AP Psychology Unit 6: Learning

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).

law of effect

Edward L. Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

acquisition

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. **this is the initial learning of the stimulus-response relationship. Pavlov had to figure out how much time how much time should elapse between presenting the NS and the US in order to understand acquisition - he concluded half a second for his experiments.

unconditioned response (UR)

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. discovered by Pavlov during his dog salivation experiments.

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers/stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.). ex: isaac's dad continues to agree to fulfill his requests, because it stops isaac from whining, removing this negative stimuli. more examples: fastening seat belt to stop loud beeping, taking painkillers to end pain. negative reinforcement is not a punishment, but it removes a punishing event. negative and positive can sometimes go hand in hand (ex: more studying causes reduced anxiety and higher test grades).

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment. ex: students being motivated to read their textbooks for good grades and college scholarships. on the other hand, intrinsic motivations would be reading because of interest in the course material.

Pavlov's classic experiment

Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth). The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, acting the same way as an unconditioned stimulus and producing a conditioned response (salivation).

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze and being given no obvious rewards, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. when a reinforcer is introduced (like food), the cognitive map is put to use.

reinforcement schedules

a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake. (offering people rewards for tasks they have intrinsic motivation for can backfire because their motivation to do the task when the reward is not present will diminish. ex: children offered prize money for reading will read less than other children. "if I need to be bribed into doing this, it must not be worth doing")

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response (UR). ex: the physical food in the dog experiment.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.). **occurs when a new NS becomes a new CS, after becoming associated with a previously conditioned stimulus (ex: a light is introduced before the tone, so now dogs may respond to the light alone and start salivating when they see it).

delayed reinforcer

a reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. humans respond to these better than some other animals. examples: trophy at the end of a season, paycheck at the end of the week. contrasts: the pleasure of binging a show late vs. the delayed reinforcer of alertness at school, the pleasure of unprotected sex vs. delayed reinforcer of safety from STDs.

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer. examples: money, good grades, pleasant tone of voice. These things are associated with natural rewards, like food, praise, success, etc.

insight

a sudden and often novel (and satisfying) realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions. ex: seen when solving a hard puzzle and suddenly the pieces fall together in your mind.

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. biofeedback systems are external monitoring devices used to obtain information about a bodily function and possibly gain control over that function (ex: one can record tension in the forehead muscle of a frequent headache sufferer).

taste aversion

a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation. seen when Garcia and Koelling experimented with rats, since rats easily turned neutral foods into conditioned stimuli that led to sickness. makes it difficult to eradicate "bait-shy" rats by poisoning. taste is the easiest stimulus to condition, more easy than sight or smell. application: this can save endangered animals (like sheep) from their predators (wolves) if the predators are classically conditioned to avoid them.

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher. in this, organisms learn to associate their own actions with consequences.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events - first researched by Ivan Pavlov in the early 20th century.

respondent behavior

actions that occur as an automatic response to some stimulus. seen in classical conditioning, not operant conditioning.

violence-viewing effect

after you view so much media violence, you can become desensitized to it and you begin to imitate it through aggressive behavior. teens and adults watch way too much TV (4 hours and 3 hours daily on average respectively), causing this effect.

cope

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods, since problems in life are unavoidable.

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows. the opposite of a reinforcer, regardless of if the reinforcer is positive or negative. ex: shocking a rat after touching a forbidden object, a child burning their hand after touching the stove. criminal behavior is influenced more by swift and sure punishments than by the threat of very harsh, severe sentences. in terms of physical punishments for misbehaving, there are numerous contrasting points of view on if it acceptable or not. most psychologists favor reinforcement instead of punishment because punishment tends to simply teach people how to avoid the punishment, not stop their behaviors.

primary reinforcer

an naturally rewarding/reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need. ex: removing headache, providing food to get rid of hunger, etc. these reinforcers are unlearned.

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. you could gradually guide a rat's actions towards pressing a bar to receive a food reward.

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it (ex: sea slugs stop withdrawing their gills after repeated exposure to squirts of water).

stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response. ex: a lightning flash is a stimulus that signals a crack of thunder.

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction. occurs when we believe we cannot change a situation. ex: if we cannot get along with a family member despite how hard we try, we may search for stress relief by talking to a friend, doing a hobby, or taking a walk. sometimes it can be healthy, and other times it can be "maladaptive", such as going to a party to get schoolwork off your mind.

problem-focused coping

attempting to reduce stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. we do this when we feel control in a situation and believe we can change the circumstances, or ourselves to deal with the circumstances better. ex: being in a fight and confronting the person directly.

expectancy

awareness of how likely it is that the unconditioned stimulus will occur. the more predictable the association, the stronger the conditioned response. cognition and understanding influences classical conditioning.

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli/consequences. a part of operant conditioning.

biological predispositions/constraints

biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. ex: pigeons will have an easy time learning to peck to obtain food and flap their wings to avoid a shock, because these are natural pigeon behaviors to flee with wings and eat with beaks. However, vice versa would not make sense.

B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

elaborated on Thorndike's Law of Effect and became modern behaviorism's most influential and controversial figure. he developed a behavioral technology that taught pigeons to engage in un-pigeon-like behaviors, such as walking and playing ping-pong.

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy. ex: seen with the monkeys that watched humans lick ice cream cones and raise peanuts to their mouths. when the monkey observes, its neurons imitate what another monkey/human does. seen in young children too, as well as older, more developed humans.

superstitious behavior

in Skinner's view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement. partial reinforcement, often on an interval schedule, can cause this. especially seen in sports.

neutral stimuli (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus. being able to discriminate stimuli is adaptive. (ex: knowing the differences between a guide dog and guard dog and responding differently to them).

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS). the CR is salivation in response to the tone, while the UR is the salivation in response to the food in mouth.

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to release a food or water reward for them to enjoy; attached devices record the response (animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking).

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses. ex: gambling, fly fishing. these produce high rates of responding because rewards are unpredictable.

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals. ex: longed-for responses that reward persistence in re-checking emails. produce slow, steady responding.

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses. ex: a free drink from starbucks after every 10 ones purchased. creates a brief pause in subjects, before returning to a high rate of responding.

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed. ex: people check frequently for the mail as delivery time approaches, pigeons peck keys more rapidly as time for reinforcement draws closer. this produces a choppy pattern as opposed to a steady rate of response.

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement). ex: pigeons are rewarded for pecking after seeing a human face, but not other images. in their behavior, the pigeons slowly start to recognize human faces, and these faces become discriminative stimuli. another example of one is a green traffic light.

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. an operant chamber creates a stage where this concept is acted out. depends on the animal and the conditions in an experiment (people - praise may work well while for rats - food or water works just fine).

observational learning

learning by observing/imitating others instead of direct experience; also called social learning

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). ex: seals associate slapping and barking with receiving a treat, so they continue to do it.

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it. ex: the rats do not demonstrate their cognitive map of their maze until they are working towards a positive reinforcer.

empathy

people have so much empathy because when they observe another human (especially one they are close to) experience pain (or any other emotion/experience such as joy, laughter, yawning, smoking, et.), they experience the same brain activity as if they were actually experiencing the pain. empathy shows up in emotional brain areas but not physical ones like the somatosensory cortex.

association

philosophers, like John Locke and David Hume, echoed Aristotle's conclusion that our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence. we associate things (sounds, tastes, etc.) with the consequences we have formerly experienced (fear, satisfying, etc.). many are subtle, like voting for more education reforms when the polls are located in a school.

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior. behavior modeling is used to promote this, especially in business organizations trying to train employees to learn new helpful skills. Also, people who exemplify helpful, nonviolent behavior can prompt this in others who observe them.

antisocial effects

possible negative response of observational learning; opposite of prosocial effects/behaviors. Ex: when children watch abusive parents and then become abusive when you are a parent OR when kids watching tv learn bad habits and get idea that violence is acceptable.

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement. ex: sales people only make some of their pitches, but stick with their job for a long period of time. another ex: gambling and lottery tickets.

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs. learning occurs rapidly; best choice for mastering a behavior. however, extinction also occurs fast.

operant conditioning applications

school: electronic adaptive quizzes, so students can pace themselves and gain immediate reinforcement sports: teaching children how to hit a baseball step by step with gradual reinforcers work: writing an immediate check when an employee has an achievement home: when saying "get ready for bed", but then giving into protests or defiance, parents are reinforcing whiny behavior and arguing. if a parent yells at a child and they get frightened and stop arguing, it reinforces the parents aggressive behavior. self-improvement: give yourself a reward when you complete an hour of uninterrupted study (like weekend time with friends).

overimitate

seen in children ages 2-5, they copy even irrelevant adult actions (ex: if they observe an adult wave a stick over a jar before opening it, they will do the same, even though they only needed to open the jar).

successive approximations

small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior. you start with naturally observing behavior and then giving small rewards as the subject comes closer and closer to performing the desired behavior. **used in shaping.

instinctive drift

tendency for animals to return to their biologically predisposed (or genetically programmed) behaviors following repeated reinforcement. seen with circus animals that are being trained to act in unnatural ways, like pigs being trained to put money into a piggy bank.

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards. predicts better marital success, good adjustment, and better grades. it can fluctuate (strengthens with exercise, replenishes with sleep, and weakens with exertion/when willpower is used).

theory of mind

the ability to infer others' mental states, seen in children along with empathy.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language. this information guides our behaviors. observational learning is one form of this.

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. (ex: when food stopped following the tone, the dogs salivated less and less at the tone).

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. leads to vulnerability, stress, and ill health. ex: when a dog is strapped down and cannot escape being shocked, when they can finally escape the shock by leaping a hurdle, they will likely coward without hope (this is an experiment from Martin Seligman). also seen in nursing homes, if the patients experience learned helplessness, they will most likely die sooner. greater sense of control = longer life expectancy because decision making improves health and morale (good way to keep prisoners in better health is giving them choices about their living conditions).

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate (Julian Rottner). seen more today than in the past, which may be responsible for higher rates of depression and other psychological disorders in younger generations.

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate. often leads to greater achievement than external locus of control individuals. these people perform better in school, enjoy better health, and feel less depressed and helpless. "internals" are also better at dealing with stress and delaying gratification.

overjustification

the process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation, as when a child receives money for playing video games. in other words, the overuse of bribes leading people to view actions as not internally appealing. intrinsic motivation decreases due to this.

learning

the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. helps humans adapt to their environments.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. used to learn languages and various other specific behaviors, like athletic skills and cooking. by watching a model, people experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment and we learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences in situations like the ones we observe. (ex: Albert Bandura's - the pioneer researcher of observational learning - bobo doll experiment with parent and child).

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response. suggests that extinction suppresses the CR rather than eliminating it all together. (Pavlov discovered this after waiting several hours before signaling the tone to the dogs again after the food didn't follow it).

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses. ex: a dog may also salivate when exposed to a new and different tone. another ex: people respond to naturally disgusting objects and toddlers taught to fear moving cars may also fear motorcycles and trucks.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2). this idea was proposed by John B. Watson who believed inner thoughts and feelings should be discarded and observable responses should only be focused on.