AP Psychology - Unit VI - Learning

Operant chamber

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attaches devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

Variable-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Variable-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

Fixed-ratio schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

Fixed-interval schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

Discriminative stimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

Acquisition

In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

Superstitious behaviors

In sports as in the laboratory, the accidental timing of rewards can produce ______________ ______________.

Conditioned taste aversion

Occurs when an animal associates the taste of a certain food with symptoms caused by a toxic, spoiled, or poisonous substance

66

On average, behaviors became habitual after about ______ days

right

Parents should remember that basic rule of shaping: Notice people doing something ______________ and affirm them for it.

consciousness

Pavlov and Watson shared both a disdain for "mentalistic" concepts (such as _____________________) and a belief that the basic laws of learning were the same for all animals

Watson

Pavlov's work laid the foundation for many of psychologist John B. ____________'s ideas

control

Perceived ______________ is basic to human functioning

suppressing

Punishment can have undesirable side effects such as _____________________ rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching aggression, creating fear, encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present), and fostering depression and low self-esteem.

Positive reinforcer

A ____________ ____________ is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Negative reinforcer

A ____________ ____________ is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

neural stimulus

A _____________ _____________ produces no salivation response before conditioning.

Intrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

A

A dog is trained to salivate when it hears a tone associated with food. Then the tone is sounded repeatedly without an unconditioned stimulus until the dog stops salivating. Later, when the tone sounds again, the dog salivates again. This is a description of what part of the conditioning process? A. Spontaneous recovery B. Extinction C. Generalization D. Discrimination E. Acquisition

Association

A mental connection between ideas or things

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they learned a ______________ ______________ of it.

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers

Negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli

Positive punishment

Administer an aversive stimulus

C

All of the following are examples of primary reinforcers except a A. Rat's food reward in a Skinner box B. Cold drink on a hot day C. High score on an exam for which a student studied diligently D. Hug from a loved one E. Large meal following an extended time without food

Coping

Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

Primary reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

response

An unconditioned stimulus produces an unconditioned _____________.

Emotion-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction

Problem-focusing coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

E

Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment is most closely associated with which of the following? A. Latent learning B. Classical conditioning C. Operant conditioning D. Cognitive maps E. Observational learning

Operant Conditioning

Basic idea: Organism associates behavior and resulting events

Classical Conditioning

Basic idea: Organism associates events

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli is called ____________ ____________

Operant behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

adaptive

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally ______________

Motivation

Biopsychosocial influences on learning: Biological Influences: 1. Genetic predispositions 2. Unconditioned responses 3. Adaptive responses Psychological Influences: 1. Previous experiences 2. Predictability of associations 3. Generalization 4. Discrimination Social-cultural Influences: 1. Culturally learned preferences 2. ______________, affected by presence of others

Previous

Biopsychosocial influences on learning: Biological Influences: 1. Genetic predispositions 2. Unconditioned responses 3. Adaptive responses Psychological Influences: 1. ______________ experiences 2. Predictability of associations 3. Generalization 4. Discrimination Social-cultural Influences: 1. Culturally learned preferences 2. Motivation, affected by presence of others

Genetic

Biopsychosocial influences on learning: Biological Influences: 1. ______________ predispositions 2. Unconditioned responses 3. Adaptive responses Psychological Influences: 1. Previous experiences 2. Predictability of associations 3. Generalization 4. Discrimination Social-cultural Influences: 1. Culturally learned preferences 2. Motivation, affected by presence of others

associative

Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of ______________ learning.

social nature

Brain activity underlies our intensely ______________ ______________

Conditioned response

CR

Conditioned stimulus

CS

Violence-viewing effect

Can occur when an individual viewing television or film witnesses a scenario in which a violent act is not punished (the person committing the violence faces no consequences), the pain of the victim is not shown, the violent act is portrayed as being justified or the individual committing the violence is physically attractive

C

Elephants appear to have the capacity to remember large-scale spaces over long periods. Which of the following best identifies this capacity? A. Latent learning B. Insight C. Cognitive maps D. Intrinsic motivation E. Extrinsic motivation

survive

Conditioning helps an animal _____________ and reproduce - by responding to cues that help it gain food, avoid dangers, locate mates, and produce offspring

Bobo Doll experiment

Conclusion of this experiment was that children learn social behavior such as aggression through the process of observation learning - through watching the behavior of another person

Neural stimuli

Events Pavlov's dog could see or hear but didn't associate with food

Antisocial behaviors

Disruptive acts characterized by covert and overt hostility and intentional aggression toward others

Token economy

Every time a desired behavior is performed, a token is given

Negative reinforcement

Example of this would be fastening a seat belt to end the loud beeping

Positive reinforcement

Example of this would be petting a dog every time that it comes when you call it

Generalization

Example of this would be when a dog conditioned to salivate when rubbed would also drool a bit when scratched

Observational learning

Example would be a child who sees his sister burn her fingers on a hot stove learns not to touch it

Learned helplessness

Example would be having a test on Monday

Positive punishment

Example would be spraying water on a barking dog or giving a traffic ticket for speeding

Negative punishment

Example would be taking away a teen's driving privileges or revoking a library card for nonpayment of fines

Taste aversion

Example: If you become violently ill after eating oysters, you probably would have a hard time eating them again. Their smell and taste would have become a CS for nausea.

response

Drooling is an unconditioned ____________.

Higher-order conditioning (also called second-order conditioning)

For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone

Reinforce

For self-improvement: 1. State your goal in measurable terms and announce it 2. Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior 3. ______________ the desired behavior 4. Reduce the rewards gradually

generalized reinforcer

Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a ___________________ ____________________ (because it can be traded for just about anything)

delay

Immediate reinforcers (such as a purchased treat) offer immediate payback; ________ed reinforces (such as a weekly paycheck) require the ability to ________ gratification

A

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely is known as what? A. Law of effect B. Operant conditioning C. Shaping D. Respondent behavior E. Discrimination

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequence becomes less likely

cognition

Treatments that ignore ______________ often have limited success

Unconditioned response

UR

Unconditioned stimulus

US

condition

Using food as a reinforcer, you could easily ______________ a hamster to dig or rear up because these are among the animal's natural food-searching behaviors. But you won't be so successful if you use food as a reinforcer to shape face washing and other hamster behaviors that aren't normally associated with food or hunger.

Cognitive learning

We learn new behaviors by observing events and by watching others, and through language, we learn things we have neither experienced nor observed

Classical conditioning

We learn to expect and prepare for significant events such as food or pain

Operant conditioning

We typically learn to repeat acts that bring rewards and to avoid acts that bring unwanted results

A

What did Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrate? A. Children are likely to imitate the behavior of adults. B. There may be a negative correlation between televised violence and aggressive behavior. C. Children are more likely to copy what adults say than what adults do. D. Allowing children to watch too much television is detrimental to their development. E. Observational learning can explain the development of fears in children.

E

What did Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner's experiments establish? A. That the acquisition of a CR depends on pairing the CS and the US B. That different species respond differently to classical conditioning situations C. The current belief that classical conditioning is really a form of operant conditioning D. That mirror neurons form the biological basis of classical conditioning E. The importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning

B

What do we call a desire to perform a behavior in order to receive promised rewards or to avoid threatened punishment? A. Latent learning B. Extrinsic motivation C. Intrinsic motivation D. Insight learning E. Emotion-focused coping

A

What do we call behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus? A. Respondent behavior B. Operant behavior C. Extinguished behavior D. Biofeedback conditioning E. Skinnerian conditioning

D

What do we call it when the CR decreases as the CS is repeatedly presented alone? A. Generalization B. Discrimination C. Spontaneous recovery D. Extinction E. Acquisition

A

What do we call the kind of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer? A. Operant conditioning B. Respondent behavior C. Classical conditioning D. Shaping E. Punishment

B

What do we call the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response? A. Acquisition B. Spontaneous recovery C. Discrimination D. Operant conditioning E. Classical conditioning

D

What does Edward Thorndike's law of effect state? A. The difference between positive and negative reinforcement B. That behavior maintained by partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction than behavior maintained by continuous reinforcement C. How shaping can be used to establish operant conditioning D. That rewarded behavior is more likely to happen again E. The limited effectiveness of punishment

C

What is one of the principal functions of mirror neurons? A. To allow an organism to replace an unconditioned response with a conditioned response B. To help produce intrinsic motivation in some children C. To be the mechanism by which the brain accomplishes observational learning D. To produce the neural associations that are the basis of both classical and operant conditioning E. To explain why modeling prosocial behavior is more effective than modeling negative behavior

A

Which ability is a good predictor of good adjustment, better grades, and social success? A. Self-control B. Locus of control C. Problem-focused coping D. Learned helplessness E. Emotion-focused coping

A

Which of the following best describes a discriminative stimulus? A. Something that elicits a response after association with a reinforcer B. An innately reinforcing stimulus C. Something that when removed increases the likelihood of the behavior D. An event that decreases the behavior it follows E. An amplified stimulus feeding back information to responses

C

Students are accustomed to a bell ringing to indicate the end of a class period. The principal decides to substitute popular music for the bell to indicate the end of each class period. Students quickly respond to the music in the same way they did to the bell. What principle does this illustrate? A. Acquisition B. Habituation C. Generalization D. Functional fixedness E. Stimulus

B

Superstitious behavior can be produced by A. careful manipulation of a classical conditioning experiment. B. the accidental timing of rewards. C. possession of a large number of traditionally lucky items. D. cognitive awareness of superstitious behavior in others. E. the change in a reinforcement schedule from ratio to interval.

D

Taste aversion studies lead researchers to which of the following conclusions? A. Taste is the most fundamental of the senses. B. There are genetic predispositions involved in taste learning. C. Animals must evaluate a situation cognitively before taste aversion develops. D. Taste aversion is a universal survival mechanism. E. An unconditioned stimulus must occur within seconds of a CS for conditioning to occur.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned response does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

A

Which of the following illustrates generalization? A. A rabbit that has been conditioned to blink to a tone also blinks when a similar tone is sounded. B. A dog salivates to a tone but not to a buzzer. C. A light is turned on repeatedly until a rat stops flexing its paw when it's turned on. D. A pigeon whose disk-pecking response has been extinguished is placed in a Skinner box three hours later and begins pecking the disk again. E. A child is startled when the doorbell rings.

Negative punishment

Withdraw a rewarding stimulus

Primary reinforcer

Things that are in themselves rewarding

Secondary reinforcer

Things we have learned to value

Variable-ratio schedule

An example of this would be what slot-machine players and fly-casting anglers experience

Learning

The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Reinforcement schedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Overjustification effect

A phenomenon in which being rewarded for doing something actually diminishes intrinsic motivation to perform that action

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neural stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) condition stimulus

Successive Approximation

A series of rewards that provide positive reinforcement for behavior changes that are successive steps towards the final desired behavior

Conditioned reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also know as a secondary reinforcer

B

A student studies diligently to avoid the bad feelings associated with a previously low grade on a test. In this case, the studying behavior is being strengthened because of what kind of reinforcement? A. Positive reinforcement B. Negative reinforcement C. Delayed reinforcement D. Primary reinforcement E. Conditioned reinforcement

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution

Biofeedback

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

B

A woman had been pondering a problem for days and was about to give up when, suddenly, the solution came to her. Her experience can be best described as what? A. Cognitive mapping B. Insight C. Operant conditioning D. Classical conditioning E. Unconscious associative learning

biology

An animal's capacity for conditioning is constrained by its ______________

Expectancy

An awareness of how likely it is that the unconditioned stimulus will occur

Punishment

An event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows

Variable-interval schedule

An example of this would be checking for a Facebook response

Fixed-ratio schedule

An example of this would be coffee shops rewarding us with a free drink after every 10 purchased

Classical conditioning

An example of this would be learning that a flash of lightning signals an impending crack of thunder

Operant conditioning

An example of this would be learning to repeat acts that are followed by good results and avoid acts that are followed by bad results

Fixed-interval schedule

An example of this would be people checking for the mail more frequently as the anticipated time for delivery approaches

Punisher

Any consequence that decreases the frequency of a preceding behavior

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

attitudes

Associations can influence ______________

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Acquisition

Classical Conditioning: Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS Operant Conditioning: Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher)

Extinction

Classical Conditioning: CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone Operant Conditioning: Responding decreases when reinforcement stops

Discrimination

Classical Conditioning: The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US Operant Conditioning: Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced

Spontaneous recovery

Classical Conditioning: The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR Operant Conditioning: The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response

Generalization

Classical Conditioning: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS Operant Conditioning: Organism's response to similar stimuli is also reinforced

C

Classical and operant conditioning are based on the principles of which psychological perspective? A. Cognitive B. Biological C. Behaviorist D. Evolutionary E. Humanist

D

Classical conditioning is the type of learning in which a person links two or more stimuli and a. Forgets about them b. Lays them out in sequence c. Shuts down d. Anticipates events e. Receives reward

Mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so

red

In a series of experiments that controlled for other factors (such as the brightness of the image), men found women more attractive and sexually desirable when framed in _________

psychic number

In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers of media violence show a reduction in emotional arousal and distress when they subsequently observe violent acts a condition known as ______________ ________________

Conditioned response

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neural (but now conditioned) stimulus

Neural stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers a response

Conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

Unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus

Acquistion

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neural stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neural stimulus begins triggering a conditioned response.

Discrimination

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

A

In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus a. Naturally triggers a response b. Is a naturally occurring response c. Is initially irrelevant, and then comes to trigger a response d. Objectively studies psychology e. Is Pavlovian

C

Latent learning is evidence for which of these conclusions? A. Punishment is an ineffective means of controlling behavior. B. Negative reinforcement should be avoided when possible. C. Cognition plays an important role in operant conditioning. D. Conditioned reinforcers are more effective than primary reinforcers. E. Shaping is usually not necessary for operant conditioning.

associations

Learned ______________________ often operate subtly. Give people a red pen (associated with error marking) rather than a black pen and, when correcting essays, they will spot more errors and give lower grades.

habitual

Learned associations also feed our ______________ behaviors.

Observational learning

Learning by observing others (also called social learning)

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

Observational learning

Learning that occurs through watching the behavior of others

Learned helplessness

Learning that unable to avoid aversive events, can't control environment, gives up

B

Lynn is teaching learning. Every time she claps her hands, charlie turns off the light. When Randy claps in approval of Lynn's presentation, Charlie does not turn the light off. What concept of Charlie demonstrated? A. Habituation B. Discrimination C. Spontaneous recovery D. Extinction

A

Mary checks her phone every 30 minutes for incoming text messages. Her behavior is being maintained by what kind of reinforcement schedule? A. Fixed-interval B. Variable-interval C. Variable-ratio D. Fixed-ratio E. Continuous

Neural stimulus

NS

immediate

Operant conditioning also reminds us that reinforcement should be ______________.

Adaptability

Our capacity to learn new behaviors that help us cope with changing circumstances

Prosocial behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior

Classical Conditioning

Response: Involuntary, automatic

Operant Conditioning

Response: Voluntary, operates on environment

learned

Salivation in response to the tone, however, is _____________

Theory of mind

The ability to attribute mental states—beliefs, intents, desires, pretending, knowledge, etc.—to oneself and others and to understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own

Self-control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Behavior modeling

The act of showing employees how to do something and guiding them through the process of imitating the modeled behavior

A

The basic idea behind classical conditioning is that the organism A. Associates events. B. Associates behavior and resulting events. C. Voluntarily operates on the environment. D. Associates response with a consequence. E. Quits responding when reward stops.

mirroring

The brain's ______________ of another's action may enable imitation and empathy

stimulus

The food is an unconditioned ____________.

Learned helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

specific

The message for messengers? Reward ______________, achievable behaviors, not vaguely defined "merit."

Prosocial behavior

The opposite of antisocial behavior

External locus of control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

C

The perception that we control our own fate is also called what? A. Self-control B. Learned helplessness C. Internal locus of control D. External locus of control E. Emotion-focused coping

Internal locus of control

The perception that you control your own fate

Overimitation

The performance of an act whose stimulus is the observation of the act performed by another person

Albert Bandura

The pioneering researcher of observational learning

Instinctive drift

The tendency of an animal to revert to instinctive behaviors that interfere with a conditioned response

Behaviorism

The view that psychology 1) Should be an objective science that 2) Studies behavior without reference to mental processes Most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not 2

desensitizes

The violence-viewing effect seems to stem from at least two factors. One is imitation, and the second is that prolonged exposure to violence ______________ viewers

D

The work of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson fits best into which of psychology's perspectives? A. Humanism B. Gestalt psychology C. Trait theory D. Behaviorism E. Neuropsychology

timing

To understand the acquisition, or initial learning, of the stimulus-response relationship, Pavlov and is associates had to confront the question of _____________. How much time should elapse between presenting the bell and the food? In most cases, half a second usually works well.

Skinner

What psychologist is most associated with operant conditioning?

Ivan Pavlov

What psychologist is most known for his experiments that dealt with classical conditioning?

A

When is prosocial modeling most effective? A. When the model acts in a way consistent with the prosocial lesson B. When the model verbally emphasizes the prosocial lesson but acts as she chooses C. When the model is predisposed to the prosocial conduct D. When the observer has a close personal relationship with the model E. When the model is well-known

A

Which of the following is an application of shaping? A. A mother who wants her daughter to hit a baseball first praises her for holding a bat, then for swinging it, and then for hitting the ball. B. A pigeon pecks a disk 25 times for an opportunity to receive a food reinforcement. C. A rat presses a bar when a green light is on but not when a red light is on. D. A rat gradually stops pressing a bar when it no longer receives a food reinforcement. E. A gambler continues to play a slot machine, even though he has won nothing on his last 20 plays, and he has lost a significant amount of money.

C

Which of the following is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience? a. Acquisition b. Stimulus c. Learning d. Habituation e. Response

A

Which of the following is the best synonym for social learning? A. Observational learning B. Modeling C. Mirror neuron imitation D. Prosocial model E. Imitation

B

Which of the following is the most likely consequence of the brain's tendency to vicariously experience something we observe? A. Actual physical injury B. The risk of misremembering our own actions C. Interference with associative learning D. The elimination of classically conditioned responses to stimuli E. A confusion between reinforcers and rewards in an operant conditioning setting

C

Which of the following most accurately describes an impact of punishment? A. Punishment is a good way to increase a behavior, as long as it is not used too frequently. B. Punishment may create problems in the short term but rarely produces long-term side effects. C. Punishment can be effective at stopping specific behaviors quickly. D. Punishment typically results in an increase of a behavior that caused the removal of an aversive stimulus. E. Punishment should never be used (in the opinion of most psychologists), because the damage it causes can never be repaired.

C

Which of the following processes is the best term for explaining how we learn languages? A. Biofeedback B. Discrimination C. Modeling D. Insight E. Creativity

D

Which of the following processes would produce the acquisition of a conditioned response? A. Repeatedly present an unconditioned response B. Administer the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus C. Make sure that the conditioned stimulus comes at least one minute before the unconditioned stimulus D. Pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus several times E. Present the conditioned stimulus until it starts to produce an unconditioned response

E

Which of the following would help determine what stimuli an organism can distinguish between? A. Negative reinforcement B. A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement C. A fi xed-ratio schedule of reinforcement D. Extinction E. A discriminative stimulus

Negative reinforcement

____________ ____________ is not punishment

Pavlov

_____________ called the dogs' anticipatory salivation "psychic secretion." Putting these informal observations to an experimental test, _____________ presented a stimulus (e.g. the sound of a metronome) and then gave the dog food; after a few repetitions, the dogs started to salivate in response to the stimulus