitlement, expecting (and taking for granted) special treatment and concessions from others. Paradoxically, individuals with narcissistic personality disorder are generally very insecure and suffer from low self-esteem. * Avoidant personality disorder . This disorder has characteristics that resemble those of social phobia , including hypersensitivity to possible rejection and the resulting social withdrawal in spite of a strong need for love and acceptance. Individuals with this disorder are inhibited and feel inadequate in social situations. * Dependent personality disorder . Persons with dependent personality disorder are extremely passive and tend to subordinate their own needs to those of others. Due to their lack of self-confidence, they avoid asserting themselves and allow others to take responsibility for their lives. * Obsessive-compulsive personality disorder . This disorder is characterized by a preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.

measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode

mean- the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores. median- the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it. mode- the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

monocular vs. binocular depth cues

monocular cues- depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone. (p. 267) clues about distance based on the image of one eye, including interposition or overlap, relative size, aerial perspective, relative clarity, texture gradient, relative height, linear perspective, relative brightness, motion parallax, and accommodation. binocular cues- depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes. (p. 266) clues about distance that require two eyes and that include retinal disparity and convergence.

Aaron Beck's view of depression

negative thoughts, generated by dysfunctional beliefs are typically the primary cause of depressive symptoms. A direct relationship occurs between the amount and severity of someone's negative thoughts and the severity of their depressive symptoms. In other words, the more negative thoughts you experience, the more depressed you will become.

limbic system: structures and function

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions (such as fear and anger) and drives (basic motives- such as those for food and sex) *hippocampus- one component of the system- processes memory. *amygdala- two lima bean-sized neural clusters- influence aggression and fear (linked to emotion) *hypothalamus- located below (hypo) the thalamus- an important link in the chain of command governing bodily maintenance. Some neural clusters influence hunger; others regulate thirst, body temperature, and sexual behavior. Monitors both blood chemistry and takes orders from other parts of the brain (thinking about sex --> stimulate the secretion of hormones --> hormones trigger adjacent "master gland", the pituitary, to influence hormones released by other glands.) *once again, interplay is recognized between nervous and endocrine systems: brain influences endocrine system, which in turn influences the brain. -- a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.

cognitive dissonance

occurs when a person holds contradictory beliefs, ideas, or values

crystallized intelligence: acquired and usually does not decline with age

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age. It generally increases with age, which is why older people know more than younger people, unless it is affected by disease (e.g. Alzheimer's), one's crystallized intelligence just keeps on growing.

social exchange theory

our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

linear perspective

parallel lines appear to converge with distance

paresis

partial paralysis

the mere exposure effect

people are more likely to be attracted to those they are familiar with; made famous by Zajonc's studies

perceptual constancy (size,color,shape)

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent shapes, sizes, lightness, and color) even as illumination and retinal images change

episodic memory (a.k.a. flashbulb)

personal experiences that become consolidated into our long-term memory. a clear and vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Gansfeld Procedure

phenomenon of perception caused by exposure to an unstructured, uniform stimulation field. The effect is the result of the brain amplifying neural noise in order to look for the missing visual signals.

phonemes vs. morphemes

phonemes- in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit. morphemes- in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (such as a prefix).

effects of marijuana

pleasurable effects: enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation. adverse effects: impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders, lung damage from smoke.

positive and negative symptoms (in mental disorders)

positive - the experience of inappropriate symptoms not present in most negative - the absence of appropriate symptoms present in most

prosocial behavior: what is it and give an example

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. the opposite of antisocial behavior, actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for the self

Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning

preconventional morality- before age 9, most children's morality focuses on self-interest : They obey rules either to avoid punishment or to gain concrete rewards. conventional morality- by early adolescence, morality focuses on caring for others and on upholding laws and social rules, simply because they are the laws and rules. postconventional morality- with the abstract reasoning of formal operational thought, people may reach a third moral level. Actions are judged "right" because they flow from people's rights or from self-defined, basic ethical principles.

primary vs. secondary reinforcers

primary- help satisfy biological needs- food, water, social relations secondary- derive their effectiveness from their association with primary reinforcers through classical conditions, learned

thyroid gland

produces hormones that regulate metabolism, body heat, and bone growth

displacement

psychoanalytic defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet For example, a boss gives his employee a hard time at work and the employee goes home and shouts at this wife.

somatoform disorders: major kinds

psychological disorder in which the symptoms take on a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause. hypochondriasis- thinking you're more sick than you are conversion disorder- emotional trauma causes physical symptoms psychosomatic disorder body dysmorphic disorder

punishment: why it may not be effective and might backfire

punishment can result in an increase in obedience, but does not actually accomplish internalized moral reasoning. What most of us want are children who do the right thing whether we are with them or not. Punishment only results in a fear of being punished.

recessive vs. dominant genes

recessive- the gene that is hidden or not expressed when the genes for a trait are different. dominant- the gene expressed when the genes for a trait are different.

binocular disparity

refers to the difference in image location of an object seen by the left and right eyes, resulting from the eyes' horizontal separation (parallax). The brain uses binocular disparity to extract depth information from the two-dimensional retinal images in stereopsis.

optic disc

region at the back of the eye where the optic nerve meets the retina; it is the blind spot of the eye because it contains only nerve fibers, no rods or cones, and is thus insensitive to light

photoreceptors

respond to light

rods and cones (structures & differences)

rods- retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond. Distributed throughout the retina of the eye, except in the fovea. cones- retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. Cones cluster in and around the fovea, the retina's area of central focus. Many cones have their own hotline to the brain- bipolar cells that help relay the cone's individual message to the visual cortex, which devotes a large area to input from the fovea. Such direct connections preserve the cones' precise information, making them better able to detect fine detail. Rods have no such hotline; they share bipolar cells with other rods, sending combined messages.

norms

rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

Piaget's stages of cognitive development

sensorimotor; preoperational; concrete operational; formal operational;

memory: kinds ( sensory, short-term, long-term, semantic, episodic, procedural)

sensory- the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. short-term- activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the info is stored or forgotten long-term- relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. semantic- portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience. (like names of colors and sounds of letters) episodic- category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences procedural- type of implicit memory which aids the performance of particular types of tasks without conscious awareness of these previous experiences.

reticular formation: related to sleep, arousal, attention, focusing

set of interconnected nuclei that are located throughout the brainstem. best known for its role in promoting arousal and consciousness

sexual identity vs. gender identity

sexual identity- sexual orientation- an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation). gender identity- our sense of being male or female.

algorithmic approach to problem solving

step-by-step procedures that provide the correct answer to a particular problem. By following the instructions correctly, you are guaranteed to arrive at the right answer

aversive stimuli

stimuli that is uncomfortable for the subject (used in aversive conditioning)

panic attacks (& what's the best treatment?)

sudden, discrete periods of intense anxiety, mounting physiological arousal, fear and discomfort that are associated with a variety of somatic and cognitive symptoms. The onset of these episodes is typically abrupt, and may have no obvious triggers reinforcement therapy

proximity (effects on relationships)

tendency for people to form social relationships with individuals who are physically closer to them. Proximity means how close an object or person is physically to you.

fundamental attribution error

tendency to attribute others' behavior to their dispositions and our own behaviors to our situations

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

heritability

the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next

eidetic memory

the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure; also called photographic memory

industrial (organizational) psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

neuron: three basic parts

the basic unit of structure and function of your nervous system. Neurons perform three major functions: receive information, process it, and transmit it to the rest of your body. Axon, Dendrites, Myelin Sheath, Synapse

kinesthetics

the body's way of giving feedback about our muscle and joint position; gives us a sense of coordinated movement

dendrite (purpose of)

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body.

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster, contains cones

hue: (British term for color)

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth.

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect

inner ear - vestibular sense

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. cochlea- a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses. semicircular canals- three tiny, fluid-filled tubes in your inner ear that help you keep your balance. When your head moves around, the liquid inside the semicircular canals sloshes around and moves the tiny hairs that line each canal. vestibular sense- the sense of body movements and position, including the sense of balance.

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) Test: use for what?

the most widely researched and clinically used of all the personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders, this test is now used for many other screening purposes

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

figure - ground - phenomenon

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists

motion parallax

the perception of motion of objects in which close objects appear to move more quickly than objects that are farther away

determinism

the philosophy that holds that every event, action, and decision results from something independent of the human will

personal space

the physical space individuals maintain between themselves and others

rhodopsin

the pigment in rod cells that causes light sensitivity

set point

the point at which your "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When your body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may combine to restore the lost weight

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

feature analysis

the process of detecting specific elements in visual input and assembling them into a more complex form

brainstorming

the process of getting a group to think of unlimited ways to vary a product or solve a problem

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

bell curve (normal distribution)

the shape of the normal distribution that describes many types of data, most scores falling near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it and fewer and fewer near the extremes).

arousal

the state of being physiologically alert, awake, and attentive (primarily controlled by the reticular activating system, located in the brain stem)

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable

self-fulfilling prophecy

the tendency for people to behave as they are expected to behave

just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get

overjustification effect

the tendency for people to view their behavior as caused by compelling extrinsic reasons, making them underestimate the extent to which it was caused by intrinsic reasons

Barnum Effect

the tendency to accept certain information as true, such as character assessments or horoscopes, even when the information is so vague as to be worthless.

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency to be more likely to agree to a large request after agreeing to a small one

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it "I knew it all along" phenomenon

halo effect

the tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single positive characteristic

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

self-serving bias

the tendency to perceive oneself favorably

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

James-Lange theory of emotions

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. (p. 498) the conscious experience of emotion results form one's awareness of autonomic arousal and comes only after the behavioral response to situations.

attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition (ex. was the serial killer born evil or did he have a traumatic childhood?)

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

gestalt perception theory

theories that attempt to describe how people tend to organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes when certain principles are applied. proximity, similarity, closure, good continuation, symmetry, common movement

Howard Gardner's view of multiple intelligence

theorized that there are actually 8 different kinds of intelligence 1) language 2) logic and math 3) visual and spatial thinking 4) music 5) bodily-kinesthetic skills 6) intrapersonal skills 7) interpersonal skills 8) naturalist skills

opponent-process theory of visual processing

theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green)(yellow-blue)(white-black) enables color vision- explains afterimages

CS-CR-UCS-UCR

these are acronyms for terms in classical conditioning: they stand for conditioned stimulus, conditioned response, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response.

social cognitive theory

views prejudice as an attitude acquired through direct instruction, modeling, and other social influences

Yerkes/Dodson Arousal Law

we might perform well at an easy task with a very high level of arousal, but the same high level of arousal would prevent us from performing well on a difficult task

generalizability of a study

when a study can be generalized to larger population -, statement presented as general truth because of study

next-in-line-effect

when we are next in line, we focus on our own performance and often fail to process the last person's words